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Developing a legal framework for energy storage technologies in the U.S: The case of pumped underground storage hydro
Abstract
The Energy Act of 2020 authorizes $1 billion over five years from 2021 to 2025 to support energy storage development in the United States. In addition, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Orders 841 and 2222 opened the wholesale energy markets for distributed energy resources, including energy storage. The statute and orders pave the way for novel energy storage technologies to participate in electricity markets as the qualifying facilities, thereby expanding opportunities for energy storage development. However, the existing policy, legal, and regulatory regime, including these much-welcomed newcomers, fails to recognize and support the entire spectrum of benefits that some forms of energy storage create. In this paper, we focus on Pumped Underground Storage Hydro (PUSH), a variant of pumped hydro storage (PHS), which currently provides over 90% of the world's energy storage capacity. PUSH operates with the same principle as PHS; however, it is an entirely underground variant of PHS. In addition to becoming competitive in the wholesale electricity market, PUSH facilities can be developed as community infrastructure in the postindustrial landscape, particularly in abandoned underground mines. Given federal energy law and policy development, this paper identifies how communities with abandoned mines, technically feasible for PUSH facilities and operating as municipal-owned utilities or cooperatives, can participate and take advantage of federal legislation. We further look into the implications through the lens of technical, economic, and social aspects of energy justice. We consider energy justice as a conceptual framework that seeks to explain the occurrence of injustice within energy system decisions and outcomes and how policymakers can respond to these injustices. We use it as a conceptual tool for understanding policy formulation and detailing the energy system's missing ethical and justice dimension. We argue that as a technically mature technology, PUSH facilities can act as a potential means to speed up the energy transition in the United States. The federal and state law along with utility market structures are vital in shaping the potential opportunities and barriers for energy storage facilities like PUSH. We show that although it supports PUSH development, there are gaps in the current market structure, specifically in the regulatory framework, when seen through the lens of justice and valuation of just energy services. These gaps limit the realization of utility-scale energy storage technology's potential to fully contribute to a decarbonized energy system that is more resilient and more just than the incumbent system.
... Our contribution to the field relies on the integration of legal analysis and energy modelling optimisation informed by semistructured interviews of key actors active in the energy storage industry such as technology developers, aggregators and network operators (see Tables S1-S14 in Section S1 as well as Supplementary Note 2 of the SI). While we focus on Europe considering relevant recent legal developments, our conclusions are useful to other geographies, e.g., the U.S. and Australia, where regulatory barriers to energy storage also exist (Schmitt and Sanford, 2018;Soliman Hunter and Taylor, 2020;Sue et al., 2014;Sakti et al., 2018a;Tiwari et al., 2021). ...
Beyond the hitherto high cost of storage technologies, regulatory and market barriers such as lack of definition, double grid charges and unclear ownership rules have hindered their deployment. These barriers, however, have been largely overlooked in energy modelling research, calling for new interdisciplinary research. In 2019, the new EU electricity market directive was released with energy storage as a central element. Against this background , we study the impact of the new EU legal framework on the value of energy storage across 12 countries using techno-economic modelling informed by legal analysis and expert interviews. We conclude that the new legal regime fits for behind-the-meter batteries which could become widespread across Europe, considering their important value creation. This could also be the case for community storage, especially if national transpositions of the new legal regime prevent double grid charges or at least, moderate them. Legal certainty is created by prohibiting network operators to operate energy storage, but we argue that benefit stacking including applications which support electricity grids would only be possible if network operators set up transparent flexibility markets for the interested parties.
... This "not-in-my-backyard" attitude can be attributed to the perceived risks of CCS developments as subsurface developments are hidden and easy to mistrust for the residents. Tiwari et al. (2021) claim that injustices need not only occur from the implementation of the service, but could also emerge from the way the decision process is designed. For instance, for a CO2 capture and storage project in Barendrecht (the Netherlands), Terwel et al. (2012) examined the reasons for the cancellation of the execution of the project. ...
The subsurface provides multiple resources of which the exploitation has a lasting impact on future potential provision. Establishing sustainability in terms of fundamental principles, and fitting these principles into a practical framework, is an ongoing endeavour focused mainly on surface activities. The principles of ecological economics lead to six challenges that summarize the current limitations of implementing science-based sustainable management of geological resources in the medium to deep subsurface: integrating value pluralism, defining sustainable scale, evaluating interferences in the subsurface, guaranteeing environmental justice, optimising environmental and economic efficiency, and handling uncertainties. Assessing and managing geological reservoirs is particularly intriguing because of slow resource regeneration, complex spatial and temporal interactions, concealment, and naturally dictated opportunities. In answer to the challenges, visions are proposed that outline how an indicator framework is needed for guidance, how indicators require reservoir models with extended spatial and temporal scope, how environmental inequity of social values are to be considered, and how real option games combined with life cycle assessment can be used for optimising efficiency. These individual solutions are different facets of the same problem, and can be integrated into one overarching solution that takes the form of dynamic multi-criteria decision analysis.
This thesis lays the groundwork for the broader realization of agrivoltaics by identifying the socio-political opportunities and barriers to development. Combining theoretical frameworks on technology diffusion and social acceptance of renewable energy with expert perspectives, this work seeks to understand, address, and accommodate the role of society and policy in combining solar energy and food systems. Three empirical studies are presented that first investigate the impediments to farmer adoption of the technology, then explore the challenges to development from the perspective of solar industry professionals, and conclude by outlining a comprehensive legal framework for agrivoltaics in the U.S. The findings identify the key socio-political opportunities for agrivoltaics include: the retention of agricultural land and rural interests, and increased local level acceptance of solar development. The key barriers include: ensuring long term agricultural productivity is not compromised, and subnational localized zoning strategies. This thesis can inform agrivoltaic decision making, solar development practices, land use management, and policy making in a way that supports the furtherance of the renewable energy transition, conserves arable land, and utilizes innovative solar photovoltaic technologies.
This paper presents a user-friendly design method for accurately sizing the distributed energy resources of a stand-alone microgrid to meet the critical load demands of a military, commercial, industrial, or residential facility when utility power is not available. The microgrid combines renewable resources such as photovoltaics (PV) with an energy-storage system to increase energy security for facilities with critical loads. The design method’s novelty complies with IEEE Standards 1562 and 1013, and addresses resilience, which is not taken into account in existing design methods. Several case studies simulated with a physics-based model validate the proposed design method and demonstrate how resilience can be included in the design process. Additionally, the design and the simulations were validated by 24 h laboratory experiments conducted on a microgrid assembled using commercial off-the-shelf components.
Agrivoltaic systems are a strategic and innovative approach to combine solar photovoltaic (PV)-based renewable energy generation with agricultural production. Recognizing the fundamental importance of farmer adoption in the successful diffusion of the agrivoltaic innovation, this study investigates agriculture sector experts’ perceptions on the opportunities and barriers to dual land-use systems. Using in-depth, semistructured interviews, this study conducts a first study to identify challenges to farmer adoption of agrivoltaics and address them by responding to societal concerns. Results indicate that participants see potential benefits for themselves in combined solar and agriculture technology. The identified barriers to adoption of agrivoltaics, however, include: (i) desired certainty of long-term land productivity, (ii) market potential, (iii) just compensation and (iv) a need for predesigned system flexibility to accommodate different scales, types of operations, and changing farming practices. The identified concerns in this study can be used to refine the technology to increase adoption among farmers and to translate the potential of agrivoltaics to address the competition for land between solar PV and agriculture into changes in solar siting, farming practice, and land-use decision-making.
This study researches the concept of underground pumped-storage hydro power plants in closed-down underground hard coal mines in Germany. After a review on how this could be realized technically, an economic feasibility analysis is presented, with a particular focus on the costs for the underground storage reservoir. The analysis is performed for different lower (i.e., underground) reservoir sizes and temporal arbitrage potentials (peak/off-peak electricity price spreads), and cost uncertainty is dealt with by means of a Monte Carlo simulation for two distinct head heights. The findings regarding costs and acceptability are compared with those of a classic (on-surface) pumped-storage hydro power plant in a mountainous area. Based on a techno-economic evaluation we conclude that under favorable conditions the realization of underground pumped-storage hydro power (UPSHP) plants seems both technically feasible and economically reasonable. More specifically, an extension of a tubular system seems the most promising option. A UPSHP plant in a mineshaft is probably slightly more expensive than a conventional one, an outcome that depends strongly on the feasible head height. However, the significant reduction of the adverse impacts on the landscape and on local residents, as well as a potentially large number of feasible sites in flat terrain, could make UPSHPs an interesting option for the future energy transition, not just in Germany but worldwide at sites where underground mining is being abandoned.
Large-scale deployment of renewable energy resources, both utility-scale and distributed, create reliability concerns for electrical power system operators. The weather-dependent, non-dispatchable nature of renewable resources decreases the ability of operators to match supply with demand. Concurrently, distributed energy resources, defined as small-scale loads, generation sources, and storage systems, are becoming ubiquitous within modern electrical systems. This literature review presents the grid services that utilities use to alleviate power systems reliability concerns, particularly those caused by renewable resources, and how aggregations of residential-scale distributed energy resources can be used to provide these services.
By aggregating distributed energy resources en masse to provide grid services, grid operators can concurrently improve reliability while ensuring high penetration levels of renewable resources. Academic researchers have developed the theoretical methods for achieving these objectives. Standards bodies have created open communication frameworks for linking these resources with grid operators. And, large-scale utility programs have demonstrated the potential for providing grid services using aggregations of these resources. This manuscript presents a review of the literature, methods, and standards that have created the foundation for distributed energy resources to help decarbonize electrical power systems.
The intermittent nature of most renewable energy sources requires their coupling with an energy storage system, with pumped storage hydropower (PSH) being one popular option. However, PSH cannot always be constructed due to topographic, environmental, and societal constraints, among others. Underground pumped storage hydropower (UPSH) has recently gained popularity as a viable alternative and may utilize abandoned mines for the construction of the lower reservoir in the underground. Such underground mines may have complex geometries and the injection/pumping of large volumes of water with high discharge could lead to uneven water level distribution over the underground reservoir subparts. This can temporarily influence the head difference between the upper and lower reservoirs of the UPSH, thus affecting the efficiency of the plant or inducing structural stability problems. The present study considers an abandoned slate mine in Martelange in Southeast Belgium as the lower, underground, reservoir of an UPSH plant and analyzes its hydraulic behavior. The abandoned slate mine consists of nine large chambers with a total volume of about 550,000 m3, whereas the maximum pumping and turbining discharges are 22.2 m3/s. The chambers have different size and they are interconnected with small galleries with limited discharge capacity that may hinder the flow exchange between adjacent chambers. The objective of this study is to quantify the effect of the connecting galleries cross-section and the chambers adequate aeration on the water level variations in the underground reservoir, considering a possible operation scenario build upon current electricity prices and using an original hydraulic modelling approach. The results highlight the importance of adequate ventilation of the chambers in order to reach the same equilibrium water level across all communicating chambers. For fully aerated chambers, the connecting galleries should have a total cross-sectional area of at least 15 m2 to allow water flow through them without significant restrictions and maintain similar water level at all times. Partially aerated chambers do not attain the same water level because of the entrapped air; however, the maximum water level differences between adjacent chambers remain relatively invariant when the total cross-sectional area of the connecting galleries is greater than 8 m2. The variation of hydraulic roughness of the connecting galleries affects the water exchange through small connecting galleries but is not very influential on water moving through galleries with large cross-sections.
Energy markets are currently evolving due to the rapid digitalization, increasing amount of renewable energy sources, and rapid technology development. Market actors are being forced to adapt their business models to these changes or find new business opportunities. In our earlier work, new change scenarios were identified that reflect the future business potential of Finnish companies in energy domain particularly with respect to demand flexibility, new actor roles, new consumer services and novel activities in a new kind of energy market. The purpose of this paper is to examine the energy consumer viewpoint on these new scenarios. As consumers are becoming more central actors in the energy markets via demand flexibility and new type of services, it is critical to design the solutions in a user-centric way. A consumer survey was conducted to identify consumers’ opinions and attitudes and determine their willingness to participate in the new energy market scenarios. The survey reached a large number of consumers representing a considerable portion of the Finnish population. According to the results, a half of consumers consider the forecasted scenarios as positive changes, but a lot of communication must still be done in order to win the majority support of consumers.
Offshore wind power development is expected to play an important role in meeting the EU climate targets. To integrate offshore wind power, advanced offshore infrastructures such as meshed grids are suggested to optimise the grid development. Meshed offshore grids refer to integrated offshore infrastructure where offshore wind power hubs are interconnected to several countries as opposed to radial connection linking the wind farm to one single country and market. However, development of meshed architectures is hindered by the legal and regulatory barriers.
Earlier research has identified the lack of cooperation and misalignments in national legal and regulatory frameworks as being the main risk factors in integrated offshore network investments. The purpose of this article is to investigate whether a supra-national TSO could facilitate regional cooperation and coordinated investments to develop meshed offshore grids.
Several studies have discussed the case of North Seas, but the Baltic Sea region has had less attention despite the large offshore wind development potential. In this paper, a multi-disciplinary approach combining legal dogmatics and regulatory economics is used to identify the existing barriers and the possible solutions. The Baltic Sea countries are used as illustration. We suggest legal and regulatory recommendations that comply with the EU energy policy targets of sustainability, competition and reliability.
The Asturian Central Coal Basin in northern Spain has been an exploited coal mining area for many decades and its network of tunnels extends among more than 30 mines. Parts of this infrastructure will soon become available for alternative uses since most of the underground coal mining facilities in Spain will fade out in 2018 (EU 2010/787/UE). The network of tunnels in closed-down mines has been suggested as a possible lower storage for the development of an underground pumped-storage project. This infrastructure can hold approximately 200,000 m3 at depths that range between 300-600 m.
Underground Pumped Storage Hydropower (UPSH) is a potential alternative to manage electricity production in flat regions. UPSH plants will interact with the surrounding porous medium through exchanges of groundwater. These exchanges may impact the surrounding aquifers, but they may also influence the efficiency of the pumps and turbines because affecting the head difference between the reservoirs. Despite the relevance for an accurate efficiency assessment, the influence of the groundwater exchanges has not been previously addressed.
The global effort to decarbonise electricity systems has led to widespread deployments of variable renewable energy generation technologies, which in turn has boosted research and development interest in bulk Electrical Energy Storage (EES). However despite large increases in research funding, many electricity markets with increasingly large proportions of variable renewable generation have seen little actual bulk EES deployment. While this can be partly attributed to the need for technological developments, it is also due to the challenge of fairly rewarding storage operators for the range of services that storage provides to the wider network, especially in markets that have undergone significant restructuring and liberalisation. Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage (PHES) is the overwhelmingly established bulk EES technology (with a global installed capacity around 130 GW) and has been an integral part of many markets since the 1960s. This review provides an historical overview of the development of PHES in several significant electrical markets and compares a number of mechanisms that can reward PHES in different international market frameworks. As well as providing up-to-date information about PHES, a primary motivation for this work is to provide an overview about the types of rewards available to bulk EES for the wider storage community including investors, technology developers and policy-makers. Observing that bulk EES projects seem to be unattractive investments for the private sector, the paper also includes a brief discussion in terms of public sector investment.
Energy access rates improved significantly in developing nations in the past decade. However, sub-Saharan Africa still remains with the highest percentage of its population in energy poverty. The diversity of technologies and business models available today offer promise to expanding access for the region. Nonetheless, past energy related inequities point to the key role institutional norms and planning standards play in shaping the consequences of electrification efforts beyond the technologies or the business models employed. For the sub-Saharan Africa region, where country budgets are limited, multilateral organizations and their financial resources remain the critical institutions that set the standards that guide the region’s electrification efforts. Through a socio-legal research methodology, the paper applies the energy justice concept as an analytical lens to assess the existing standards and frameworks in the region’s energy access planning and decision-making processes. Using energy sector project finance appraisal documents as case studies, we reveal the equity limitations and gaps in the status quo process. The study finds that, although the presence of development finance institutions plays a role in advancing energy access for all, the standards that guide their actions can perpetuate planning processes that generate inequitable outcomes on people and their capabilities. The study provides guiding principles for a just and informed standard for energy access planning.
Large-scale energy storage systems, such as underground pumped-storage hydropower (UPSH) plants, are required in the current energy transition to variable renewable energies to balance supply and demand of electricity. In this paper, a novel method to determinate the round trip energy efficiency in pumped storage hydropower plants with underground lower reservoir is presented. Two Francis pump-turbines with a power output of 124.9 and 214.7 MW (turbine) and a power input of 114.8 and 199.7 MW (pump), respectively, have been selected to investigate the overall operation of UPSH plants. Analytical models and two-phase 3D CFD numerical simulations have been carried out to evaluate the energy generated and consumed, considering a typical water mass of 450,000 t and a maximum gross pressure of 4.41 MPa. The results obtained in both analytical and numerical models show that unlike conventional pumped-storage hydropower plants, the round trip energy efficiency depends on the pressure inside the underground reservoir. The round trip energy efficiency could be reduced from 77.3% to 73.8% when the reservoir pressure reaches -100 kPa. In terms of energy balance, the energy generation decreases down to 3,639 MWh year-1 and the energy consumption increases up to 4,606 MWh year-1 compared to optimal conditions.
This paper analyses the commonalities and variances of environmental approval procedures in four OECD territories, Japan, New Zealand (NZ), the European Union (EU), and the United States (US). In order to streamline regulatory approval frameworks for large-scale renewable energy (LS-RE) installations, outlining the strengths, as well as the weaknesses of the current systems in place, is crucial in determining what components to alter in line with national and regional particularities. The jurisdictional juxtaposition facilitates the identification of administrative burdens, which could increase environmental review-related costs for developers and prolong the entire approval process. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) frameworks, a major component of the LS-RE approval process, suffer from administrative fracturing between the local, regional, and national levels as well as between various government agencies. In combination with strong reservations from local civil society stakeholders, the results revealed some of the flaws of the current LS-RE project approval systems in place. The EIA frameworks and reform efforts in all four jurisdictions illustrate the importance of consolidated and comprehensive frameworks to reduce the amount of planning uncertainties for developers. Utilising regulatory tools such as mandatory timeframes, scoping, clear screening thresholds and priority assessment categories for LS-RE projects, could result in robust EIA processes based on unified regulatory procedures for climate change mitigating energy projects, inside as well as outside of OECD jurisdictions.
Energy storage has been identified as a priority technology for innovation. However, the rapidly developing family of storage technologies will find it difficult, under the current regulatory regimes, to compete with conventional generators for the provision of electricity system services, and this is likely to impede innovation. This paper analyses and categorizes 16 investment barriers hindering the near-term deployment of energy storage technologies in electricity markets, which are related to four regulatory and public attitudes barriers.
The most important regulatory barrier is the current classification of storage as a generation asset, despite it being unable to provide a positive net flow of electricity, which is used to justify double network usage charges. The merit order design of balancing and ancillary markets hampers the ability of storage technologies to recoup their relatively high capital cost, while capacity markets penalize their limited discharge duration. Network companies are in the best position to realize the system value of storage, but their ownership may only be acceptable if system operation is made independent of network operation.
Current initiatives to address these issues include flexible connection agreements and the development of enhanced frequency response and aggregate fast reserve services. However, to remove the identified barriers, a market structure that valued the flexibility offered by storage, viewing it as complementing rather than competing with network and generation assets, would be required.
Most Americans take for granted much of what is materially involved in the daily rituals of dwelling. In Dwelling in Resistance, Chelsea Schelly examines four alternative U.S. communities-"The Farm," "Twin Oaks," "Dancing Rabbit," and "Earthships"-where electricity, water, heat, waste, food, and transportation practices differ markedly from those of the vast majority of Americans. Schelly portrays a wide range of residential living alternatives utilizing renewable, small-scale, de-centralized technologies. These technologies considerably change how individuals and communities interact with the material world, their natural environment, and one another. Using in depth interviews and compelling ethnographic observations, the book offers an insightful look at different communities' practices and principles and their successful endeavors in sustainability and self-sufficiency.
Pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES) is the most established technology for utility-scale electricity storage and has been commercially deployed since the 1890s. Since the 2000s, there has been revived interest in developing PHES facilities worldwide. Because most low-carbon electricity resources (e.g., wind, solar, and nuclear) cannot flexibly adjust their output to match fluctuating power demands, there is an increasing need for bulk electricity storage due to the increasing adoption of renewable energy. PHES has been the traditional way of storing energy. This chapter introduces PHES technology, its pros and cons, its historical developments, and its prospects.
This chapter provides a review of the shortcomings of the traditional regulated monopoly structure, and examines the motivations for restructuring and the expectations of policy-makers in introducing market reforms. In the case of privately owned, regulated monopolies, which are prevalent in more advanced economies, the private sector owns and operates some or significant components of the electricity supply industry (ESI) under the supervision of an independent regulator. In most cases, the shift in regulatory paradigm includes a desire to encourage competitive market forces to substitute for command and control regulations, or bureaucratic and often inefficient management of state-owned enterprises (SOEs). Regulated monopolies could potentially offer some advantages relative to the centrally planned SOEs especially when there is a competent, resourceful, independent, and vigilant regulator. The experience of different countries, however, is decidedly mixed, highly to mildly successful in some places, and disappointing or disastrous in others. Understanding why some restructured markets are functioning successfully while others have not is important and offers a variety of perspectives from different parts of the world.
This book applies concepts from ethics, justice, and political philosophy to five sets of contemporary energy problems cutting across time, economics, politics, geography, and technology.
Energy justice advances energy policy with cosmopolitanism and new economic-thinking. An Energy Justice Metric is developed and captures the dynamics of energy justice. The Energy Justice Metric (EJM) compares countries, and energy infrastructure. EJM provides an energy policy decision-making tool that is just and equitable. a b s t r a c t Carbon dioxide emissions continue to increase to the detriment of society in many forms. One of the difficulties faced is the imbalance between the competing aims of economics, politics and the environment which form the trilemma of energy policy. This article advances that this energy trilemma can be resolved through energy justice. Energy justice develops the debate on energy policy to one that highlights cosmopolitanism, progresses thinking beyond economics and incorporates a new futuristic perspective. To capture these dynamics of energy justice, this research developed an Energy Justice Metric (EJM) that involves the calculation of several metrics: (1) a country (national) EJM; (2) an EJM for different energy infrastructure; and (3) an EJM which is incorporated into economic models that derive costs for energy infrastructure projects. An EJM is modeled for China, the European Union and the United States, and for different energy infrastructure in the United Kingdom. The EJM is plotted on a Ternary Phase Diagram which is used in the sciences for analyzing the relationship (trilemma) of three forms of matter. The development of an EJM can provide a tool for decision-making on energy policy and one that solves the energy trilemma with a just and equitable approach.
In Germany, the mitigation of CO2 emissions as well as the nuclear power phase-out are important political goals in the course of the sustainable energy transformation process (so-called “Energiewende”). The reduction in fossil- and nuclear-based energy supply has to be compensated by new renewable energies, especially wind power and photovoltaics. Most of the existing studies find that such an increasing contribution from volatile renewables calls for an intensified use of massive energy storage. Conventional technologies for this purpose are pumped-storage hydro power (PSHP) facilities. Typically, these require a storage reservoir on top of a mountain and another one at the bottom. In Germany, unfortunately, suitable sites are quite rare and the constructional measures often have a negative impact on the landscape and the ecosphere, which often induces public resistance. A possible future solution might be the use of underground PSHP (UPSHP) plants, for example, in closed-down mines. This study constitutes an early attempt to model such plants, in order to assess and better understand the economic viability of such underground UPSHP power plants in closed down coal mines. First, we examine the topic from a technical perspective, which is followed by an economic analysis. In the technical assessment, we analyze the feasibility of building an underground reservoir, installing the pressure pipes in the main shaft and equipping the machine cavern with turbines and pumps. In the economic examination, the expected costs for building a UPSHP are calculated. A rough comparison between the costs of a classic and a UPSHP plant is made that also includes the costs of redesigning and reconstructing the underground reservoir. Based on the techno-economic evaluation, we conclude that under favorable conditions the realization of UPSHP plants seems both technically feasible and economically reasonable. More specifically, an extension of a tube system seems the most promising option. We also find that a PSHP plant in a mine shaft is probably slightly more expensive than a conventional one, an outcome that depends strongly on the feasible head. Also, the significant reduction of the adverse impacts on the landscape and local residents could be an advantage. In addition, the number of potential sites might be quite large compared to those for conventional PSHP plants.
The status of underground pumped hydro storage (UPHS) for electric
utility peaking and energy storage applications is reviewed. The salient
features of major recent studies are reviewed. Turbomachinery options
and advances in high head pump/turbines are discussed. The effect of
head, capacity, turbomachinery unit size and type, and other performance
variables on the cost of a UPHS plant are presented. Market potential,
siting criteria, lower reservoir construction, and geological related
issues are addressed. The environmental impact of a UPHS plant is
reduced from comparable facilities, and these issues and other safety
concerns are presented.
Bringing attention to fuel poverty as a distinct manifestation of social inequality has asserted the place of affordable warmth in the profile of contemporary rights and entitlements. As such, fuel poverty can be understood as an expression of injustice, involving the compromised ability to access energy services and thereby to secure a healthful living environment. In this paper, we consider how fuel poverty may be aligned to various alternative concepts of social and environmental justice. Whilst recognising that fuel poverty is fundamentally a complex problem of distributive injustice, we argue that other understandings of injustice are also implicated and play important roles in producing and sustaining inequalities in access to affordable warmth. Addressing fuel poverty has to involve seeking justice in terms of the cultural and political recognition of vulnerable and marginalised social groups and pursuing procedural justice through opening up involvement and influence in decision-making processes. We make this argument both in theoretical terms, and through considering the experience of fuel poverty advocacy and policy development in the UK. Opportunities for future action may be illuminated through such interconnected justice framings as wider awareness of energy, climate and poverty issues emerge.
Underground pumped hydroelectric energy storage was conceived as a
modification of surface pumped storage to eliminate dependence upon
fortuitous topography, provide higher hydraulic heads, and reduce
environmental concerns. A UPHS plant offers substantial savings in
investment cost over coal-fired cycling plants and savings in system
production costs over gas turbines. Potential location near load centers
lowers transmission costs and line losses. Environmental impact is less
than that for a coal-fired cycling plant. The inherent benefits include
those of all pumped storage (i.e., rapid load response, emergency
capacity, improvement in efficiency as pumps improve, and capacity for
voltage regulation). A UPHS plant would be powered by either a
coal-fired or nuclear baseload plant. The economic capacity of a UPHS
plant would be in the range of 1000 to 3000 MW. This storage level is
compatible with the load-velocity requirements of a greater metropolitan
area with population of 1 million or more.
Both consultants and scientists would agree that even if their own work provided a solution to a landuser's problem, then that solution is unlikely to be adopted if the landuser is unwillign to pay for it Financial incentives, while enabling factors in technology transfer and adoption, are usually not the only limiting factors. In reality, adoption is more complex. This complexity resides within the interrelationship between human endeavours, economics and the environment. Although there is a global consensus on the need for sustainability, the means of achieving the core values and principles of sustainable development, on the ground, remains a challenge. This paper discusses some of the fundamental reasons why sustainable land use practices and innovations are not always adopted, providing a perspective from industry.
Fereidoon P. Sioshansi is with Menlo Energy Economics, a consulting firm based in San Francisco. His professional experience includes working at Southern California Edison Company, the Electric Power Research Institute, National Economic Research Associates, and Global Energy Decisions. He co-edited Electricity Market Reform: An International Perspective, published by Elsevier in 2006, and the forthcoming sequel, Competitive Electricity Markets: Design, Implementation, Performance. He is editor and publisher of EEnergy Informer newsletter and serves on the editorial board of The Electricity Journal and Utilities Policy.
For over two decades, policymakers and regulators in a number of countries around the world have been grappling with market reform, liberalisation, restructuring and privatisation issues. Although a great deal has been learned in the process and a blueprint for implementation has emerged, successful market design still remains partly art and partly science. The international experience to date indicates that in most cases, initial market reform leads to unintended consequences, which must be addressed in subsequent 'reform of the reforms'. Aside from this, a number of new issues and concerns have emerged challenging the wisdom and the feasibility of introducing market reform in other markets.
Future energy and power needs of the United should be supplied as economically as possible and also when the customer desires. Nuclear base sources plus hydroelectric pumped-storage for peaking provide two excellent means for attaining both purposes. Numerous sites and the necessary technology are available for pumped-storage development at cost between $240 and $320 per kilowatt. The low operating cost of pumped-storage provides a significant cost credit in comparative evaluations with other peaking plants. Pumped-storage use in the United States has been impeded by legal and other obstacles, but pumped-storage use should increase in the future. The purpose of this paper is to present a very brief review of the current state of pumped-storage, with a cataloging of its benefits and problems, and a brief summary of future potentialities. Pumped-storage is, of course, a source of power and energy for supplying peak loads. It serves other useful purposes additionally. In supplying such services, it is part of an electric power system that has a larger and more important purpose. These days there is strong evidence that the public is not fully conversant with that purpose. The public's viewpoint has delayed or prevented construction of several million kilowatts of pumped-storage and realization of its benefits. The potential for pumped-storage is directly related to the public's viewpoint.
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