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A Domestic Cat (Felis silvestris catus) Model of Triarchic Psychopathy Factors: Development and Initial Validation of the CAT-Tri+ Questionnaire
Abstract
We operationalised the triarchic model of psychopathy (boldness, meanness, and disinhibition) in domestic cats using a cat triarchic (CAT-Tri) questionnaire. In study 1 (n = 549), we identified candidate items for CAT-Tri scales using thematically analysed cat owner questionnaire responses. In study 2 (n = 1463), owners completed a questionnaire battery; the preliminary CAT-Tri questionnaire, Feline Five, and Cat-Owner Relationship Subscales. In study 3 (n = 30), associations between feline daily activity and Cat-Tri scales were investigated. A five-factor cat triarchic plus (CAT-Tri+) solution emerged: boldness, disinhibition, meanness, pet-unfriendliness, and human-unfriendliness. Disinhibition and pet-unfriendliness predicted a higher quality cat-owner relationship; meanness and boldness predicted a lower quality relationship. Findings provide insight into the structure of triarchic psychopathy in cats.
... A previous study by Pellis et al. (1988) analysed 'predatory play' movements or playful movements during predation and found that these movement patterns were adaptive movements that functioned to protect the cat from injury during predation and in essence were not playful at all (Pellis et al. 1988). The trope of cats being 'psychopathic' playful hunters (Evans et al. 2021) is a potentially dangerous one for cat welfare, considering the current attitudes to cats and their frequent use as a scapegoat for the more major pressures imposed by people on biodiversity and climate (Palmer 2014;Wald & Peterson 2020). It is important that we acknowledge the play needs of cats and that these needs may differ depending on that cat's background and housing, while not anthropomorphising and casting moral judgments that do not apply to non-human animals and may not be an accurate assessment of their behaviour anyway, as observed here by Pellis et al. (1988). ...
Play is often considered an indicator and promotor of animal welfare and may facilitate closer cat-human relationships. However, few studies have empirically investigated these associations. The current study aimed to investigate play-related factors associated with four welfare outcome measures in cats ( Felis catus ) including: cat quality of life; cat-guardian relationship quality; problem behaviour prevalence; and behavioural changes. An online survey was developed using demographic information, questions related to play and resources, free text sections and the following validated measures: cat quality of life (QOL), the cat owner relationship scale, and the adult playfulness trait scale. Responses were completed by 1,591 cat guardians from 55 countries. Higher cat playfulness scores and a greater number of games played were significantly associated with higher cat QOL scores while longer amounts of daily play, greater number of games, both cat and guardian initiating play and higher guardian playfulness scores were all significantly associated with higher cat-guardian relationship scores. Exclusively indoor housing was significantly associated with both higher cat QOL and higher cat-guardian relationships scores compared to cats with outdoor access. Behavioural changes associated with distress in cats were reported when play was absent. Play may be an important factor in assessing and maintaining cat welfare. Further research into the mechanisms of how play impacts welfare and cat-guardian relationships is needed.
Cat domestication and selective breeding have resulted in tens of breeds with major morphological differences. These breeds may also show distinctive behaviour differences; which, however, have been poorly studied. To improve the understanding of feline behaviour, we examined whether behavioural differences exist among cat breeds and whether behaviour is heritable. For these aims, we utilized our extensive health and behaviour questionnaire directed to cat owners and collected a survey data of 5726 cats. Firstly, for studying breed differences, we utilized logistic regression models with multiple environmental factors and discovered behaviour differences in 19 breeds and breed groups in ten different behaviour traits. Secondly, the studied cat breeds grouped into four clusters, with the Turkish Van and Angora cats alone forming one of them. These findings indicate that cat breeds have diverged not only morphologically but also behaviourally. Thirdly, we estimated heritability in three breeds and obtained moderate heritability estimates in seven studied traits, varying from 0.4 to 0.53, as well as phenotypic and genetic correlations for several trait pairs. Our results show that it is possible to partition the observed variation in behaviour traits into genetic and environmental components, and that substantial genetic variation exists within breed populations.
The idea of animals possessing personalities was once dismissed by the scientific community, but has since gained traction with evidence for potential application to improve captive animal management and welfare. Although domestic cats are popular companion animals, research has tended to overlook the value of personality assessment for management and care of pet cats. The aim of this study was to investigate personality in a large sample of pet cats with a view to understanding practical implications for pet cats in the home. Personality of 2,802 pet cats, from South Australia and New Zealand, was rated by their owners utilising a survey measuring 52 personality traits. Five reliable personality factors were found using principal axis factor analysis: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Dominance, Impulsiveness and Agreeableness. Implications for the ‘Feline Five’ are discussed in relation to their potential application to improving the management and welfare of pet cats. Highly Impulsive cats for example, may be reacting to something stressful in their environment, whereas cats with low Agreeableness scores, showing irritability may indicate underlying pain or illness. Thus, the need for a systematic and holistic approach to personality that includes both the individual pet cat and its environment is recommended, and opens the door to future interdisciplinary intervention.
Vasopressin is a neuropeptide known to be associated with the development and evolution of complex socio-emotional behaviors including those relevant to psychopathic personality. In both humans and chimpanzees, recent research suggests a strong genetic contribution to individual variation in psychopathic traits. To date, however, little is known concerning specific genes that might explain the observed heritability of psychopathy. In a relatively large sample of captive chimpanzees (N = 164), the current study thus sought to investigate gene-environment associations between triarchic psychopathy dimensions (i.e., disinhibition, meanness, and boldness) and (1) early social rearing experiences and (2) polymorphisms in the promoter region of the V1A receptor gene (AVPR1A). Among chimpanzees raised by their biological conspecific mothers, AVPR1A was found to uniquely explain variability in disinhibition and in sex-specific ways for boldness and a total psychopathy score; however, in contrast, no significant associations were found between AVPR1A and any of the triarchic psychopathy dimensions in chimpanzees raised the first 3 years of life in a human nursery. Thus, when considered in its entirety, results suggest an important contributory influence of V1A receptor genotype variation in the explanation of the development of psychopathy under some but not all early rearing conditions. Results of the current study provide additional support for the assertion that psychopathic tendencies are rooted in basic, evolutionarily-meaningful dispositions, and provide support for a primate-translational operationalization of key neurobehavioral constructs relevant both to psychopathy and to broader forms of psychopathology.
The current work sought to operationalize constructs of the triarchic model of psychopathy in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), a species well suited for investigations of basic biobehavioral dispositions relevant to psychopathology. Across three studies, we generated validity evidence for scale measures of the triarchic model constructs in a large sample (N = 238) of socially housed chimpanzees. Using a consensus-based rating approach, we first identified candidate items for the chimpanzee triarchic (CHMP-Tri) scales from an existing primate personality instrument and refined these into scales. In Study 2, we collected data for these scales from human informants (N = 301) and examined their convergent and divergent relations with scales from another triarchic inventory developed for human use. In Study 3, we undertook validation work examining associations between CHMP-Tri scales and task measures of approach-avoidance behavior (N = 73) and ability to delay gratification (N = 55). Current findings provide support for a chimpanzee model of core dispositions relevant to psychopathy and other forms of psychopathology.
Domestic dogs display an extraordinary level of phenotypic diversity in morphology and behavior. Furthermore, due to breeding practices introduced during the nineteenth century, these phenotypic traits have become relatively 'fixed' within breeds, allowing biologists to obtain unique insights regarding the genetic bases of behavioral diversity, and the effects of domestication and artificial selection on temperament. Here we explore differences in behavior among the 30 most popular dog breeds registered with the American Kennel Club based on owner responses to a standardized and validated behavioral questionnaire (C-BARQ). The findings indicate that some breed-associated temperament traits (e.g. fear/anxiety) may be linked to specific gene mutations, while others may represent more general behavioral legacies of 'ancient' ancestry, physical deformity, and/or human selection for specific functional abilities. They also suggest that previous efforts to relate dog breed popularity to behavior may have failed due to the confounding effects of body size.
Although the study of nonhuman personality has increased in the last decade, there are still few studies on felid species, and the majority focus on domestic cats. We assessed the structure of personality and its reliability in five felids-domestic cats, clouded leopards, snow leopards, African lions, and previous data on Scottish wildcats-and compared the results. In addition to the benefits of understanding more about this taxon, comparative studies of personality structure have the potential to provide information on evolutionary relationships among closely related species. Each of the species studied was found to have three factors of personality. Scottish wildcats' factors were labeled Dominance, Agreeableness, and Self Control; domestic cats' factors were Dominance, Impulsiveness, and Neuroticism; clouded leopards' factors were Dominance/Impulsiveness, Agreeableness/Openness, and Neuroticism; snow leopards' factors were Dominance, Impulsiveness/Openness, and Neuroticism; and African lions' factors were Dominance, Impulsiveness, and Neuroticism. The Neuroticism and Impulsiveness factors were similar, as were two of the Dominance factors. A taxon-level personality structure also showed three similar factors. Age and sex effects are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
A developmental study in domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) examined the interaction of their early socialisation and the friendliness of their father and its consequences on their later friendliness to people. Kittens were either handled between 2 and 12 weeks of age (socialised) or received no handling (unsocialised) during this period. These kittens were the offspring of either a ‘friendly’ father or an ‘unfriendly’ father. When 1 year old, these cats went through a series of three experiments: (1) response to a familiar person; (2) response to a stranger; and (3) response to a novel object. Cats socialised or from the friendly father were quicker to approach, touch and rub a test person, were more vocal and spent a greater total time within 1 m of them. Differences in the cats' response to a novel object could not be accounted for by differences in early socialisation. However, cats from the friendly father were quicker to approach, touch, explore and remain in close contact with the novel object than were cats from the unfriendly father. The genetic contribution to friendliness towards people in cats was reinterpreted as boldness; a general response to unfamiliar or novel objects irrespective of whether or not the objects are people. The socialisation effect was specific to the cats' response to people. Socialised cats and friendly-fathered cats were not only friendlier to unfamiliar people but less distressed when approached and handled by them.
In this study (N = 263) we provide a basic test of a niche-specialization hypothesis of the Dark Triad (i.e., narcissism, psychopathy, and Machiavellianism). We propose that in order to best enact a “cheater strategy” those high on the Dark Triad traits should have optimal cognitive performance and, thus, have a night-time chronotype. Such a disposition will take advantage of the low light, the limited monitoring, and the lessened cognitive processing of morning-type people. The Dark Triad composite was correlated with an eveningness disposition. This link worked through links with the “darker” aspects of the Dark Triad (i.e., Machiavellianism, secondary psychopathy, and exploitive narcissism); correlations that were invariant across the sexes. While we replicated sex differences in the Dark Triad, we failed to replicate sex differences in chronotype, suggesting eveningness may not be a sexually selected trait as some have argued but is a trait under natural selective pressures to enable effective exploitations of conspecifics by both sexes.
Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.
People scoring high on the Dark Triad traits narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy are believed to get ahead without getting along. The current work positions the Dark Triad into the interpersonal circumplex around Agency/Communion. Two studies (Ns = 184, 186) with self- and peer-ratings indicated that narcissism was inclined towards friendly-dominant, Machiavellianism towards hostile-submissive, and psychopathy towards hostile-dominant when using multiple regressions. The unique location of each Dark Triad member in the interpersonal circumplex is discussed.
Unmanipulated human-cat interactions in established relationships and in the common but very complex home setting are described and analyzed quantitatively. Fifty-one cat-owning Swiss families were visited in their homes. In a total of 504 hours of observation, the interspecific interactions of 162 persons and 72 cats were recorded. Quantitatively, the interactive behavior of both partners in a human-cat dyad increases with increasing duration of human presence at home: this independent variable is largest in adult women and smallest in adult men, while children and juveniles show intermediate values. Therefore, adult women are generally predestined to be the main human partner in human-cat relationships. Even so, when based on mean duration of human presence, effects of human sex and age can still be found for some human and cat behavior. Judged by the amount and reciprocity of interactions, woman-cat dyads have the best and juvenile-cat dyads the worst relationships. Cat behavior toward individual family members not only depends upon characteristics of the human (availability, sex, and age) but also upon characteristics of the whole family, such as family size and number of cats living in the household (negative correlation for both factors). Cat housing condition (indoor versus outdoor) appears to be unimportant in the human-cat relationship, although it affects the duration of a cat's presence at home. The results show the complexity of human-cat relationships in the privacy of the home. The list of factors shown to influence such relationships was increased by several variables. Thus, observation of unmanipulated interspecific interactions was useful despite problems inherent to most field studies.
This study obtained teacher ratings of impulsivity, callous-unemotional traits, narcissism, and Machiavellianism for a sample
of 252 middle school children, and investigated the extent to which these variables were related to reactive versus proactive
aggression and physical versus relational aggression. Results showed a main effect for gender, with boys rated highest on
all measures of psychopathy and aggression, with the exception of relational aggression. Results of hierarchical multiple
regressions showed that whereas impulsivity was associated with all types of aggression, CU traits, narcissism, and Machiavellianism
were differentially related to specific forms of childhood aggression. In addition, Machiavellianism mediated the relationship
between narcissism and relational aggression. Implications for fine-tuning interventions in ways that account for the motivators
underlying subtypes of childhood aggression are discussed.
KeywordsPsychopathy-Callous unemotional traits-Narcissism-Machiavellianism-Childhood aggression-Relational aggression-Physical aggression-Proactive aggression-Reactive aggression
A 9-item, reliable measure of owner satisfaction with their cat, the CatSat, was developed. Item response analysis indicated that the CatSat discriminates lower levels of satisfaction better than higher levels. Correlations between the CatSat and a measure of attachment to the cat (Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale) suggest that satisfaction and attachment are separate but somewhat related constructs. To predict owner satisfaction with their cat from owner personality and the behavioral style of the cat, 225 owners answered the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) Big Five personality test and rated their cat on 29 adjectives which were collapsed into six dimensions of the behavioral style of the cat. Results from a multiple regression analysis suggest that owner satisfaction with their cat is not reliably related to owner personality. Owners’ perceptions of how amiable and demanding their cat was accounted for approximately half of the variability in satisfaction with the cat. Amiable and less demanding cats were related to higher levels of cat satisfaction. There were no statistically reliable interactions between the personality of the owner and the behavioral style of the cat, although some interactions yielded small effect sizes. To increase owner satisfaction, young kittens can be made friendlier by being handled daily during their sensitive period for socialization. Owners might increase their satisfaction with their cat by being careful to not reward demanding behaviors from their cat as such rewards could lead to operant conditioning of demanding behaviors.
In this update of Clark and Watson (1995), we provide a synopsis of major points of our earlier article and discuss issues in scale construction that have become more salient as clinical and personality assessment has progressed over the past quarter-century. It remains true that the primary goal of scale development is to create valid measures of underlying constructs and that Loevinger's theoretical scheme provides a powerful model for scale development. We still discuss practical issues to help developers maximize their measures' construct validity, reiterating the importance of (a) clear conceptualization of target constructs, (b) an overinclusive initial item pool, (c) paying careful attention to item wording, (d) testing the item pool against closely related constructs, (e) choosing validation samples thoughtfully, and (f) emphasizing unidimensionality over internal consistency. We have added (g) consideration of the hierarchical structures of personality and psychopathology in scale development, discussion of (h) codeveloping scales in the context of these structures, (i) "orphan," and "interstitial" constructs, which do not fit neatly within these structures, (j) problems with "conglomerate" constructs, and (k) developing alternative versions of measures, including short forms, translations, informant versions, and age-based adaptations. Finally, we have expanded our discussions of (l) item-response theory and of external validity, emphasizing (m) convergent and discriminant validity, (n) incremental validity, and (o) cross-method analyses, such as questionnaires and interviews. We conclude by reaffirming that all mature sciences are built on the bedrock of sound measurement and that psychology must redouble its efforts to develop reliable and valid measures.
The common approach to the multiplicity problem calls for controlling the familywise error rate (FWER). This approach, though, has faults, and we point out a few. A different approach to problems of multiple significance testing is presented. It calls for controlling the expected proportion of falsely rejected hypotheses — the false discovery rate. This error rate is equivalent to the FWER when all hypotheses are true but is smaller otherwise. Therefore, in problems where the control of the false discovery rate rather than that of the FWER is desired, there is potential for a gain in power. A simple sequential Bonferronitype procedure is proved to control the false discovery rate for independent test statistics, and a simulation study shows that the gain in power is substantial. The use of the new procedure and the appropriateness of the criterion are illustrated with examples.
Practical relevance::
Problem feline behaviour can be managed successfully by early diagnosis and intervention, good first-aid advice in veterinary practice and then, if necessary, a referral to a suitably qualified behaviourist for those cases that are complex. There are a number of tools available to assist in the resolution of problem feline behaviour and this article will cover environmental modification and behavioural modification.
Clinical challenges::
Problem feline behaviours are not uncommon and the veterinary team often have to rely on their own knowledge to assist clients if a specialist behaviourist is not available.
Evidence base::
There is a lack of evidence-based information regarding how best to work-up and treat cases of problem feline behaviour in practice; therefore, some recommendations within this article are based on the author's experience of treating cases in a cat-specific behaviour referral practice over the past 20 years. However, there is evidence available regarding how best to enrich a cat's environment and how to ensure a cat's environmental needs are met.
Audience::
Any veterinarians, veterinary nurses or technicians who are involved in the diagnosis or treatment of problem feline behaviour in practice would benefit from understanding the principles of environmental and behavioural modification.
Pet animals, and the quality of the owner-pet relationship, have an important impact on owners' lives. Further, similarity of owner-pet personality may impact on owner satisfaction though this has not been investigated in relation to cats. In the current study, cat owners (N = 126) completed a two section questionnaire. The owner section assessed three of the Big Five traits (agreeableness, extraversion, neuroticism), dominance, impulsiveness, the Dark Triad (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy), and owner satisfaction with their cat. The pet section assessed the Feline Five (agreeableness, dominance, extraversion, impulsiveness, neuroticism). Positive associations were identified between owner and pet dominance and owner and pet impulsivity. Higher owner dominance also positively correlated with cat extraversion, impulsivity, and neuroticism and owner Dark Triad traits were positively correlated with cat dominance, impulsivity, and neuroticism. None of the owner personality traits related to satisfaction with the cat. Overall, owners were more satisfied with cats high in agreeableness and low in neuroticism. Dissimilarity in owner dominance and cat agreeableness, and owner impulsivity and cat agreeableness were correlated with higher satisfaction. Satisfaction was also positively associated with similarity in scores for owner Dark Triad and cat agreeableness. Future research is recommended, focusing on matching of non-identical personality traits.
Leyhausen’s (1979) work on cat behaviour and facial expressions associated with offensive and defensive behaviour is widely embraced as the standard for interpretation of agonistic behaviour in this species. However, it is a largely anecdotal description that can be easily misunderstood. Recently a facial action coding system has been developed for cats (CatFACS), similar to that used for objectively coding human facial expressions. This study reports on the use of this system to describe the relationship between behaviour and facial expressions of cats in confinement contexts without and with human interaction, in order to generate hypotheses about the relationship between these expressions and underlying emotional state. Video recordings taken of 29 cats resident in a Canadian animal shelter were analysed using 1-0 sampling of 275 4-second video clips.
The study of personality or temperament is well developed in many species, but in domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) it has lagged behind. We applied one common methodology, subjective surveys, performed by their owners, to investigate the dimensions of cat temperament. To do this, we developed an eighteen question survey covering common behavioral traits of cats, and had the evaluators rank their cat on a seven point Likert scale for trait. The responses were analyzed with factor analysis, and resulted in six significant dimensions of temperament across the 251 surveys. The six dimensions, in order of importance, are: Cat Social, Active, Human Nonsocial, Human Aggressive, and Intense. Supplemental questions were also included in all the surveys, and MANOVA analysis of these showed that outdoor usage, feeding style (ad-lib vs. meal fed), living with other cats, sex, duration of ownership, and previous history as a stray all had effects on at least one of the dimensions of cat temperament. Future work is clearly needed to fully validate our model and to further investigate our findings.
Characteristics of the human-animal bond can be influenced by both owner-related and pet-related factors, which likely differ between species. Three studies adapted the Monash Dog-Owner Relationship Scale (MDORS) to permit assessment of human-cat interactions as perceived by the cat’s owner. In Study 1,293 female cat owners completed a modified version of the MDORS, where ‘dog’ was replaced with ‘cat’ for all items. Responses were compared with a matched sample of female dog owners. A partial least squares discriminant analysis revealed systematic differences between cat and dog owners in the Dog (Cat)-Owner Interaction subscale (MDORS subscale 1), but not for Perceived Emotional Closeness or Perceived Costs (Subscales 2 and 3). Study 2 involved analysis of free-text descriptions of cat-owner interactions provided by 61 female cat owners. Text mining identified key words which were used to create additional questions for a new Cat-Owner Interaction subscale. In Study 3, the resulting cat-owner relationship scale (CORS) was tested in a group of 570 cat owners. The main psychometric properties of the scale, including internal consistency and factor structure, were evaluated. We propose that this scale can be used to accurately assess owner perceptions of their relationship with their cat. A modified scale, combining items from the CORS and MDORS (a C/DORS), is also provided for when researchers would find it desirable to compare human-cat and human-dog interactions.
Understanding individual behavioral differences in domestic cats could lead to improved selection when potential cat owners choose a pet with whom to share their lives, along with consequent improvements in cat welfare. Yet very few attempts have been made to elicit cat personality dimensions using the trait-based exploratory approaches applied previously, with some success, to humans and dogs. In this study, a list of over 200 adjectives used to describe cat personality was assembled. This list was refined by two focus groups. A sample of 416 adult cat owners then rated a cat they knew well on each of 118 retained words. An iterative analytical approach was used to identify 29 words which formed six personality dimensions: Playfulness, Nervousness, Amiability, Dominance, Demandingness, and Gullibility. Chronbach's alpha scores for these dimensions ranged from 0.63 to 0.8 and, together, they explained 56.08% of the total variance. Very few significant correlations were found between participant scores on the personality dimensions and descriptive variables such as owner age, cat age and owner cat-owning experience, and these were all weak to barely moderate in strength (r ≤ 0.30). There was also only one significant group difference based on cat sex. Importantly, however, several cat personality scores were moderately (r = 0.3-0.49) or strongly (r ≥ 0.5) correlated with simple measures of satisfaction with the cat, attachment, bond quality, and the extent to which the cat was perceived to be troublesome. The results suggest that, with further validation, this scale could be used to provide a simple, tick-box, assessment of an owner's perceptions regarding a cat's personality. This may be of value in both applied and research settings.
This review article covers research conducted over the last three decades on cat-human and human-cat interactions and relationships, especially from an ethological point of view. It includes findings on cat-cat and cat-human communication, cat personalities and cat-owner personalities, the effects of cats on humans, and problems caused by cats.
Road traffic accidents (RTAs) are a common cause of death and injury in domestic cats, and a concern to many owners. This study assessed potential risk factors for RTAs in cats up to 12 months of age within a UK cat cohort known as ‘The Bristol Cats study’. Data were obtained from three questionnaires, completed by cat owners when their cats were approximately 8–16 weeks old, 6 months old and 12 months old. Information was gathered regarding environmental conditions, cat characteristics and owner management factors. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models were used to assess associations between these factors and RTAs. Of 1264 eligible study cats, 49 (3.9 per cent) had been involved in an RTA, of which 71.4 per cent (35/49) were known to result in fatal injuries. Rural locations were associated with a higher odds of RTAs than towns, cities or suburban locations. An increased odds of an RTA was also associated with cats that were reported by their owners to hunt at the roadside, as well as cats whose owners classified the road by their house as being a ‘long straight section of road’. No significant associations were found between coat colour, breed, sex or neuter status and the odds of an RTA.
Callous-unemotional traits - the insensitivity to other's welfare and well-being - are characterized by a lack of empathy. They are characteristic of psychopathy and can be found in other anti-social disorders, such as conduct disorder. Because of the increasing prevalence of anti-social disorders and the rising societal costs of violence and aggression, it is of great importance to elucidate the psychological and physiological mechanisms underlying callousness in the search for pharmacological treatments. One promising avenue is to create a relevant animal model to explore the neural bases of callousness. Here, we review recent advances in rodent models of pro-social choice that could be applied to probe the absence of pro-sociality as a proxy of callous behavior, and provide future directions for the exploration of the neural substrates of callousness.
Polymorphisms of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) have been hypothesized to correlate with social behavior in humans and other mammals. We examined the relationships between owner-assessed personality and OXTR polymorphisms in cats, which have long history of domestication by humans. We analyzed the exon1 region of OXTR in 94 DNA samples (57 males and 37 females) and found 3 single nucleotide polymorphisms. We focused on the G738A polymorphism. Questionnaires containing 30 questions with 6-point scales were completed by the cats' owners. Factor analysis for the scores identified 4 factors, which we named "Openness," "Friendliness," "Roughness," and "Neuroticism." A generalized linear mixed model analysis revealed that cats with the A allele in the single nucleotide polymorphism G738A showed significantly higher roughness scores than cats without the A allele. After dividing cats into 4 sex × neutering groups, only neutered females showed the significant difference between the A allele carriers and non-A allele carriers in roughness scores. Age also affected personality: younger cats showed much higher openness scores, whereas older cats showed higher roughness scores. This study shows that genetic variation in cats may be linked to their personality traits, a finding that may be useful from the viewpoint of companion animal welfare; for example, to match potential good owners and cats using genetic information.
The domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) has shared an intertwined existence with humans for thousands of years, living on our city streets and in our homes. Yet, little scientific research has focused on the cognition of the domestic cat, especially in comparison with human's other companion, the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris). This review surveys the current status of several areas of cat cognition research including perception, object permanence, memory, physical causality, quantity and time discrimination, cats' sensitivity to human cues, vocal recognition and communication, attachment bonds, personality, and cognitive health. Although interest in cat cognition is growing, we still have a long way to go until we have an inclusive body of research on the subject. Therefore, this review also identifies areas where future research must be conducted. In addition to the scientific value of future work in this area, future research on cat cognition could have an important influence on the management and welfare of pet and free-roaming cats, leading to improved human-cat interactions.
There is a growing interest in the study of psychopathic traits from an evolutionary framework; however, there is a lack of comprehensive reviews regarding this issue. To address this gap in the literature, the current paper examines the evolutionary roots of psychopathy by reviewing previous research on this topic. Specifically, the potentially adaptive role of psychopathic traits during human evolution through the lifespan is highlighted. Key areas covered include the evolution of the brain (“old brain, new brain” and the emotion-logic lag), emotion regulation, aggression and its potential adaptive function, and emotions specific to psychopathy including anger and shame/dishonor. This paper (mainly in the light of the Adaptive Calibration Model) discusses how psychopathic features can be seen as a useful heritage, especially for people who have grown in harsh psychosocial backgrounds. The implications of an evolutionary approach for the comprehension and treatment of children, youth, and adults with psychopathic traits are suggested, along with directions for future research.
The Triarchic model (Patrick, Fowles, & Krueger, 2009) was formulated to reconcile contrasting conceptions of psychopathy reflected in historic writings and contemporary assessment instruments, and to address persisting unresolved issues in the field. The model conceives of psychopathy as encompassing three distinct but interrelated phenotypic dispositions—disinhibition, boldness, and meanness—with biological referents. These dispositional constructs can be viewed as building blocks for alternative conceptions of psychopathy, and various existing psychopathy measures are presumed to index these constructs to differing degrees. This article summarizes the bases of the Triarchic model in the conceptual and empirical literatures on psychopathy, and describes linkages between the constructs of the model and established structural frameworks for personality and psychological disorders. Alternative methods for indexing the constructs of the model are described and evidence regarding their interrelations and criterion-related validity is reviewed. Promising aspects of the model for ongoing research on psychopathy are discussed, along with current gaps in knowledge/methods and recommended avenues for future research.
This study examined differential associations between phenotypic domains of the triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy (boldness, meanness, and disinhibition; Patrick, Fowles, & Krueger, 2009), as assessed by the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure (Patrick, 2010b), and the five-factor model (FFM) of normal personality, as indexed by the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Spanish version, Costa & McCrae, 1999), in 349 undergraduates (96 men). Distinctive patterns of correlations for psychopathy components did not differ significantly across gender, although relations between Meanness and Agreeableness were stronger for men than for women. Our findings are largely consistent with the conceptualization of psychopathy in terms of FFM constructs and provide discriminant evidence in support of all 3 triarchic domains. Thus, meanness is marked by low Agreeableness and some degree of low Conscientiousness, whereas disinhibition is characterized both by low Conscientiousness and low Agreeableness along with high Neuroticism and Extraversion. Notably, the constellation of low Neuroticism, high Extraversion, and high Openness, with facets of low Agreeableness, supports the idea that boldness encompasses some adaptive features of psychological adjustment while depicting the interpersonal features of psychopathy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
Although there has been an increase in felid personality research, much more work is needed, with only 20 published studies, 17 of which focused on the domestic cat. Most studies show important implications for this type of research, but there is no consensus on terminology, method, or conclusions for felids, even at the species level. Felid personality research comes from various fields, and is often carried out with different methods, with diverse goals. This review evaluates the published research on felid personality, and addresses its reliability and validity. Only 60% of the studies reported reliability estimates, and these varied greatly across personality dimensions. The sample weighted mean correlation of the reliability estimates was 0.68 (based on three studies). Fifty-five percent of the studies assessed validity. The personality dimensions with the highest validity for all species were Sociable, Dominant, and Curious, with a mean correlation of 0.82. Recommendations for future research and implications for aiding in conservation and captive animal management efforts and improving health and well-being and welfare are discussed.
This study analysed the cat–human relationship paying attention to the quality of life (QoL) of 62 cats. QoL was assessed as being low, medium and high, using: (1) four questionnaires which investigated care, cat behaviour, cat and owner features, (2) a simple physical examination of the cat and (3) the Lexington attachment to pets scale (LAPS) test. The investigation revealed a medium QoL for about 87.2% of the pets. Although most of the cats received a good quality of care and were in good physical condition, only 16.1% did not show abnormal behaviour. The level of QoL results to be influenced by the cohabitation with conspecifics. The level of care given to the cat is greatly influenced by the gender, the education, the previous experience, the real ownership, the number of friends and of emotional bonds of the owner to people and by the gonadectomy (P
Housing conditions and behavioural problems of a sample of 1177 cats were described by their 550 owners. Indications for inadequate housing in the light of species-specific needs were analysed.A total of 65.1% of the cats were Domestic European Shorthairs and 78.7% were castrated animals. A total of 87% of the responding cat owners were female. A total of 59% of the households had more than one cat (mean 2.2). On average 1.8 of the 2.3 members living in a household dealt with the animals. The average cat could use 34 m2 of the living space and had five different resting places, whereas the owner's bed being the favourite in 52% of the cases. 14% of the owners allowed their cats to run free outside without restriction; 55% let their cats out under various levels of control. Feeding most often took place (79%) in the kitchen; 24% of the cats had communal food bowls. A total of 51% of the cats had to share their cat-toilet, and 22% of the cats were fed in the same room as they had to use for elimination behaviour. More than one toilet in different rooms were available to 28% of the cats.In 644 cats (54.7% of the sample) the owners complained of one or more behavioural problems with their cats. The self-assessed problems most often mentioned were: states of anxiety (16.7% of 1177 cats); scratching on furniture (15.2%); feeding problems (10.9%); aggression (10.5%); inappropriate urination and spraying (8.2%) and defecation in the house (5.1%). The relationship between the occurrence of problems (yes / no) and animal-, owner- and housing- related factors was analysed by chi2-test. Neutered females exhibited problems most often. People without children kept cats more often than others, but they also complained more often about their cats. Quality of the human-cat relationship was also relevant: people who interacted with their pets for several hours spread over the day mentioned problems with them less often. In 568 cats the owners had tried to treat the problems themselves. States of anxiety and scratching on furniture caused relatively fewer attempts to correct the behaviour than other problems. In many cases the owners were unable to solve the problems on their own. These findings show that there are deficiencies in indoor cat housing and that owners need help to correct them.
We have tested the hypothesis that object play by adult domestic cats Felis silvestris catus may be indistinguishable from predatory behaviour at the motivational level, by examining the influence of hunger on play. Cats were presented with either a large toy or a small toy, either 0 h and 16 h after their last meal. The small toy elicited more play overall. After the longer interval, play increased in intensity and avoidance of both toy sizes declined. The character of the play also changed as a function of the interaction between toy size and increased hunger. Cats performed more close contact play with the small toy after the 16 h interval than when they had just eaten. However, with the large toy they showed an increase in limited contact, exploratory behaviour patterns after the 16 h interval, compared with largely avoiding it immediately after a meal. These results are similar to those from a published study on the influence of hunger on the actual predatory behaviour of cats with hunting experience, in which the probability of a kill (possibly equivalent to contact play in our study) could be predicted according to the prey size and the hunger level of the cat. This suggests that object play and predation are similarly affected by hunger and the size of the toy/prey, and may therefore share a common motivational basis.
Sociopaths are “outstanding” members of society in two senses: politically, they draw our attention because of the inordinate amount of crime they commit, and psychologically, they hold our fascination because most ofus cannot fathom the cold, detached way they repeatedly harm and manipulate others. Proximate explanations from behavior genetics, child development, personality theory, learning theory, and social psychology describe a complex interaction of genetic and physiological risk factors with demographic and micro environmental variables that predispose a portion of the population to chronic antisocial behavior. More recent, evolutionary and game theoretic models have tried to present an ultimate explanation of sociopathy as the expression of a frequency-dependent life strategy which is selected, in dynamic equilibrium, in response to certain varying environmental circumstances. This paper tries to integrate the proximate, developmental models with the ultimate, evolutionary ones, suggesting that two developmentally different etiologies of sociopathy emerge from two different evolutionary mechanisms. Social strategies for minimizing the incidence of sociopathic behavior in modern society should consider the two different etiologies and the factors that contribute to them.
Environmental enrichment is a simple and effective means of improving animal welfare in any species - companion, farm, laboratory and zoo. For many years, it has been a popular area of research, and has attracted the attention and concerns of animal keepers and carers, animal industry professionals, academics, students and pet owners all over the world. This book is the first to integrate scientific knowledge and principles to show how environmental enrichment can be used on different types of animal. Filling a major gap, it considers the history of animal keeping, legal issues and ethics, right through to a detailed exploration of whether environmental enrichment actually works, the methods involved, and how to design and manage programmes. The first book in a major new animal welfare series Draws together a large amount of research on different animals Provides detailed examples and case studies An invaluable reference tool for all those who work with or study animals in captivity This book is part of the UFAW/Wiley-Blackwell Animal Welfare Book Series. This major series of books produced in collaboration between UFAW (The Universities Federation for Animal Welfare), and Wiley-Blackwell provides an authoritative source of information on worldwide developments, current thinking and best practice in the field of animal welfare science and technology. For details of all of the titles in the series see www.wiley.com/go/ufaw. © 2003 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW). All rights reserved.
Domestic cats have had a 10,000-year history of cohabitation with humans and seem to have the ability to communicate with humans. However, this has not been widely examined. We studied 20 domestic cats to investigate whether they could recognize their owners by using voices that called out the subjects' names, with a habituation-dishabituation method. While the owner was out of the cat's sight, we played three different strangers' voices serially, followed by the owner's voice. We recorded the cat's reactions to the voices and categorized them into six behavioral categories. In addition, ten naive raters rated the cats' response magnitudes. The cats responded to human voices not by communicative behavior (vocalization and tail movement), but by orienting behavior (ear movement and head movement). This tendency did not change even when they were called by their owners. Of the 20 cats, 15 demonstrated a lower response magnitude to the third voice than to the first voice. These habituated cats showed a significant rebound in response to the subsequent presentation of their owners' voices. This result indicates that cats are able to use vocal cues alone to distinguish between humans.
Significant numbers of cats enter rescue and re-homing facilities each year, over half of which are relinquished directly by owners. Identifying the reasons why owners decide to give up their pet is an important step in the development of education strategies to encourage retention of cats by their owners. In addition, identifying why adopting owners fail to retain their new cats is important in the refinement of homing policies. Characteristics of 6,089 cats relinquished and returned to 11 rescue facilities in the UK were recorded over a year. In addition, information was collected on the reason why owners gave up, or brought back, their pet. Sixty percent of cats and kittens entering shelters were relinquished by owners, with 19% being due to owner circumstances, such as moving to rented accommodation or changes in family circumstances. Seven percent were for behavioral reasons, and 5% because of the occurrence of allergy or asthma in owners. Returned cats were significantly more likely to be older (Mann Whitney U, Z = -9.167, p < 0.001) and neutered (Pearson χ2 = 110.0, df = 2, p < 0.001) than the general relinquished population. The reasons for original relinquishment and return of owned cats were also significantly different (Pearson χ2 = 84.4, df = 6, p < 0.001), with 38% of cats being returned for behavioral reasons, and 18% because of allergy or asthma. The commonest behavioral reason for both relinquishment and return was aggression between cats in the household.
For many animal species that are difficult to access, the behaviour of free-ranging individuals cannot be assessed by direct observation. In order to remedy this, we developed a new technique using a motion detector (acceleration data-logger) for monitoring the activity and behaviour of free-ranging vertebrates and tested its efficiency on a domestic cat, Felis catus. A total of 3615min of surging acceleration was measured along the longitudinal body axis of an adult male cat. The cat's behaviour was also filmed for 113min, these video data being used to correlate the logger's signals with the cat's behaviour. Acceleration data-loggers attached on the cat's collar recorded acceleration signals which were influenced by both the gravitational acceleration resulting from the body posture and the dynamic acceleration resulting from the dynamic behaviour of the cat. By applying spectral analysis based on a fast Fourier Transform to acceleration signals, body postures and some of the dynamic behaviours of the cat such as drinking, eating, and several paces of travelling were efficiently determined. The present study shows that acceleration data-loggers represent a useful and reliable system for accurately recording the activities and detail behaviours of the terrestrial animals.
In 1973, personality ratings using a test called the Emotions Profile Index (EPI) were made on a number of Gombe chimpanzees,
including a deviant female namedPassion. Passion's ratings were compared to the profiles of the other adult females from the same community.Passion's ratings were also analyzed in terms of her subsequent infanticidal and cannibalistic behavior, observed from 1975 to 1977.
The EPI scales were found to be useful in detecting social deviance. The test appears to be a good descriptive and predictive
measuring instrument. Suggestions are made for utilizing the EPI rating scales in the assessment of the psychological well-being
of captive and/or research animals.
Behaviours are considered to be among the most flexible traits in animals and often reflect conditional responses upon the
behaviours of others, or to changing environmental conditions. However, in contrast to the presumed advantages of behavioural
flexibility, individuals within the same species or populations often consistently differ in their behaviour, that is, some
individuals are consistently more aggressive, more explorative, or shyer than others. This phenomenon has been termed ‘animal
personality’ or a ‘behavioural syndrome’. This chapter gives an overview about the current state of research in the field
of animal personality by summarising the evolutionary concepts that have been put forward to explain the three questions arising
from the phenomenon, i.e. why individuals are consistent in their behaviour, why there are individual differences in behaviour
and why behavioural traits are sometimes correlated among each other. It has been shown that animal personality is heritable
and entails fitness consequences, which demonstrates that it is subject to evolutionary processes. Moreover, as consistent
individual differences in behaviour can result from developmental processes, research on animal personality integrates proximate
and functional questions about animal behaviour. Therefore, animal personality research provides an integrative approach to
understand animal behaviour by taking into account the causes and potential effects of intrinsic individual differences in
behaviour.
The major cause of death of cats in the United States is neither infectious nor non- infectious disease, but the euthanasia of largely healthy cats in shelters due to the problem of overpopulation. This chapter explores overpopulation; while quantifying its magnitude is difficult, accurate measures are needed when assessing the effectiveness of interventions to control overpopulation, especially those conducted at the local level. There are many reasons why owners allow their cats to breed, despite the widespread availability of surgical sterilization and when early-age spaying and neutering are gaining favour in the veterinary medical community. In order to understand the main causes of overpopulation, these reasons, as well as the complex web of determinants of relinquishment of cats to shelters, are examined. Finally, this chapter evaluates the factors that influence whether relinquished cats are adopted or euthanized at animal shelters. Without concerted efforts to educate and inform the small minority of Americans who allow it to occur, cat overpopulation will continue to be a major welfare issue with no foreseeable resolution.