Root-Knot Nematodes a Major Peril to Protected Cultivation System in India: Current Status and its Management

Abstract

Growing of vegetable crops under protected conditions are relatively, an innovative technology and most popular among farmers throughout the country. In last few decades protected cultivation has shown potential enhancement in horticultural production. The southern root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, is an emerging nematode under protected conditions. This nematode can cause chlorosis, stunting and reduce yields associated with the induction of many root galls on host plants. Root-knot nematode severely affect the plant root system by inducing specialized feeding cells i.e., giant cells in the vascular tissues. Recently, this nematode has been considered as a worldwide menace for combat root-knot nematodes, integrated nematode management strategies such as soil solarization, biological control, organic amendment, crop rotation, field sanitation, and fumigants have been developed and successfully used in the past. Here, in this book chapter discussed on biology and life cycle, control measures and proposed future strategies to improve Megalaima incognita management under protected conditions.

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
Chapter
Root-Knot Nematodes a Major
Peril to Protected Cultivation
System in India: Current Status
and its Management
Jaydeep A.Patil and SarojYadav
Abstract
Growing of vegetable crops under protected conditions are relatively, an
innovative technology and most popular among farmers throughout the country. In
last few decades protected cultivation has shown potential enhancement in horti-
cultural production. The southern root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, is an
emerging nematode under protected conditions. This nematode can cause chlorosis,
stunting and reduce yields associated with the induction of many root galls on
host plants. Root-knot nematode severely affect the plant root system by inducing
specialized feeding cells i.e., giant cells in the vascular tissues. Recently, this nema-
tode has been considered as a worldwide menace for combat root-knot nematodes,
integrated nematode management strategies such as soil solarization, biological
control, organic amendment, crop rotation, field sanitation, and fumigants have
been developed and successfully used in the past. Here, in this book chapter
discussed on biology and life cycle, control measures and proposed future strategies
to improve Megalaima incognita management under protected conditions.
Keywords: protected cultivation, root knot nematode, vegetable crop and integrated
nematode management
. Introduction
Cultivation of crops in protected structures is relatively a new or advance
technology, growing crops in controlled environments (temperature, humidity, light
and such other factors can be regulated as per requirement of the crop). It is popular
among farmers/growers globally. Commonly used structures are forced ventilated
greenhouse, naturally ventilated polyhouse, high-tech polyhouse, insect proof net
house, shade net house, plastic tunnel and mulching. Protected structures may be
demarcated as “Alteration of environmental condition in such a way to accomplish
maximum growth and yield” [1]. Recently, incipient technology for raising high
value crop in the country and it has very decent potential in semi-urban areas (nearby
cities). Altered environmental conditions, bounces manifolds increase in yield per
unit area. Modernized protected cultivation are very popular among growers in all
over world and approximately 405000ha area covered under protected cultivation
globally [2] as compared to India 30000ha area under protected cultivation, is still

Nematodes - Recent Advances, Management and New Perspectives

in infancy stage [3]. In India, protected structures are being initiated by National
Horticulture Mission to increase per capita income of framers. Protection of pest and
diseases under controlled environmental conditions, farmers are getting very good
returns from this technology. Globally, among polyhouse cultivated crops, Cucumis
sativus L. is an important vegetable and second most popular crop.
In polyhouses, three types of crops are grown, viz. vegetable crops such as cucum-
ber, capsicum, tomato, ornamental crops such as, carnation, roses, gerbera, chrysan-
themum and fruit crop like strawberry. Growing vegetables and flower crops under
protected cultivation is receiving utmost attention and gaining popularity among
farming community across the country. The ideal conditions provided by protected
cultivation and continuous availability of the host plant round the year often results in
high population buildup of soil borne pathogens including plant parasitic nematodes.
However, Plant parasitic nematodes are becoming a major constraint in production
of the horticultural crops under protected cultivation in India. Root-knot nematode,
Meloidogyne spp. has to be the major plant parasitic nematode under protected condi-
tions [4]. There are various management strategies viz., soil solarization, biological
control, organic amendment, chemical and integrated nematode management
practices have been followed for the management of the plant parasitic nematodes.
Protected structures aided crops with altered climatic conditions to get supreme
yield potential than open field by shielded from adversities [5]. Ancient records,
during 14–37AD, when Roman Empire was controlled agricultural production, cer-
tain limited structures were present. Nevertheless, commercial protected cultiva-
tion had been initiated in England trailed by France, Netherlands, Japan and China
at ending of eighteenth and nineteenth century [6]. Charles Lucien Bonaparte,
French botanist (1803–1857) are accredited for making the first modern greenhouse
(http://english.reachgreenhouse. com/news_view_32_105.html). High value agri-
cultural crops are mostly preferred for protected structures to optimize production
cost as well as reduced biotic and abiotic stresses.
. Prevalence of root-knot nematode under protected cultivation
Root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. are foremost important parasite in
protected cultivation and having ability to parasitize on most of the crops. Around
232 plant species attacked by root-knot nematodes including vegetables, fruits,
fiber, ornamentals, medicinal, cereals and weeds also. Root-knot nematodes are
obligate parasites causes severe damage to vegetable crops (Figures –), leading to
major yield reductions and significant economic losses worldwide [4, 7–9]. Root-knot
nematode development and fecundity are very high and very with populations/
races. Second stage juveniles randomly move in soil and attracted by chemicals
released from host roots thus seek to infect roots. Meristematic zone is the most
preferred site for penetration of second stage juveniles. Galls on roots are the diag-
nostic symptom, results from hypertrophy and hyperplasia after nematode feeding.
As endoparasites, all stages were found in root tissues, except vermiform male and
second stage. Optimum temperature required for development was 15 to 30°C. One
generation, from egg to egg, was completed within 25 to 30days. In a conducive
environmental condition, nematode population build-up increases rapidly and
reaches as high as 20–25 eggs and juveniles per g soil.
Root galls are the most characteristic symptom of root-knot nematode infection
(Figure ). As vascular feeder, destroy the xylem and phloem, ultimately transloca-
tion of water and nutrient uptake was debilitated. Due to poor transportation, above
ground symptoms such as yellowing, wilting, poor fruiting has manifested on plants
in patches. These patches gradually increase every year as inoculum has increased.

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Root-Knot Nematodes a Major Peril to Protected Cultivation System in India: Current Status…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100541
. Interaction of Meloidogyne spp. with other microorganisms
Nematode have long been alleged of playing a bigger role in plant disease
scenario with other microorganisms like fungus and bacteria rather than alone.
Different role has been played by nematode in complex diseases such as aggrava-
tor, predisposer, vector etc. nematodes may act as wounder, host substrate modi-
fier, rhizosphere modifier and vector to make the environment more conducive
for development of other secondary pathogens. In complex diseases, root-knot
nematode with wilt and root rot fungus causes grater damage to susceptible
plants as compared to each pathogen alone [10, 11]. Host physiology has been
altered by nematode for secondary pathogens results, complete failure of crop in
some instances.
Nematodes provide ready avenues for entry of secondary microbes. Besides
avenues, biochemical changes have been initiated in nematode infected plants
and enriched giant cells also favor the wilt causing fungi. Seedling mortality was
Figure 1.
Cucumber crop infested wish root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. under polyhouse conditions. A) above
ground symptom B) below ground symptoms. (Source: Original photos).

Nematodes - Recent Advances, Management and New Perspectives

preponed by about a week due to interaction with fungi with nematode. Nematode
may also play the role in resistance braker for other pathogens. Some varieties lost
the resistance against fungal pathogens in the presence of root-knot nematodes.
Due to disease complexes sometimes complete crop failure faces by growers.
. Reasons for multiplication of root-knot nematode under protected
cultivation
. Moisture
Moisture is the foremost important factor for multiplication of nematodes.
Continuous moisture availability around root zones through drip irrigation under
Figure 2.
Tomato crop infested wish root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. under polyhouse conditions. A) above ground
symptom B) below ground symptoms. (Source: Original photos).

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Root-Knot Nematodes a Major Peril to Protected Cultivation System in India: Current Status…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100541
polyhouses is responsible for fast nematode build-up and movement as compared to
open field where flooded and dry conditions prevail. Continuous moisture avail-
ability flare-up the nematode population and more infectious.
. Temperature
Temperature affects overall life profile activities of nematode such as hatch-
ing, movement, reproduction, development, and survival and also the host plant.
Optimum temperature range for survival of plant parasitic nematodes is 15-30°C
and become inactive or less active from above and below temperature conditions
or may lethal for nematode. Under polyhouses optimum range of temperature for
nematode build-up exist. Under optimum moisture and temperature conditions
in polyhouses nematodes are able to complete several generations in less period of
time as compared to open field conditions.
Figure 3.
Capsicum (Bel pepper) crop infested wish root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. under polyhouse conditions
A) above ground symptom B) below ground symptoms. (Source: Original photos).

Nematodes - Recent Advances, Management and New Perspectives

. Continuous cultivation of susceptible host
Crops grown under polyhouses are generally susceptible to nematode pest such
as tomato, cucumber, ornamentals etc. due to high economic value monoculture
has been adopted by growers. Intensive monoculture of susceptible crops leads to
nematode build-up and multiplication rate. All three conditions, susceptible host
with favorable microclimate favor fast build-up of nematode population and once it
introduced it is very difficult to get rid from this.
. Current management approaches
Favorable climatic conditions concentrated majority of the protected structures
in the regions between 25° and 65° latitude [12]. Solar irradiations and temperature
is low at higher latitude, that’s wants maintenance of humidity and temperature and
the conditions created favor the pest incidence. Intense solar irradiation at lower
altitude persuades stress in the crops rendering them susceptible to pest incidence
[12]. Irrespective of the diverse protected structures and materials for buildup, the
microclimate inside the protected structures favor the multiplication of pest and
diseases including plant parasitic nematodes [13]. Henceforth, it become extremely
difficult to manage the nematode pest from single management options. Keeping
in view of this, integration of all available management techniques/tools for bet-
ter resolution of the nematode pest. The integrated strategies for control of plant
parasitic nematodes can be based upon two basic principles: 1) preventive measures
and 2) on-farm techniques. Preventive measures avoid the introduction pest species
in newer areas and second one is based upon control measure (cultural, biological
and chemical) adopted by growers, to reduce pest population below ETL.
. Preventive measures
Preventive measures are adopted to avoid the introduction of nematode pest in
newer areas where nematode problem not exist before. Some practices have been
adopted as preventive measures to control the spread of nematode. New or emerg-
ing species spread has been checked by regulatory methods to avoid the introduc-
tion in newer areas. Soil testing are mandatory for all the farmers before erection of
polyhouses, green houses and net houses for plant parasitic nematodes. Entry points
for protected conditions should also contain sanitizing stations for hands, shoes,
boots, tools, and other equipment. Nematode free transplanting material is one of
the important methods to avoid the nematode infestation under field conditions.
Always use nematode-free transplants or plants that build upon soilless substrates
from production are increasingly used to exclude soil borne species of nematodes,
but also to promote the plant establishment and crop production.
Raising of crop on soilless media: One of the most important method to prevent
spreading of nematodes in nematode free areas through growing of nursery crops
in soilless media such as organic growing media: peat, coir, bark, sawdust, compost;
inorganic: rockwool, perlite, pumice, sand, vermiculite.
. Curative measures
Curative measures are used to reduce the nematode population below economic
threshold level in nematode infested areas so, growers can get maximum returns.

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Root-Knot Nematodes a Major Peril to Protected Cultivation System in India: Current Status…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100541
Sanitation can minimize the nematode problems from polyhouses include rapid
destruction of infested plant debris and weeds after harvest.
. Soil solarization
Soil solarization is a most effective method to reduce the nematode population
in hot weather areas (temperature around 40-50o c). In India, northern conditions
are best to adopt this practice to reduce nematode infestation under polyhouses.
Transparent polyethylene plastic (25μm thick LLDP) mulch is used to cover the
moist soil for 4–8weeks in the month of May–June [14–17]. Green house effects
have been created under transparent polyethylene sheet leading to higher tempera-
ture was lethal to nematode.
. Crop rotation and inter cropping
Cultural practices are non-chemical method such as crop rotation with resistant
cultivars or non-host crops to reduce pest population. Rotating or inter cropping
tomato/ cucumber with non-hosts such as garlic (Allium sativum), Marigold
(Ta g e te s sp.) (Figures  and ), lettuce, radish, cabbage and cauliflower could
reduce root knot nematode populations in soil. Few options are available in pro-
tected conditions to grow non-host crop, so, resistant cultivars are a very good
option under protected structures.
. Resistant cultivars
Resistant cultivars are one of the convenient options against plant parasitic
nematodes. Grafting of commercially desired susceptible cultivars on resistant
rootstock is a trending method among vegetable crops under protected conditions
[18]. Resistant rootstock of brinjal wild relatives, Solanum toxicarium, Solanum
sisymbriifolium and S. torvum have been grafted by commercial tomatoes, notice-
able reduction in galling was observed [19]. Various grafted rootstock of melon and
capsicum were produced that confirmed extraordinary results in minimize root
galling in the greenhouses [20].
Figure 4.
Cucumber intercrop with marigold for the management of root-knot nematode under polyhouse conditions.

Nematodes - Recent Advances, Management and New Perspectives

. Organic amendments
Enormous organic amendments are used for suppression of plant parasitic
nematodes in protected cultivation. Suppression efficacy of organic amendments
depends on the active ingredient and their concentration. Non-edible oil cakes of
Neem (Azadirachta indica), castor (Ricinus communis) Karanj (Pongamia glabra),
Mahua (Madhuca latifolia) etc. are used for management of rot-knot nematode
in protected cultivation [21]. Other organic substances like FYM, vermicompost,
slurry, green manure etc. are also effective for suppression of PPNs.
. Biological control
Higher efficiency, targeted results, environmentally sound and local accept-
ability among the growers gain much popularity of the bio-agents in recent era. Egg
parasitic fungus- Paecilomyces lilacinus, Pochonia clamydosporia, antagonistic fun-
gus- Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, VAM fungus- Glomus spp., bacterial parasite-
Pasteuria penetrans and PGPR bacteria- Pseudomonas fluorescence is used as potential
bio-agents against plant parasitic nematodes [17, 22–24]. Bio-agents enriched organic
amendments are very effective strategy to control nematodes in protected cultivation.
. Chemical nematicides
Till now, there are not a single nematicide registered for protected cultivation
use in India. Thus, the growers depend on other integrated pest management prac-
tices for nematode management under polyhouses. Combination of all preventive,
curative measures to control nematode under polyhouses is an effective strategy and
locally adopted by growers.
. Novel methods of resistance to root knot nematode under protected
conditions
Wide susceptibility range, fast multiplication and cause potential treat at low
density are the main constraints for management of root-knot nematode under
protected structures. Recently, genetic engineering has made it possible to express
Figure 5.
Marigold crop rotation with cucumber/tomato for management of root-knot under polyhouse conditions.

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Root-Knot Nematodes a Major Peril to Protected Cultivation System in India: Current Status…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100541
and incorporate heterologous and indigenous protein from one to other organisms
and develop heightened pest resistance in plants. Genetic engineering approaches
has made natural resistance with synthetic resistance may be the auspicious tools
for management of nematode in tomato production [25–27].
RNA Interference (RNAi): RNAi has emerging tool to downregulate gene
activity and recognized efficient tactic against root-knot nematode [28]. RNAi first
performed for Caenorhabditis elegans and it was used for gene silencing by over-
whelming their expression in a plant parasitic nematode [29]. Nematode feeding
site formation gene has been silenced by using dsRNA or siRNA that elicit a sys-
temic RNAi response [30]. Root-knot nematode produces effector proteins deter-
mined by parasitism genes, and these effectors epitomize the molecular interface
between the nematode and host [28]. Effectors secreted in nematode esophageal
glands play perilous roles in parasitism [31].
Exploiting Efficient Genome Editing Using the CRISPR-Cas9 Technique: The
advancement of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
(CRISPR) technology has become a commanding alternative to gene silencing
[32]. Foreign DNA sequences has incorporated host loci to produce short crRNAs
(CRISPR RNAs) that direct sequence-specific cleavage of homologous target
dsDNA by Cas endonucleases [33]. Recently, documentation of pathogen and host
novel genes responsible for infection help in developing the CRISPR technique for
improving the resistance to Meloidogyne spp. under protected systems.
Advantages of protected cultivation
• Higher productivity and higher income
• Quality produce
• Off season or round the year cultivation
• Hardening of tissue culture plants
• Better management of insect pest
• Less use of chemicals
• Efficient use of resources
. Downsides of polyhouse cultivation
In spite of protected structures crops grown under these structures are not fully
protected from insect pest. Hostile environment, intensive or mono cropping,
availability of moisture (drip irrigation) and poor hygienic conditions are increas-
ing the pest problems mainly nematodes under protected environment [34]. Among
plant parasitic nematodes root-knot nematodes is the important parasite under
polyhouses [4]. Once nematode introduced in the protected cultivation, it’s impos-
sible to eradicate the nematode problem. It can build up in less time and causes huge
number of losses among the crops. Major source of adulterations in protected struc-
tures are planting material, soil and pooting media, water and general cleanliness.
. Conclusions and future directions
Recently, nematode and soil borne pathogens under protected structures paid
much attention. Till now efficient management practices under protected structures

Nematodes - Recent Advances, Management and New Perspectives

Author details
Jaydeep A.Patil* and SarojYadav
Department of Nematology, College of Agriculture, Chaudhary Charan Singh
Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar,Haryana, India
*Address all correspondence to: rajhau99@gmail.com
are very less and are not uses due to certain limitations. Researchers has focused on
the environmentally sound conventional and modern management practices under
protected structures. Biological and ecological aspects are the fundamental science
to manage nematodes.
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.


Root-Knot Nematodes a Major Peril to Protected Cultivation System in India: Current Status…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100541
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Root-Knot Nematodes a Major Peril to Protected Cultivation System in India: Current Status…
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