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1Oil and Gas Research Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
*Corresponding author: E-mail: azary@mail.ru;
Chapter 7
Print ISBN: 978-93-5547-200-7, eBook ISBN: 978-93-5547-201-4
Hubble’s Law and the Cosmic Microwave
Background in the Absence of the Big Bang
Azariy Barenbaum1*
DOI: 10.9734/bpi/rtcps/v4/13528D
ABSTRACT
law is a consequence of four fundamental physic laws acting on photons in space: energy
cosmic microwave background is the result of photons thermalization in cosmic space, which
temperature is determined by the energy of stars optical radiation. The transfer energy from photons
wave background is applicable to the Metagalaxy and
does not use the Big Bang hypothesis in explaining them.
Keywords: Galactocentric paradigm; Hubble constant; background cosmic microwave radiation;
circulation of baryonic matter of stars in the Metagalaxy.
1. INTRODUCTION
considered as evidence of the expansion of the Universe after its fomation billion years ago,
according to the Big Bang hypothesis. At this the linear decrease in the frequency of light with
is
considered to be the relic radiation, that has been preserved since the Universe formation duning a
cosmological explosion [1].
In works [2-5], the author develops a new approach to solving cosmology problems based on
representations of the Galactocentric paradigm [6]. In particular, in the fomula of the Hubble
oonstant
gravitational nature.
of energy by photons on the way from distant galaxies to the Earth in cosmic gravitational fields. Such
fields are mainly created by low-mass stars that have long completed their evolution and are present
in large numbers in the intergalactic space of the Metagalaxy. Taking these stars, practically not
emitting in the optical range into account, the average density of baryons in the Metagalaxy is
, which is times higher than critical density of matter in the modem standard
cosmological model "Lambda-C-model) [7].
Another fundamental conclusion [5] is that microwave cosmic background is the result of
themalization of optical photons when they interact with gravitational fields in outer space. The
temperature of the cosmic microwave background is detemined by the energy density of the
optical radiation of stars. The transfer of photon energy to the microwave space background and vice
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Cosmic Microwave Background in the Absence of the Big Bang
120
The third important conclusion [5] is that the baryonic mater of the Metagalaxy participates in the
continuous circulation accompanied by binth and destruction of stars in galaxies. This circulation of
cosmic substance is in a state of dynamic equilibrium, in which the energy density released during the
synthesis of the helium isotope He from hydrogen in young stars and then radiated by for the most
part mainly in the optical wavelength range is equal to the energy density of the cosmic microwave
background.
2. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE ARTICLE
This article discusses 2 theoretical models developed by the author to justify the above
,
and the second to explain the nature and mechanism of the fomation of the cosmic microwave
background [5].
The constructed models do not use those or other theoretical models of the Universe [7], but solve
these problems for the Metagalaxy, considening it as a rather limited area of cosmic space available
for study from the Earth.
Both models lean, although to varying degrees, on the following key provisions:
(i) The space of the Metagalaxy is filled with stars, both intensely emitting in optics
( "young"), and stars that are weakly emitting or generally non-emitting in this range ( "old"). The
lifetime of radiating stars is years, and their number is much less than the number
of stars creating a common gravity field in cosmic space.
(ii) Y oung and old stars are extremely unevenly distributed in the Metagalaxy. Young stars are
concentrated exclusively in galaxies, and old ones are not only in galaxies, but in even greater
numbers in the space between galaxies.
(iii) The gravitational field created by stars in space, by analogy with stellar dynamics problems [8],
can be decomposed into two components: 1) an integral field averaged over a large volume of
outer space and slightly varying in time, and 2 ) a local field, taking into account the
heterogeneity of the distribution of stars.
(iv) sufficient to take into account the effect on photons in
cosmic space of the integral component of the gravitational field Whereas local
gravitational fields play the main role in the fomation of microwave cosmic background [5].
Interacting with local fields of gravity, light photons can lose and acquire energy, bomowing it
from the space environment. This process is themodynamically equilibrium, since the radiation
energy density of stars and energy density of are the same.
(v) The equality of both energy densities (and temperatures) is a consequence of the interaction of
the optical radiation of stars with cosmic gravitational fields. As a result of this interaction, a
photons of light exchanges energy with outer space, emitting and absonbing quanta of
cosmic background with a temperature of .
Thus, in the cosmic fields of gravity photons emit and absow quanta microwave cosmic background.
Their spectral distribution comesponds to blackbody radiation with temperature of , which is
determined by the optical radiation density of young stars.
of the cosmic microwave background.
Let us now see how both theoretical models solve these problems, in contrast to the cosmological
approach.
3. THE PROBLEM OF REDSHIFTS IN THE HUBBLE’S LAW
galaxies from the galaxies distance, empinically established by E. Hubble [9] in
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121
The redshifts is characterized by a relative change in the frequency of the lines in the form of
parameter Z, which is detemined by the fomula [1]:
(1)
where: is the "unbiased" frequency of the line of light emitted by a distant galaxy; is the frequency
of the same line, measured in the spectrum of the same galaxy; is the distance to the galaxy, is
the speed of light; is a coefficient called the Hubble constant.
The redshifts are customary to explain by decrease in frequency of light due to the Doppler Effect,
when the light source is removed from us at certain speed V. In accordance with the Doppler Effect, if
speed , the change in frequency of light . But the magnitude of redshift
, strictly speaking, is not equal to the ratio since the denominator of fomula (1) is
, not However for , the values of and differ very little, so that we can reckon that
. In this case formula (1) is written as:
(2)
In cosmology, fomula (2) is interpreted as the removal of galaxies from each other at a speed
proportional to the distance between galaxies. Therefore, the constant is considered as the rate of
expansion of the Universe as a whole.
The detemination of the Hubble constant is fraught with great difficulties, and its estimates have been
repeatedly revised. Measurements give value ranging from 50 to 100 per . The most
reliable today is considered the value of per Mpc.
It is necessary to say that fomula (2) is approximate and is valid only for the values of 1.
Nevertheless even in this case for galaxies with
does not hold at all [1]. This is explained by the proper motions of galaxies, the speeds of which are
especially large in groups as well as large clusters of galaxies.
For formula (2) is also not applicable since the product ZC ceases to reflect the rate of the
Universe expansion. In this case, more complex formulas are used, depending on the accepted model
of the Universe [7]. It should also be noted that objects with large redshifts (quasars, Seyfert galaxies,
etc.) often have several systems of lines with different Z values.
The author [2,
does not require a cosmolo
.
Zwicky in 1929 [10].
4. MODEL 1: DERIVATION OF THE HUBBLE CONSTANT FORMULA
We will show that redshifts of distant galaxies is of a gravitational nature. To this end we will derive
the fomula of the Hubble constant , basing on the most general physical considerations [2]. We will
proceed from the fact that photons obey in space the law of universal gravitation, and they are
affected by the attractive force of matter present in outer space.
Let us take a sufficiently large volume of outer space containing matter with an average density . We
place in the center of this volume (Fig. 1) a light source with a frequency , i.e. with wavelength
, photon energy and their mass
Let us ask how the energy , frequency , and wavelength of photons change as they move away
from the source, and what they will be at a distance , if the photon is subjected to the action of
attraction force of the cosmic medium, existing between photon and light source.
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122
The gravitational force acting on the photon is written in the form:
(3)
where: G is gravitational constant, is the mass of matter in a spherical volume of outer space of
radius is the mass of a photon at a distance from the source.
Fig. 1. Explanatory diagram for derivation the Hubble constant fomula
Legend: point " is the light source; "O" is the observer, arrow show direction movement of photons;
is the distance between source and the observer, is cument photon removal from source; circle
denotes the sphenical volume of cosmic space whose substance gravitationally affects photons.
Taking into account the force (3) for the photon energy E at a distance from the source, we have
(4)
The integral in this fomula detemines the energy loss of photon onto overcome the attraction force
of the substance mass .
It follows from fomula (4) that, with the distance from source, the energy, mass and frequency of
photon decrease, and its wavelength increases. Let us find the dependence of these parameters of
photon on distance
proportional to the value of .
Let the photon mass with distance from source changes as , where: is
dimensionless mileage length of photon, which can be represented in the fom
After substituting these expressions in fomula (4) and integrating, we obtain
(5)
where: the distance R is expressed in mega- parsecs (Mpc).
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123
It is easy to see that for any other character of the dependence the relation of redshifts with
distance off the source is not linear. Expression (5) can be rewritten in the fom similar to fomula (1).
Then we will have
(6)
The multiplier in parentheses on the night-hand side of fomula (6) is the Hubble constant But now
this is not a coefficient that lineany relates the removal speed of distant galaxies with distance
between them, but a parameter characterizing the rate of energy loss by photons on the way to Earth.
The independence of the parameter from ndicate that,
with averaging over the volume of outer space of or more, the distribution of matter in the
Metagalaxy can be considered quite homogeneous.
Taking from the observations the value of the constant per , we find the average
density of matter in the Metagalaxy
(7)
Having written fomula (6) in tems of the quantity , we rewrite it in the final fom
(8)
If the value of this expression goes into the formula (1).
In connection with the estimate (7), we note that the value cannot be provided
by either hydrogen, whose density in space , or neutrino ), nor
background radiation . The value is also not explained by "dark matter" and
"dark energy", which are necessary in cosmology to increase the average density of matter in the
Universe to a critical value, [1]. As we can see, the critical density is 4
orders of magnitude less than the required value.
According to , such "unknown matter" are stars of small masses that have long completed their
evolution. These are the same stars of which galaxies are mainly composed and which are in a
smaller amount in the space between galaxies. Assuming the average mass of one star to be
[11], for their density in intergalactic space, we obtain an estimate of stars
.
Let us pay attention to one more important consequence of the model. Even in a very rarefied cosmic
environment, "condensation" of a substance occurs, the size of which can be estimated using the
Jeans fomula [7]:
(9)
where: is the adiabatic speed of sound in the medium. If the medium consists of stars, then in this
fomula we need to replace with the mean square stars velocity
. Since for intergalactic space this
velocity is unknown, we will be guided by the motion of local group of galaxies relative to cosmic
microwave background at a speed of [1]. As a result, we get the condensations size
. And the total number of stars in them is . The values of and
serve as estimates of the maximum sizes and mass of galaxies.
Other consequences of the model are considered in and are not discussed here.
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124
We only note that, although our model explains the Hubble law, it only partially solves the problem. It
remains an open question about the mechanism of energy loss by light on its way to Earth in cosmic
gravitational fields. This mechanism is explained by the second model [5] which, together with the first
solves the problemn of cosmic microwave background onigin.
5. THE PROBLEM OF COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
Microwave cosmic background radiation was detected by A. Penzias and R. Wilson in 1965 [12], for
which the authors in 1976 were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. The cosmic microwave
background spectrum comesponds to the emission spectrum of an absolutely black body with a
temperature of . The maximum of the spectrum is at a frequency of , which
comesponds to wavelength of , and the radiation itself is isotropic with high accuracy [1].
However long before the opening of the , it was repeatedly theoretically predicted as the intrinsic
radiation of outer space [13].
In support of this hypothesis, we cite three compelling arguments [5]:
- First of all, these are the well-known estimates [13] of the energy flux of optical radiation of stars and
the temperature of cosmic space. We will especially highlight the work of E. Regener [14], who in
1933 was the first to measure the energy flow of the night sky and determined its temperature,
applying the law of Stefan-
stars at the atmosphere boundary is erg . And the temperature of this
radiation, which calculated using the fomula StefanBoltzmann: (where:
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant) is . The value of coincides
with the temperature of cosmic microwave background according to modem measurements
. At this temperature, the CMB photons have an average energy of , their number
per unit volume , and the energy density radiation of is
As a second argument, we point out the article by G. Bunbridge and F. Hoyle [15]. In this article,
the authors concluded that the isotopes of light chemical elements (D, , , ,
and ) did not anise during the Big Bang, but were synthesized as from hydrogen in
young stars during last 100 billion years. The energy released during the synthesis of He from
hydrogen was estimated by the authors at What practically coincides with
the measurements of . Regener. Note that the synthesis of He from 4 nuclei of is the main
reaction of energy release in the nuclei of young stars [16]. By means the radiant transmission
mechanism, this energy nises at t
where most of this energy is radiated into space in the fom of light quanta. Therefore, the
conclusions of . Bunbidge and . Hoyle give reason to believe that the energy density of the
radiation of stars and the CMB are in equilibrium.
There are other facts testifying to the energy balance of processes in space. This is indicated, in
particular, by the proximity to the value of the energy density of cosmic rays, galactic magnetic field
and the turbulent motion of gas in the Galaxy [17,18].
The third argument is that stars, particles of gas and dust, cosmic rays, electromagnetic
radiation, including cosmic microwave background, take part in the global circulation of cosmic
matter when the energy balance maintained between them. According to , in this gyre,
galaxies play act as spontaneously anising and disintegrating clusters of stars. Under the
influence of self-gravity, these stellar clusters fom isothemal spheres [6], in the center of which
the destruction of old stars occurs with the fomation of a large amount of gas and dust, from
which new young stars are formed. Throwing young stars along with gas and dust into outer
space, galaxies rejuvenate the stellar population of the Metagalaxy, maintaining in it a
continuous cycle of matter.
Now we proceed to the construction of the comesponding theoretical model
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125
6. MODEL 2: EMERGENCE OF RADIATION DURING MODERN STAR FORMATION
IN METAGALAXY
Suppose that there is a homogeneous space with an average density of matter , in which only the
photons with energy per unit time. Then, according to Hu
photons registered by an observer on Earth, located at a distance from a star, will be
(10)
At a distance from the observer, we take a spherical layer of thickness dr with volume
and accept that in this layer, as in the entire Metagalaxy, the spatial density of such stars is constant
and equal to . Then the energy flux density coming to the observer from all the young stars of
this layer will be equal to
(11)
Obviously, the farther away the star is from the observer, the photons come from it to the observer
with less energy. Starting from a certain distance the photon energy is decreased so much that it
will become less than the lower border of the optical range
observed in optics. We find this distance as
(12)
The total radiation flux of all stars we will obtain by integrating the function
(13)
The solution of this integral, taking into account (12), we will represented as
(14)
Further analysis of fomula (13) we will done by subdividing all the stars emitting light into 2 groups:
"young" are super-giants and giants, in which He is actively synthesized from hydrogen and which,
with their optical luminosity, provide most of the luminous flux that comes to Earth. And a group of
"old" stars of small masses, in which this reaction ended or did not occur eanier at all. For the most
part such stars are much older and their radiation in optics can be neglected.
Let us first estimate the spatial density of "young" stars , which create a stream of light near Earth,
[14]. We denote the
average luminosity of such stars by the parameter and assume that they all have the same
luminosity. Next, you need to set the value of and the factor magnitude in parentheses of fomula
(13). The energy of optical photons lies in the range . Therefore, for example, when
a star is emitted in the blue part of the spectrum , this factor is The greatest
uncertainty is associated with the choice of the L value of young stars. This parameter for stars varies
over a very wide range , where erg/s is the Sun luminosity.
Data on luminosity, mass, lifetime and other parameters of the stars of the main classes are given in
table 1, where temperature, mass and luminosity of stars are expressed in respectively.
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Cosmic Microwave Background in the Absence of the Big Bang
126
Table 1. Harvard classification of stars of the main spectral classes
Class
Temperature
True color
Mass
Luminosity
Share,
Age, years
blue
60
1400000
white-blue
18
20000
white
80
yellow-white
6
yellow
orange
red
According to Table 1 to the category of "young" we, first of all, should include stars of classes and
, whose lifetime is years. Their mass , and the luminosity is
times the luminosity of the Sun (class G). So stars like the Sun and stars of later spectral
classes with an age of years and more, we rank as "old" stars, whose optical radiation can
be neglected.
When specifying the average luminosity and mass of OB-stars, we will use the fact that between
these parameters in stars for eanly spectral classes there is a relationship
[1]. Putting for definiteness the average mass of OB-stars , then for their luminosity we
will have .
Taking the Hubble constant equal to and substituting this value in fomula (14),
we obtain stars .
To answer the question of how much we can trust the estimate obtained, we will compare the value of
with the average spatial density of all the stars of the Metagalaxy. To this end, we tum to the explicit
form of the Hubble constant formula in formula (6):
(15)
Eanlier we obtained the value and made sure that this density is created by
long-evolving stars of small masses, which are weakly manifested in radiation, but are present in large
numbers in intergalactic space. Assuming that the average mass of these ,
we found that their density in the Metagalaxy is stars/pc3. In this case, the fraction
of OB-stars that create the light flux near the Earth can be estimated as .
This assessment can be verified in an independent way taking into account the cycle of matter in
Metagalaxy. Just as young OB-stars live for a limited time, and then, evolving and losing brightness,
become "old". Similany, the old stars, due to the gravitational instability of the space environment, are
grouped into galaxies, where they die and give birth to new generations of stars. In accordance with
these ideas [6], galaxies should be considered as centers of "rejuvenation" of the substance of the
Metagalaxy as a whole. In this regard, we are interested not only in the density of "young" OB-stars,
but also in estimating the average lifetime in the Metagalaxy of "old" stars and, as a result, the age of
the galaxies themselves.
We will discuss this issue in more detail. The transfomation in the Metagalaxy of "young" stars into
"old" stars and, conversely, can be written in a system of equations:
(16)
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127
where: and are constants, and are the lifetime of young and old stars, respectively.
In the Metagalaxy the first equation in (15) determines conversion of OB-stars into "old" stars over of
years, and the second from old stars into young OB-stars over an the average time of
Taking the average mass of old stars their life time , their lifetime can be
estimated as old years (Table 1).
Since we are interested in the steady-state mode of the stars transfomation in the Metagalaxy, in
fomulas (14) the denivatives and we will make equal to As a result, we find
and and, as a result:
(17)
Taking years, from fomula (16) for OB-stars, we get the estimate . This
value coincides with a similar estimate calculated from the flow of light measured by E. Regener [14].
Fomula (17) can also be used to estimate the average life time of stars in galaxies. In this case, it
must be taken into account that in galaxies not only bright OB-stars are bom, but also stars of lower
luminosity, which we initially classified as "old". At this substance contained in stars
goes to the OB-stars fomation with a mass of Therefore, the lifetime of the oldest stars
in galaxies and, accordingly, the galaxies themselves can be estimated as Assuming
, we have , whence we obtain an estimate of the age of galaxies
years.
7. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the author considers it necessary to focus on a number of consequences of this work of
a principled nature.
1.
and not the Doppler Effect. In the article, this conclusion is substantiated by two models. The
first model [2, 3] proves that the photons of light in space obey the action of four fundamental
model [5] that the cosmic microwave
background is the result of the interaction of photons with gravitational fields in outer space with
average temperature, which is detemined by the density of stars optical radiation.
2. Both models are built for the Metagalaxy as the only area of cosmic space available for studying
from the Earth. This area is very limited. Its radius is detemined by the redshift value ,
which comesponds to the Hubble distance , which the light travels for
billion years Displacements with large values have not related to the Hubble law, since
they are caused by the acceleration of radiating particles in the galaxies themselves . So
there is no base to extrapolate yet poonly understood cosmic processes in the Metagalaxy to
the entire Universe.
3. The constructed models completely exclude the participation of the Universe birth in the
explanation of the Hubble law and the cosmic microwave background. All existing theoretical
models of the Universe are it the LCDM model of the expanding Universe or the Universe
model with the continuous creation of matter according to G. Bondi and T. Gold [21] and F.
Hoyle [22] are now no longer needed. Both models quite adequately explain the fomation of
gas, dust and stars in galaxies, but not from a hypothetical extraneous source of baryonic
matter, as in the Bondi-Gold-Hoyle models, but as a result of the continuous fomation and
destruction of stars during their regeneration in the Metagalaxy.
4. The closest to the statement in this work is the conclusion of A.K.T. Assis [23] about the
etemally existing infinite Universe, "in which there is no expansion or creation of matter and
which is essentially homogeneous in all directions and at all distances". Everything is so, but
with one caveat that there is no such Universe in reality. A physical object called the "Universe",
to which the general theory of relativity is applicable, does not exist in nature. The "Universe"
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Cosmic Microwave Background in the Absence of the Big Bang
128
studied in cosmology is nothing more than an abstract construction created by the imagination
of mathematicians and theoretical physicists, existing only in their heads. This fictional
metaphysical "Universe" has nothing to do with reality. Abstracting from all other natural
sciences, today she lives her own theoretical life in cosmology.
5. Since the Doppler Effect is not related either to the explanation of the Hubble law or to the
cosmic microwave background, the theory of the birth of the Universe according to the Big Bang
hypothesis does not have the necessary empinical basis. As a consequence of this, cosmology
itself loses the subject of its research as "a science studying the structure, onigin and evolution
of the Universe as a whole, and claiming to be the main space science" (Wikipedia).
Needless to say, the cosmos is arranged differently and much more diverse than cosmologists think.
Cumently, all space sciences are on the eve of the scientific revolution caused by their transition to
the representations of the Galactocentric paradigm [6]. The author has no doubt that this
scientific revolution will not bypass cosmology either.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Author has declared that no competing interests exist.
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Biography of author(s)
Azariy Barenbaum
Oil and Gas Research Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
He
the Moscow Lomonosov State University. He is a Leading researcher at the Oil and Gas Research Institute of Russian
Academy of Sciences. He is a Member of the Ural Academy of Geological Sciences. Member of the International organization
intersection of astronomical and geological sciences. He is an Author of the concepts: Galactocentric paradigm in Space and
Earth sciences, as well as Biosphere concept of oil and gas formation. He has Two monographs: Barenbaum A.A. Galaxy,
Solar System, Earth: Subordinate Processes and Evolution (PH: GEOS, Moscow, 2002), Barenbaum A.A. Galactocentric
paradigm in geology and astronomy (PH: LIBROKOM, Moscow, 2010) and more than 400 publications.
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© Copyright (2021): Author(s). The licensee is the publisher (B P International).
