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A Comprehensive Examination of Alcohol-Related Motivations Among College Students: Unique Relations of Drinking Motives and Motivations for Drinking Responsibly

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Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology
Authors:
Dylan K Richards at University of New Mexico
Dylan K Richards
Matthew R Pearson at University of New Mexico
Matthew R Pearson
Craig A. Field
Craig A. Field
Craig A. Field
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Abstract

Drinking motives, or reasons people choose to drink, are well-established risk factors for alcohol use and related negative consequences. Recent research has shown utility in a self-determination theory (SDT) approach for describing motivation for engaging in behaviors that reduce the harms associated with alcohol use (i.e., drinking responsibly). In the present study, we examined the relationship between drinking motives and motivations for drinking responsibly as well as their unique and incremental associations with alcohol-related outcomes (protective behavioral strategies [PBS], consumption, and negative consequences) in two samples of college student drinkers: (a) a random sample (n = 507) recruited from a Hispanic-Serving Institution on the U.S. border with Mexico (Mage = 22.84, SD = 5.84; 67.3% female; 90.9% Hispanic) and (b) a convenience sample (n = 2,808) from Psychology Department research participation pools at 10 universities in 8 U.S. states (Mage = 20.59, SD = 4.18; 72.9% female; 58.2% non-Hispanic White). Autonomous motivations (experience of volition and choice) for drinking responsibly were negatively correlated with drinking motives, but these correlations were small-to-medium in magnitude suggesting nonredundancy between the constructs. Drinking motives were risk factors for alcohol-related outcomes, especially alcohol-related problems, and autonomous motivations for drinking responsibly were protective factors for alcohol-related outcomes, especially PBS. Both motivational constructs predicted alcohol-related outcomes beyond the other, but drinking motives generally accounted for more variance. These findings suggest that integrating motivation in relation to both drinking and drinking responsibly may lead to a better understanding of alcohol-related behaviors and the associated negative consequences among college students. Implications for college drinking interventions are discussed.
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A Comprehensive Examination of Alcohol-Related Motivations
Among College Students: Unique Relations of Drinking Motives
and Motivations for Drinking Responsibly
Dylan K. Richards
1
, Matthew R. Pearson
1
, and Craig A. Field
2
1
Center on Alcohol, Substance Use, And Addictions (CASAA), University of New Mexico
2
Latino Alcohol and Health Disparities Research and Training (LAHDR) Center, Department of Psychology,
University of Texas at El Paso
Drinking motives, or reasons people choose to drink, are well-established risk factors for alcohol use and
related negative consequences. Recent research has shown utility in a self-determination theory (SDT)
approach for describing motivation for engaging in behaviors that reduce the harms associated with alcohol
use (i.e., drinking responsibly). In the present study,we examined the relationship between drinking motives
and motivations for drinking responsibly as well as their unique and incremental associations with alcohol-
related outcomes (protective behavioral strategies [PBS], consumption, and negative consequences) in two
samples of college student drinkers: (a) a random sample (n=507) recruited from a Hispanic-Serving
Institution on the U.S. border with Mexico (M
age
=22.84, SD =5.84; 67.3% female; 90.9% Hispanic) and
(b) a convenience sample (n=2,808) from Psychology Department research participation pools at 10
universities in 8 U.S. states (M
age
=20.59, SD =4.18; 72.9% female; 58.2% non-Hispanic White).
Autonomous motivations (experience of volition and choice) for drinking responsibly were negatively
correlated with drinking motives, but these correlations were small-to-medium in magnitude suggesting
nonredundancy between the constructs. Drinking motives were risk factors for alcohol-related outcomes,
especially alcohol-related problems, and autonomous motivations for drinking responsibly were protective
factors for alcohol-related outcomes, especially PBS. Both motivational constructs predicted alcohol-related
outcomes beyond the other, but drinking motives generally accounted for more variance. These findings
suggest that integrating motivation in relation to both drinking and drinking responsibly may lead to a better
understanding of alcohol-related behaviors and the associated negative consequences among college
students. Implications for college drinking interventions are discussed.
Public Health Significance
The present study found initial support for the utility of both motivation for drinking and drinking
responsibly in explaining alcohol use, its associated negative consequences, and behaviors that protect
against these negative consequences among college students. These findings may inform interventions for
college students that aim to address the public health burdenof alcohol useamong thisat-risk population.
Keywords: alcohol, drinking motives, motivation, harm reduction, college students
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This article was published Online First November 4, 2021.
Dylan K. Richards https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6791-426X
Matthew R. Pearson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3772-0186
This project was completed by the Addictions Research Team (ART),
which includes the following investigators: Matthew R. Pearson, University
of New Mexico (Coordinating PI); Adrian J. Bravo, William & Mary (site
PI); Bradley T. Conner, Colorado State University–Fort Collins (site PI);
Carrie Cuttler, Washington State University (site PI); Craig A. Field,
University of Texas at El Paso (site PI); Vivian Gonzalez, University of
Alaska–Anchorage (site PI); James M. Henson, Old Dominion University
(site PI); Jon M. Houck, Mind Research Network; Kevin M. King,
University of Washington (site PI); Benjamin O. Ladd, Washington State
University (site PI); Kevin S. Montes, California State University–
Dominguez Hills (site PI); Mark A. Prince, Colorado State University–
Fort Collins (site PI); Maria M. Wong, Idaho State University (site PI).
The ideas and data appearing in this manuscript were previously dissemi-
nated as a poster presentation at the 44th Annual Research Society on
Alcoholism Scientific Meeting. These studies were not preregistered. Data
and study materials are available upon request from the first author. We have
no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Dylan K. Richards is supported by an individual training grant (F32-
AA028712) from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
(NIAAA). Matthew R. Pearson is supported by a career development grant
(K01-AA023233) from the NIAAA. NIAAA had no role in the study design,
collection, analysis or interpretation of the data, writing the manuscript, or
the decision to submit the article for publication.
Dylan K. Richards played lead role in conceptualization, formal analysis,
writing of original draft, and writing of review and editing. Matthew R.
Pearson played supporting role in conceptualization and equal role in data
curation, project administration, and writing of review and editing. Craig A.
Field played equal role in project administration and writing of review and
editing. Addictions ResearchTeam played equal role in project administration.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dylan K.
Richards, Center on Alcohol, Substance Use, And Addictions (CASAA),
University of New Mexico, 2650 Yale SE MSC11-6280, Albuquerque,
NM 87106, United States. Email: dkrichards@unm.edu
Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology
© 2021 American Psychological Association 2022, Vol. 30, No. 6, 809–819
ISSN: 1064-1297 https://doi.org/10.1037/pha0000526
809
... Alcohol consumption in university settings has become a public health problem that represents a burden in daily life for many university students [1]. Between 49% of university students between 18 and 22 years old consume alcohol, 28.9% do so excessively and are at risk (binge drinking), 40% of them abuse it, and 1 in 12 students meet dependence criteria for alcohol [2]. ...
... Different motivations have been identified for alcohol consumption, including increased confidence in social relationships, the search for pleasurable sensations, the sense of belonging in peer groups, the avoidance of rejection, and the relief of negative emotions and personal situations [3,[16][17][18][19]. Since motivations precede behavior, assessing the motivations for alcohol consumption is necessary to understand how different drinking motives lead to either reduced alcohol use (i.e., drinking responsibly) or heavy drinking and their subsequent alcohol-related problems [1,20]. These different drinking motives could also be related to different coping styles when facing depression and anxiety symptoms [21], which is essential when implementing coping-based alcohol use interventions. ...
... The use of PBS mediates the effect of certain motivations on alcohol use (social and enhancement motivations) but not the effects on coping motivations (i.e., seeking the amelioration of one's negative mood). Since there are unique relations between drinking motives and the motivation for drinking responsibly (for instance, by using PBS), assessing motivation is important for a better understanding of alcohol-related behaviors and more effective college drinking interventions [1]. Moreover, the mediating role of drinking motives and PBS is particularly relevant in those students with more depressive symptoms, who could benefit from clinical interventions tailored to address negative reinforcement motives, increase PBS use, and minimize harm [61]. ...
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... As predicted, a curvilinear relation was found between substance use and self-esteem. Although unexpected, the differential findings for individuals with low self-esteem may reflect differences in motivation for engagement with substance use (Richards et al., 2021). For example, it is likely that those with low self-esteem are less likely to find themselves in social settings that involve engagement in substance use (e.g., Greek Life, athletic teams; Galante & Ward, 2017), which may limit exposure and access to engagement in substance use. ...
... For example, it is likely that those with low self-esteem are less likely to find themselves in social settings that involve engagement in substance use (e.g., Greek Life, athletic teams; Galante & Ward, 2017), which may limit exposure and access to engagement in substance use. On the other hand, those with lower selfesteem engaging in more substance use is consistent with previous literature (Pedersen et al., 2013) and may represent substance use as a coping mechanism or as a social strategy for fitting in with peers (Richards et al., 2021). This finding suggests that it may be possible for substance use to have a curvilinear relation with other adaptive psychological functions during this period. ...
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... Although drinking motivations generally explained more variance, equally motivational components predicted consuming-related consequences more strongly than the other. These findings suggest that integrating incentives into discussions about drinking and responsible drinking could enhance our understanding of college students' alcohol-related behaviors and their associated detrimental effects (Richards, Pearson, & Field, 2022). It was hypothesized that "controlled motivation and Amotivation (dimensions of self-determination) would be positively associated with alcoholconsuming behaviour of youth". ...
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Article
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... We believe that more appropriate modeling of introjected regulation using ESEM addresses this psychometric limitation. In our prior studies that tested the relative associations of the original TSRQ-Alcohol subscales with alcohol-related outcomes (Richards et al., 2022;Richards, Pearson, & Field, 2021), the associations for amotivation were not statistically significant. Improving the content coverage of amotivation (formerly comprised of only two items) beyond nonintentional with more severe representations of this construct, including nonvaluing, incompetence, and lack of control, improved its concurrent validity as it was significantly associated with each alcohol outcome. ...
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Article
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Self-determination theory (SDT) proposes that people are more likely to engage in behaviors that reduce the harms associated with alcohol use if they do so for more self-determined reasons. There is growing support for this proposal, but the Treatment Self-Regulation Questionnaire (TSRQ), which assesses the self-determination continuum of motivation for engaging in alcohol-related harm reduction behaviors, lacks content coverage. We generated additional items to improve the content coverage of the TSRQ and evaluated its psychometric properties. We also compared two randomly assigned instruction sets that referenced “responsible drinking” or “protective behavioral strategies” (PBS). Participants (n = 2,236) were college students from psychology departments at 10 universities in eight U.S. states who reported past-month alcohol use and completed the revised TSRQ; the online survey was completed for partial course credit. Exploratory factor analysis supported a three-factor structure representing autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and amotivation for the PBS version. This factor structure was confirmed using exploratory structural equation modeling for both the PBS and responsible drinking versions. Scalar invariance was achieved across instruction sets. Latent mean differences showed that those who received the PBS version had lower autonomous and controlled motivation scores, but higher amotivation scores. Associations of the three TSRQ factors with alcohol-related outcomes were consistent with SDT, and the magnitude of these associations did not differ across instruction sets. More accurate assessment of the self-determination continuum of motivation for alcohol-related harm reduction behaviors will improve research on this topic which has promising implications for alcohol interventions.
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... In the past 30 days, students reported drinking an average of 5.80 days (SD = 5.73), typically consuming 5.05 drinks per occasion (SD = 6.36), and an average of 2.12 (SD = 3.60) binge drinking episodes. Additional details regarding the study methodology and participant characteristics are reported in prior publications (Richards et al., 2022(Richards et al., , 2023. ...
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... University students' excessive consumption of alcohol (drinking more than 14 units of alcohol per week), often in binges ("drinking heavily over a short space of time" or "drinking to get drunk"; National Health Service), is a major problem [1][2][3][4][5]. When students drink in a hazardous or harmful manner, this can lead to a variety of short-term and longterm academic, economic, medical, psychological, and social consequences [4,6]. ...
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Alcohol protective behavioral strategies (PBS) are cognitive–behavioral strategies used before, during, and/or after drinking to reduce alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a potentially useful framework to understand motivations for responsible drinking, which is operationalized in the present study as PBS use. In the present study, we examined the relation of motivations for responsible drinking, as assessed by the Treatment Self-Regulation Questionnaire (TSRQ), with other SDT constructs (psychological need satisfaction and dispositional autonomy) and PBS use. A sample of 507 college students who reported consuming alcohol at least once in the past 3 months were recruited from a random sample of students enrolled at a Hispanic serving institution to complete an online survey. Consistent with SDT and previous studies of the TSRQ, we found support for a 4-factor structure of the TSRQ. The TSRQ demonstrated measurement invariance across several sociodemographic subgroups within the sample (e.g., biological sex, age, year in school), supporting the use of the TSRQ across these subgroups. Further, consistent with SDT-based hypotheses, greater psychological need satisfaction and dispositional autonomy were related to more self-determined motivations for responsible drinking. Also consistent with SDT, more self-determined motivations for responsible drinking were related to more frequent PBS use. The present findings further support the utility of the TSRQ for assessing motivations for responsible drinking and support SDT as a framework for understanding responsible drinking. Future directions for research applying SDT to understand and promote responsible drinking among college students are discussed.
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A Meta-Analysis of Self-Determination Theory-Informed Intervention Studies in the Health Domain: Effects on Motivation, Health Behavior, Physical, and Psychological Health
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Full-text available
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There are no literature reviews that have examined the impact of health-domain interventions, informed by self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2017), on SDT constructs and health indices. Our aim was to meta-analyze such interventions in the health promotion and disease management literatures. Studies were eligible if they used an experimental design, tested an intervention that was based on SDT, measured at least one SDT-based motivational construct, and at least one indicator of health behavior, physical health, or psychological health. Seventy-three studies met these criteria and provided sufficient data for the purposes of the review. A random-effects meta-analytic model showed that SDT-based interventions produced small-to-medium changes in most SDT constructs at the end of the intervention period, and in health behaviors at the end of the intervention period and at the follow-up. Small positive changes in physical and psychological health outcomes were also observed at the end of the interventions. Increases in need support and autonomous motivation (but not controlled motivation or amotivation) were associated with positive changes in health behavior. In conclusion, SDT-informed interventions positively affect indices of health; these effects are modest, heterogeneous, and partly due to increases in self-determined motivation and support from social agents.
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Understanding alcohol harm reduction behaviors from the perspective of self-determination theory: A research agenda
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The evidence for the efficacy of harm reduction approaches to harmful alcohol use has accumulated over the past 30 years. Self-determination theory (SDT) offers a useful framework for understanding why people engage in alcohol harm reduction behaviors, as well as for delineating active ingredients of harm reduction interventions and individual characteristics that influence response to intervention. In the current paper, we sought to advance a research agenda for applying SDT to alcohol harm reduction behaviors. We provide specific examples of the utility of SDT in advancing research on alcohol harm reduction behaviors and provide recommendations for future studies to address issues related to measurement, generalizability, temporal directionality, and causal relationships in examining the constructs of SDT and alcohol harm reduction behaviors. We also suggest that future research apply SDT to advance the understanding of how, why, and for whom harm reduction interventions are most effective. Finally, we provide recommendations for how SDT could potentially be applied to develop novel alcohol interventions.
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Profiles of Motivations for Responsible Drinking among College Students: A Self-Determination Theory Perspective
Article
  • Jul 2020
  • ADDICT BEHAV
The present study sought to identify motivational profiles for responsible drinking from a self-determination theory (SDT) perspective among college students. We used data from 507 students who reported drinking alcohol at least once in the past 3 months that were recruited from a random sample of undergraduate students at a Southwestern university. Participants completed an online survey that included measures assessing amotivation, external regulation, introjected regulation, and autonomous motivation for responsible drinking as well as other SDT constructs, alcohol protective behavioral strategies (PBS), and alcohol use/problems. A latent profile analysis suggested that a 3-class solution was optimal: a “High Quality” class (i.e., relatively high on introjected regulation and autonomous motivation but relatively low on all other types of motivation), a “High Quantity” class (i.e., relatively high on all types of motivation), and a “Low Quantity” class (i.e., relatively low on all types of motivation). The High Quality class reported the highest level of psychological need satisfaction and dispositional autonomy, followed by the High Quantity class, with the Low Quantity class reporting the lowest levels. The High Quality class reported more frequent use of serious harm reduction PBS than the High Quantity class. Generally, both the High Quality and High Quantity classes reported more frequent use of all types of PBS and less alcohol use/problems than the Low Quantity class. These results provide initial support for different profiles of motivations based on SDT for responsible drinking. Potential implications for alcohol interventions among college students are discussed.
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Perceived discrimination and alcohol-related problems among Hispanic college students: The protective role of serious harm reduction behaviors
Article
  • Apr 2020
The present study investigated the use of protective behavioral strategies (PBS) as moderators of the association between perceived discrimination and alcohol-related problems among Hispanic college students. Participants who were between 18 and 24 years of age (n = 379) completed self-report measures. The results showed that greater perceived discrimination was associated with less frequent PBS use, more problematic alcohol use, and more alcohol-related problems, while greater use of PBS types was associated with fewer alcohol-related problems. Furthermore, serious harm-reduction behaviors moderated the association between perceived discrimination and alcohol-related problems. The findings suggest that serious harm-reduction behaviors may protect against the negative effects of perceived discrimination on alcohol-related problems among Hispanic college students.
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The Psychometric Properties of a Version of the Treatment Self-Regulation Questionnaire for Assessing Motivations for Responsible Drinking
Article
  • Dec 2019
Objective: The aim of the present studies was to provide a psychometric evaluation of a version of the Treatment Self-Regulation Questionnaire (TSRQ) for assessing motivations derived from self-determination theory for responsible drinking among college students. Methods: A convenience sample of 308 college student drinkers (71.7% female) were recruited for Study 1 and a random sample of 192 college student drinkers (58.9% female) were recruited for Study 2. Participants completed the TSRQ and other self-report measures in both studies. Results: In Study 1, confirmatory factor analyses supported a revised four-factor structure of the TSRQ. In Study 2, correlation analyses generally provided support for the concurrent validity of the TSRQ subscales. Conclusion: The present studies provide some initial support for the TSRQ for assessing motivations for responsible drinking. Directions for future research and implications of a measure for assessing motivations for responsible drinking among college students are discussed.
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A meta-analysis of techniques to promote motivation for health behaviour change from a self-determination theory perspective
Article
  • Oct 2018
A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted of the techniques used to promote psychological need satisfaction and motivation within health interventions based on self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Eight databases were searched from 1970-2017. Studies including a control group and reporting pre- and post-intervention ratings of SDT-related psychosocial mediators (namely perceived autonomy support, need satisfaction and motivation) with children or adults were included. Risk of bias was assessed using items from the Cochrane risk of bias tool. 2496 articles were identified of which 74 met inclusion criteria; 80% were RCTs or cluster RCTs. Techniques to promote need supportive environments were coded according to two established taxonomies (BCTv1 and MIT), and 21 SDT-specific techniques, and grouped into 18 SDT based strategies. Weighted mean effect sizes were computed using a random effects model; perceived autonomy support g = 0.84, autonomy g = 0.81, competence g = 0.63, relatedness g = 0.28, and motivation g = 0.41. One-to-one interventions resulted in greater competence satisfaction than group-based (g = 0.96 vs. 0.28), and competence satisfaction was greater for adults (g = 0.95) than children (g = 0.11). Meta-regression analysis showed that individual strategies had limited independent impact on outcomes, endorsing the suggestion that a need supportive environment requires the combination of multiple co-acting techniques.
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Profiles of Recovery from Alcohol Use Disorder at Three Years Following Treatment: Can the Definition of Recovery be Extended to Include High Functioning Heavy Drinkers?
Article
  • Jul 2018
Background and Aims Recovery from alcohol use disorder (AUD) is often narrowly defined by abstinence from alcohol and improvements in functioning (e.g., mental health, social functioning, employment). This study used latent profile analysis to examine variability in recovery outcomes, defined by alcohol use, alcohol‐related problems, and psychosocial functioning at three years following treatment. Secondary analysis investigated pre‐treatment, post‐treatment, and one‐ and three‐year post‐treatment covariate predictors of the latent profiles. Design Secondary analysis of data from a randomized clinical trial. Setting USA Participants We used data from the outpatient arm of Project MATCH (n=805; 29.7% female, 22.2% non‐White). Measurements Recovery was defined by latent profile analyses including measures of psychosocial functioning and life satisfaction (Psychosocial Functioning Inventory), unemployment and mental health (Addiction Severity Index), alcohol and other drug use (Form 90), and alcohol‐related consequences (Drinker Inventory of Consequences) three years following treatment. Mixture modeling was used to examine correlates of profiles. Findings We identified four profiles at three years following treatment: 1) poor functioning frequent heavy drinkers, 2) poor functioning infrequent heavy drinkers, 3) high functioning occasional heavy drinkers, and 4) high functioning infrequent non‐heavy drinkers. There were relatively few differences on indicators of functioning and treatment‐related variables between the high functioning infrequent non‐heavy drinkers and the high functioning occasional heavy drinkers, other than high functioning occasional heavy drinkers having lower alcohol dependence severity (OR=0.94, 95% CI: 0.90, 0.98), fewer post‐treatment coping skills (OR=0.54, 95% CI: 0.27, 0.81), and lower three‐year post‐treatment abstinence self‐efficacy (OR=0.37, 95% CI: 0.27, 0.47), and AA involvement (OR=0.87, 95% CI: 0.74, 0.99). The two high functioning profiles showed the greatest improvements in functioning from baseline through the 3‐year follow‐up, whereas the low functioning profiles showed the least amount of improvement. High functioning occasional heavy drinkers had higher purpose in life than the poor functioning profiles. Conclusions Some individuals who engage in heavy drinking following treatment for alcohol use disorder may function as well as those who are mostly abstinent with respect to psychosocial functioning, employment, life satisfaction, and mental health.
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A quantification of the alcohol use-consequences association in college student and clinical populations: A large, multi-sample study: Alcohol Use And Consequences
Article
  • Jan 2018
Background: The present study sought to quantify the relationship between alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences in both college student and clinical samples. Methods: We gathered 33 college student datasets comprising of 15,618 participants and nine clinical sample datasets comprising of 4,527 participants to determine the effect size of the relationship between alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences. We used random-effects meta-analytic techniques, separately in college and clinical samples, to account for a distribution of true effects and to assess for heterogeneity in effect sizes. Results: Results demonstrated that the clear majority of the variability in alcohol-related consequences is not explained by alcohol use (ie, >77% in college samples; >86% in clinical samples), and that there was significant heterogeneity in all effect sizes. Conclusions and scientific significance: Experiencing alcohol-related consequences results from factors that extend beyond frequency and quantity of alcohol consumed suggesting a need to examine other predictors of alcohol-related consequences beyond alcohol use. (Am J Addict 2018;XX:1-8).
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