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Sample sizes for saturation in qualitative research: A systematic review of empirical tests
Abstract
Objective
To review empirical studies that assess saturation in qualitative research in order to identify sample sizes for saturation, strategies used to assess saturation, and guidance we can draw from these studies.
Methods
We conducted a systematic review of four databases to identify studies empirically assessing sample sizes for saturation in qualitative research, supplemented by searching citing articles and reference lists.
Results
We identified 23 articles that used empirical data (n = 17) or statistical modeling (n = 6) to assess saturation. Studies using empirical data reached saturation within a narrow range of interviews (9–17) or focus group discussions (4–8), particularly those with relatively homogenous study populations and narrowly defined objectives. Most studies had a relatively homogenous study population and assessed code saturation; the few outliers (e.g., multi-country research, meta-themes, “code meaning” saturation) needed larger samples for saturation.
Conclusions
Despite varied research topics and approaches to assessing saturation, studies converged on a relatively consistent sample size for saturation for commonly used qualitative research methods. However, these findings apply to certain types of studies. These results provide strong empirical guidance on effective sample sizes for qualitative research, which can be used in conjunction with the characteristics of individual studies to estimate an appropriate sample size prior to data collection. This synthesis also provides an important resource for researchers, academic journals, journal reviewers, ethical review boards, and funding agencies to facilitate greater transparency in justifying and reporting sample sizes in qualitative research. Future empirical research is needed to explore how various parameters affect sample sizes for saturation.
... In qualitative studies, data analysis begins during data collection, allowing researchers to determine when no new data emerge from the interviews (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). This indicates a phenomenon known as code saturation, meaning that the researchers have 'heard it all' and no new information seemed to have emerged from the interviews (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022;Tight, 2024). ...
... In qualitative studies, data analysis begins during data collection, allowing researchers to determine when no new data emerge from the interviews (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). This indicates a phenomenon known as code saturation, meaning that the researchers have 'heard it all' and no new information seemed to have emerged from the interviews (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022;Tight, 2024). The primary researcher verbatim transcribed the audio-recorded interviews before commencing with data analysis. ...
... The primary researcher verbatim transcribed the audio-recorded interviews before commencing with data analysis. Data were analysed using the inductive content analysis (ICA) method through the inductive coding technique to allow the emergence of new information (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022;Kyngäs, 2019;Tight, 2024 (Braun & Clark, 2006;Dawadi, 2020;Kyngäs, 2019). To interpret the collected data effectively, the study employed the interpretive paradigm, which focused on creating meaning based on people's subjective experiences of the external environment (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;Kumatongo & Muzata, 2021). ...
Orientation: Performance management systems (PMS) are implemented through performance appraisals (PA), and during the PAs, fairness and justice should prevail to enhance employees’ positive experiences and satisfaction with the system.Research purpose: The study aimed to explore and understand the South African Air Force (SAAF) employees’ experiences with the PAs and propose solutions thereof.Motivation for the study: Despite its critical role in national defence, the South African Air Force is experiencing employee engagement and commitment challenges. Preliminary investigations suggest that these issues arise from shortcomings in the PA process and the distribution of rewards.Research approach/design and method: The study adopted a qualitative phenomenological design and employed semi-structured interviews for data collection. Participants were selected through purposive sampling, and data collection ended after the 11th participant due to saturation reached by the 10th. Data analysis employed content analysis and inductive coding techniques.Main findings: The results revealed PAs demotivating and biased. Proposed solutions included frequent PAs, eliminating the quota system, training line managers and linking performance standards with rewards and career advancement.Practical/managerial implications: The findings suggest a revision of the PMS policy at the SAAF, along with a reevaluation of Affirmative Action and career progression policies. It is essential for line managers to grasp the strategic importance of PMS and PAs within the organisation.Contribution/value-add: This study provides valuable insights to the SAAF management regarding employees’ experiences with the overall PMS, particularly the PA sessions. It also recommends solutions for implementing the PMS effectively at the SAAF.
... The group of experts is in itself homogeneous. Hennink and Kaiser (2022) found saturation in a homogeneous sample of 9-17 interviews [33]. We will adjust the sample size according to information power and potential for saturation in the ongoing analysis. ...
... Parent interviews: semi-structured interviews according to Kruse [32] will be conducted with around 20 parents. Hennink and Kaiser (2022) found saturation in a homogeneous sample of 9-17 interviews [33]. With the sample of parents, the sample is heterogeneous. ...
Background
Screen media use in early childhood is associated with increased risk for health and developmental problems. A preventive intervention during a regular examination in pediatric practices aims to prevent dysregulated screen time by children under three years of age. This protocol describes a process evaluation with the aim of understanding how to implement most effectively a complex intervention to prevent dysregulated screen time in childhood. For this purpose, the process evaluation combines two frameworks to identify both the implementation process and the relevant contextual factors.
Methods
The focus of this process evaluation is a nation-wide, cluster-randomized controlled trial with a complex intervention. Two-thirds of all pediatric practices registered with Professional Association of Pediatricians in Germany received the intervention materials with the option to participate in May 2022, while one-third maintain as usual. Since than an app has been collecting children’s screen time and developmental diagnostic parameters using a longitudinal parent survey. The process evaluation will examine the implementation process following the RE-AIM scheme (Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, and Maintenance) as well as the relevant contextual factors influencing the effectiveness of the implementation process following the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research. Data collection will include quantitative and qualitative methods. Measurement points are at the start of the intervention, several times during the ongoing intervention and after two years. The two groups of people will be interviewed: Pediatricians who use the intervention in their practice and parents who have received the intervention.
Discussion
This protocol illustrates the process evaluation of a complex, app-based intervention in pediatric practices. It combines the two frameworks RE-AIM and CFIR and thus covers all aspects of the evaluation of the implementation process of a complex intervention.
Trial register number
DRKS00032258; https://drks.de/search/en/trial/DRKS00032258.
... The moderator or the interviewer explained the idea of group-based emptying showing a short video to the participants during the sessions (Tomoi, 2024). Data collection ended when data saturation occurred, meaning that additional data collection did not generate new findings nor further themes (Hennink and Kaiser, 2022). ...
... The final codes were grouped into "themes". Data saturation was deemed to have reached at the time that no more codes were identified (Hennink and Kaiser, 2022). ...
Onsite sanitation, such as pit latrines, is essential to achieving universal access to safe sanitation, as outlined in Sustainable Development Goal target 6.2. However, manual emptying for pit latrines in low-income areas is often unhygienic, posing health and environmental risks. Enhancing the safety of these services increases costs, yet affordability for customers is essential. Thus, reducing service costs is a key priority. Group-based approach, where emptiers visit multiple toilets consecutively, has potential to improve both service efficiency and affordability. However, few studies have investigated its applicability to manual emptying. This paper aims to identify barriers and enablers for group-based manual emptying services in low-income neighbourhoods of Nairobi. We conducted 12 focus group discussions with landlords, tenants, and manual emptiers in the Kor-ogocho informal settlement in Nairobi and interviewed 20 key informants from relevant sectors in Kenya. We identified five categories of barriers and enablers that affected general and group-based manual emptying: 1) funding, 2) expertise and equipment, 3) social and commercial habits, 4) physical conditions, and 5) regulatory systems. Of these, a norm that pits are not emptied until they get full, operating time constraints, fair and transparent pricing, and an organiser who can arrange group-based emptying from Category 3, and transport capacity from Category 4 specifically affected group-based manual emptying. Given that the barriers have a cascade structure, addressing some primary barriers such as capacity building and recognising manual emptiers' role in the sanitation policies could be effective ways to ensure safe and affordable emptying services.
... The data gathering quickly reached saturation, as the research design involved a clear focus and a relatively homogeneous group of building material stakeholders in the Vietnamese building sector. According to the meta study of Hennink & Kaiser [71], saturation is reached for most qualitative studies with 9-17 interviewees. In our case, this was also evident in rapidly declining code frequency counts, i.e. the introduction of new codes per interview transcript (inductive thematic saturation), and an increasingly coherent understanding of the different regional preconditions for the different material types [71,72]. ...
... According to the meta study of Hennink & Kaiser [71], saturation is reached for most qualitative studies with 9-17 interviewees. In our case, this was also evident in rapidly declining code frequency counts, i.e. the introduction of new codes per interview transcript (inductive thematic saturation), and an increasingly coherent understanding of the different regional preconditions for the different material types [71,72]. ...
High urbanization dynamics and major construction activities in its cities have highlighted the need for more sustainable building practices in the Global South. While local innovation processes take place at the grassroots level, they often struggle to break through. The study follows the main research question of how regional preconditions characterize the innovation, diffusion and transition dynamics of different "green" building material technologies in different spatial settings of Vietnam. We seek to understand the relations between local socio-technical configurations and the diversity of innovations and potential transition pathways. This is particularly relevant for southern contexts where scholars have noted a greater regime heterogeneity. Instead of black boxing "green innovations" and "the Global South", we study place-and technology-specific effects of regional configurations as preconditions for the development and diffusion of circular, bio-based and more resource-efficient building material innovations in three regions of Vietnam (Hanoi, Da Nang and Ho Chi Minh City). To understand the region-and technology-specific characteristics, we build a framework that differentiates three main dimensions of regional preconditions, institutional factors, the technical specialisation and material flows, and thirdly, market networks and demand. The results show that some preconditions vary for different material innovations and regions while others take effect across technologies, regions or scales. This creates highly differentiated opportunity-spaces for different innovations that can be addressed with targeted and diversified transition strategies that address (trans) regional preconditions on different scales and for different emergent technologies and regions.
... Ten participants were interviewed, providing a satisfactory sample size for data saturation (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). Table 1 provides detailed sociodemographic data, revealing that most participants were men in their 60s and currently sedentary. ...
... Particularly the younger sample was slightly unsatisfactory in size, consisting of only six participants. However, considering we used both the younger and older sample to see different perspectives on the same topics, the overall sample of 16 participants can be considered an adequate sample size for data saturation (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). Another limitation regarding the sample, was the composition of the older one, consisting 70% of men. ...
... Based on "theoretical saturation", this study employs the code frequency counts method to determine the sample size for qualitative research. This method involves analyzing each interviewee's transcript individually and counting the frequency of new codes until no new codes emerge or the interview information becomes repetitive, indicating that the sample size has reached theoretical saturation (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). The final sample size for this interview consisted of 15 college students. ...
Bedtime procrastination represents a critical threat to sleep health, with a rising prevalence. It is essential to identify the factors that influence bedtime procrastination in order to address this issue effectively. Previous research has identified security and Internet usage as factors that influence sleep quality. However, there is a lack of research exploring the influence of them on bedtime procrastination. Therefore, this mixed-methods sequential explanatory study intends to explore the relationship between college students’ security and bedtime procrastination, considering the potential mediation of nighttime Internet usage. In the quantitative phase, Security Questionnaire, Nighttime Internet Usage Survey, and Bedtime Procrastination Scale were administered to a sample of 769 Chinese college students recruited from an online survey platform, data was analyzed using a mediation model. Findings suggest that security negatively affects bedtime procrastination(95%CI=[-0.17,-0.07],p < 0.001), and nighttime Internet usage mediate this relationship (95%CI=[-0.06.-0.02], p < 0.001). During the qualitative phase, in-depth interviews with 15 participants who engage in surfing the internet before bedtime and has low level of security were conducted. These interviews highlighted that a lack of security prompted students to extend their nighttime Internet usage out of escapism and compensation motives, subsequently leading to bedtime procrastination. On the one hand, college students escape from experiencing negative mood and rumination by scrolling their phone. On the other hand, they compensate social needs by pre-sleep social media usage and online chatting.This study underscores a novel perspective on understanding bedtime procrastination and offers theoretical insights for intervention strategies.
... A semi-structured interview guide (informed by the logic models) was used to guide discussions (Appendix 6). Sample size was guided by information power of the key informants to ensure richness and data sufficiency for refining the logic models [25,26]. ...
Background
Hospital at home (HaH), also referred to as virtual wards in the UK, enable patients to get hospital-level care at home with the use of digital technology, multidisciplinary teams, and remote monitoring. Despite recent evidence and rapid implementation, many questions around safe implementation and wider implications remain unanswered. Developing a logic model and dark logic model aimed to illustrate the recent evidence base with input from key informants and conceptualise the research focus for further work.
Methods
Triangulation of three workstreams for comprehensiveness and credibility, involved (1) document analysis using publicly available documents, and non-published documents (including grey literature) provided by key stakeholders or virtual ward forums, (2) key informant interviews with a variety of expertise involved in the planning, implementation, or delivery of HaH, and (3) a focus group, to reach consensus on the final refined logic models. These were analysed using content analysis using an inductive and deductive approach to refine the logic models after each workstream.
Results
A draft logic model was developed from document analysis describing key components of the logic model and dark logic models. Interviews with 12 participants helped refine the logic models with a subsequent focus group for consensus. The key themes for sustainability were securing clinical ‘buy-in’, effective communication, potential workforce re-modelling and optimising operational capabilities. Concerns and challenges were raised such as continuous funding, inadequate shared systems and duplication.
Conclusion
These logic models provide a clear visual representation of intended (logic) and unintended outcomes (dark logic) of HaH (virtual wards) in England, and factors contributing to them. They can support prioritising future research or program planning and evaluation. Future research should explore strategies to deliver this personalised holistic care safely and effectively whilst maximising potential of resources like digital technology and understanding it’s impact on patients and equity.
... Interviews were conducted online with UK adults recruited via Prolific, targeting a gender balance and three to four participants in each of six age categories ranging from under 30 to over 70. Data saturation was expected at around 20 interviews [22]. Consent was obtained through an online survey before interviews. ...
Purpose
Online elicitation of Personal Utility Functions (OPUF) is an innovative approach to valuing health states. OPUF uses a combination of ranking, swing-weighting, levels-rating and anchoring dead tasks. Little is known about how participants interpret and engage with OPUF tasks. This study aimed to address this gap.
Method
Cognitive debrief interviews, which included ‘think-aloud’ and probing questions, were undertaken in the UK to understand how members of the public engage with OPUF when used to value the EQ-HWB-S (EQ Health and Wellbeing Short version). Coding drew upon a Framework approach, with final codes including an assessment of how participants engaged with each of the five OPUF tasks based on whether (1) they completed as expected, (2) minor concerns were identified or (3) major concerns were identified. The presence of major concerns was judged to undermine the validity of responses.
Results
All 27 interviews were identified to have at least minor concern and 18 (67%) were identified as having major concerns. Major concerns were identified in four of the tasks: ranking (in 19% of interviews), swing-weighting (30%), levels-rating (56%), anchoring dead task (48%). Older participants were more likely to have major errors.
Conclusion
Think-aloud and probing interviews with 27 participants completing the OPUF identified multiple concerns, to the extent that their data is unlikely to be a valid reflection of their preferences. The extent of concerns identified here suggests the need for interviewer led data collection within OPUF to ensure data quality.
... The study was conducted in accordance with guidelines for data saturation in qualitative studies 57 . Data from seven individual VRAPT treatments, reported in therapists' and patients' treatment workbooks (N = 7 + 6), at a maximum-security forensic psychiatric clinic were analyzed within this study, portraying how virtual realityassisted aggression treatment was conducted in a clinical forensic psychiatric setting. ...
Previous findings on results of treatment of aggression in violent offenders show inconsistent results, and implementations of such treatments have demonstrated varying success with sometimes marginal gains in forensic settings. New methods, incorporating virtual reality as a tool for experiential learning, have been put forward yet require deepened investigations concerning both treatment content and effects. The principal objective of this study is to examine the treatment content of the revised VRAPT intervention. Specifically, the study focuses on understanding how the content of the VRAPT intervention is conceptualized from the perspectives of both patients and therapists. Inductive manifest content analysis was applied on content of treatment workbooks (N = 6 + 7), provided by both patients and therapists as part of seven concluded VRAPT treatments at a maximum-security forensic psychiatric clinic in Sweden. Three manifest content categories were identified, relating to treatment content: Skills-training, Tailoring of the intervention, and Self-awareness. While generally quite similar, some potentially important differences between patients’ and therapists’ perspectives on the VRAPT intervention were apparent. The findings suggest the necessity of further research into optimizing VR-assisted treatments in forensic psychiatry.
... Previous studies exploring data saturation and sample sizes in qualitative research found 7-17 interviews to be an acceptable range, especially if the interview was context-based and conducted in a small group (Hennink et al. 2017). It is mentioned that data obtained through predetermined thematic constructs reach saturation within a narrow range of interviews (9-17)-the point at which no additional insights or issues are identified (Hennink and Kaiser 2021;Vasileiou et al. 2018). ...
The strengths and weaknesses of existing local planning documents or Plans, developed by various governmental agencies within a single city, in addressing flood hazards and their uneven impacts remain largely underexplored in the United States. This study evaluated how local governments addressed flood hazards in their Plans and environmental equity (EE) to ensure risk reduction for socially vulnerable populations. An evaluation protocol was developed, incorporating several themes and indicators within three key components: fact base, mitigation goals and objectives, and mitigation policies. This protocol was further expanded with equity keywords to thoroughly investigate the topic across five distinct plans of the City of Tampa, Florida. Ten key informant interviews were also conducted to supplement quantitative data and findings. Findings indicated much room for improving flood mitigation in local Plans. More specifically, the "Vulnerability assessment" theme within the fact base component and "Incentive-based tool/taxing tool" and "Awareness building" themes within the mitigation policies component could be improved. Findings also suggested less prioritization of equity issues in existing land use and hazard (flood) mitigation planning provisions. Interviews further uncovered key barriers to advancing both flood mitigation and equity concerns, while also highlighting promising practices that could strengthen future local planning. By identifying these gaps and opportunities, the study offers actionable insights to enhance the integration of equity into hazard mitigation strategies and support the development of more inclusive and effective local plans.
... Research assistants identified potential participants based on their meaningful engagement in prior research activities and their willingness and comfort discussing sensitive topics during prior data collection activities. Thirty total interviews (10 per facility) were deemed appropriate due to the relative homogeneity of the sample and narrow study objectives and is consistent with research that has found that 9-17 interviews are typically sufficient to reach saturation [26]. Interviews were conducted between October 1 and December 15, 2021, and were audio recorded. ...
Mental health disorders are common among people with HIV (PWH), and the overwhelming majority of PWH with mental health disorders do not receive evidence-based mental health care. One promising strategy to increase access to evidence-based mental health care for PWH is to integrate mental health screening and treatment for common mental disorders and unhealthy drinking into HIV care. However, little is known about how PWH view the role of HIV care providers in supporting their mental health or their experiences with mental health-related help-seeking. We conducted in-depth interviews with 30 PWH at three HIV treatment centers in Cameroon. Interviews were conducted in French or English. French transcripts were translated to English for analysis. Thematic analysis was used to identify key factors that influenced mental health-related help-seeking and respondents’ preferred roles of HIV care providers. Overall, participants reported that they were less likely to seek support from medical providers for mental health compared to physical health needs. Previous positive contact with providers facilitated mental health help-seeking intentions among participants. Health facility characteristics, including limited provider availability, concerns about privacy and confidentiality, and high clinic volume were noted as barriers to mental health help-seeking at HIV facilities. Participants consistently reported that they desired positive, caring interactions with HIV care providers and clinic staff and noted that providers could play a critical role in helping PWH accept their HIV diagnosis and address HIV-related stigma and material needs. Overall, this sample of PWH in Cameroon reported that mental health-related help-seeking was limited in HIV care settings, but identified strategies that have the potential to enhance mental health related-help seeking in HIV care settings and may improve the mental health of PWH. The extent to which such strategies enhance mental health help-seeking and improve mental health should be evaluated.
... The study's sample, comprised of 12 students, was recruited from different United States universities and institutions. Although small, the sample size was appropriate for achieving saturation (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022) and promoted a more generalized discussion that included diverse student voices. However, the present study is not without limitations. ...
College students are especially vulnerable to the harms associated with sports betting. Responsible Gambling (RG) strategies aim to mitigate these harms. However, research on the relevance and adoption of RG strategies among college students is limited and lacks insight from consumer experiences. The current study conducted a qualitative investigation to examine the experiences of college men who sports bet to provide guidance on how these experiences can subsequently inform RG. Three online focus groups with college men who sports bet (n = 12) were conducted using a semi-structured interview guide. Discussions were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using an open coding Thematic Analysis approach. Codes were independently identified and analyzed, resulting in 12 sub-themes that were consolidated into 5 primary themes. Themes included 1) gambling-related language, 2) motivational factors such as promotions and live games, 3) engagement through types of bets and features such as parlays, 4) emotional factors such as negative feelings from losses, and 5) social factors including betting with friends and its cultural significance. Insights from the lived experiences of participants will expand the knowledge base on sports betting among college men and guide efforts to develop more informed and consumer-driven strategies for promoting safe and responsible betting practices.
... The interviews were audio-recorded, and the recordings were evaluated by a researcher to check for the point where no new ideas emerged, known as a saturation point. As suggested by the literature on qualitative studies [36,37], the saturation point is used to determine a sample size-i.e., in our case, 11 patients (6 females and 5 males) and 12 family members (6 females and 6 males). The sample size determination was consistent with a report by Hagaman and Wutich [38], where fewer than 16 interviews had been suggested to be sufficient for identifying common themes in cross-cultural studies. ...
Background: Pain is one of the major medical and public health challenges in the world, and its prevalence is unaffected by some 'painful' pandemics of the past, reflecting the deep-rooted causes of other origins. Surgical conditions accounting for one-third of the global burden of disease are associated with physical pain, either as a symptom or complication. For effective perioperative pain management of culturally diverse patients, it is imperative to understand how patients view and deal with pain. Therefore, this study explored study participants' pain experience as well as their perception of the causes, consequences, and treatment options of surgical condition-related pain. Methods: With a subjectivist research paradigm, as well as relativist and interpretivist ontological and epis-temological underpinnings, a qualitative description study design was used to interview 11 patients with abdominal surgical conditions and 12 family members taking care of those patients in three hospitals. Following inductive coding, thematic analysis was employed, which resulted in four themes. Findings: Patients and their families shared various experiences and perceptions of the meanings, causes, consequences, and treatment options of pain, summarized under four emergent themes: Perception of pain meaning, causes, and consequences; sustenance for pain relief ; traditional pain relievers; and conventional pain medicine. Conclusions: This study highlighted that ethnoculturally diverse surgical patients and their families may have unique perceptions of pain and use various treatment approaches at home, which might have implications on perioperative pain management. Therefore, professionals at the participating hospitals and elsewhere with similar contexts should consider these cultural phenomena during surgical pain management.
... PwP sample size was determined using the principle of saturation, defined as the point at which no new relevant information is identified with further data collection [10]. Previous research suggests that this can be achieved within 9-17 interviews in a relatively homogenous population [17]. A total sample of 20 PwP was expected to be sufficient to achieve saturation and to capture the experience of advanced PD from the patient perspective. ...
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative condition, characterized by motor symptoms (MS) and non-motor symptoms (NMS). Currently, there is no global definition of advanced PD, but those in advanced stages experience diverse and severe symptomatology, and significant impacts to their health-related quality of life (HRQoL). This qualitative interview study aimed to explore the experience of symptoms and HRQoL impacts of advanced PD from the patient and clinician perspective and identify key concepts for assessment in PD clinical trials.
A targeted review of literature and qualitative concept elicitation interviews conducted with people with advanced PD (N = 20) and expert clinicians (N = 3) in the US aimed to identify symptoms of advanced PD and their impact on HRQoL. People with advanced PD (PwP) were defined as those diagnosed ≥ 5 years, experiencing ON/OFF motor fluctuations despite levodopa therapy, and classified as modified Hoehn and Yahr stages 2–4.
In total, 65 symptoms (48 NMS, 17 MS) were identified across the reviewed literature and qualitative interviews. The most frequently reported MS included tremor, rigidity, balance issues, and slowness of movement. Several NMS were also frequently reported by participants, including fatigue, cognitive dysfunction (e.g., difficulty thinking), neuropsychiatric symptoms (e.g., apathy), pain, sleep problems, urinary dysfunction, autonomic dysfunction, excessive daytime sleepiness, gastrointestinal dysfunction, and sensory dysfunction. Participants reported these to impact HRQoL, including daily activities, emotional functioning, physical functioning, social functioning, work/study, and financial well-being.
The study provides in-depth insights into the symptoms and HRQoL impacts experienced by those with advanced PD. A comprehensive conceptual model of the patient experience of advanced PD was developed to support the identification of relevant concepts for assessment in PD clinical trials.
... As a result, the interview data of 21 female students were selected to be analyzed when saturation was met (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022), at which point no new themes or insights emerged. Below is the overview picture of the interviewees, including their majors, family backgrounds (based on the household registration system in China 1 ), and career choices after undergraduate. ...
Based on the Social Career Cognitive Theory model (SCCT), the purpose of this study was to understand undergraduate female students’ STEM career choices and the factors that influenced their decision-making processes in a collectivist cultural environment. Using a qualitative approach and content analysis, the data from 21 semi-structured interviews was collected and analyzed. Four key themes, namely contextual factors, outcome expectation, self-efficacy, and career pathways, and several subthemes were identified to understand female students’ persistence and career development in STEM majors. The findings of this research provide support for the SCCT framework, suggesting that female students’ persistence in STEM can be predicted by their self-efficacy, with outcome expectations and contextual factors acting as influencing factors. The findings also highlight three main observations that should be emphasized by future research, including family factors in a collectivist culture, the impact of sexism on self-efficacy, and the way to overcome barriers in a Chinese context. The theoretical contributions and practical recommendations for improving the learning experience of female undergraduate students in STEM fields are discussed.
... Previous studies have demonstrated that retrieving information from a total of 12-15 participants is adequate to achieve data saturation (Liamputtong, 2019;Patton & Park, 1990). A recent systematic literature review has shown that 9-17 interviews or 4-8 FGDs results in data saturation (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). ...
Peer support is a widely recognized approach in higher education, improving learning efficiency, facilitating the exchange of knowledge, and helping students transition into university life through mutual help and collaboration. However, the evidence on the impact of peer support for an online study format, specifically in the context of postgraduate public health and health science students, is limited. This study evaluates a peer support program for postgraduate health students in the Social Determinants of Health subject at Western Sydney University who enrolled in Autumn 2021. Students were randomly allocated in groups of 4–5, and their experiences were evaluated using four focus groups discussions (FGDs). Inductive thematic analysis was conducted on the transcripts. The following three major themes were identified: (i) transitioning into university life and building academic support, (ii) promoting collaborative learning among peers, and (iii) engagement drivers, barriers, and suggested solutions. This study emphasizes the importance of peer support in aiding students’ transition into university, providing academic assistance, and addressing unexpected challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
... Subsequent to initial interviews, we employed snowball sampling, wherein interviewees were asked if they could recommend other experts to reach out to for further interviews. We continued to request interviews until thematic saturation has been reached (Francis et al., 2010;Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). All interviews were carried out by the lead author [SO]. ...
Over the past decade, multiple federal, state and local government mission statements have employed syndemic theory in proposed policies and practices. We interviewed 20 key informants from academia, non-governmental organisations and local government public health officials on range of topics relating to how syndemic theory is shaping healthcare policy and practice. Informants highlighted the role of syndemic theory in providing person-centred services. They also provided examples of HIV-related care services and organisational change that have been influenced or shaped by syndemic theory. However, informants also indicated that they are just beginning to understand how to employ syndemics and noted that there are many barriers to putting syndemic theory into practice. In particular, they described how governance structures and funding are siloed and therefore at odds with the holistic and integrated framework that is core to syndemic theory. Nevertheless, they felt the central messages of syndemic theory are well supported among colleagues and remained committed to finding ways to put syndemic theory in practice. We argue that that governmental and non-governmental institutions and departments will need to substantially invest in braided funding streams and associated healthcare administrative structures.
... In qualitative research the 'saturation' point' of interviews -the point at which no new themes will emerge from the research -can occur at relatively small numbers. A meta-analysis of qualitative research by Hennink and Kaiser (2022) concluded that the saturation point of the 23 studies they examined was reached between nine and seventeen interviews, especially if the study population could be considered somewhat homogenous. We conducted interviews until saturation was reached and in total, eleven online interviews were conducted and transcribed. ...
... To minimise this type of bias, we suggested that they diversify the type of respondents according to socio-economic conditions such as age, gender and farm size. We repeated this process until we had few or no relevant new responses, thus satisfying the principle of saturation (Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). ...
Dairy farming is one of the means to meet the growing demand for milk and reduce rural poverty in developing countries. To improve its productivity, many agricultural approaches have been tried, including the Farmer-Field-School (FFS) approach. This study aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of this approach in terms of the adoption of new technologies introduced in small-scale mixed crop livestock systems in Burundi to improve its productivity. A survey was carried out among 98 FFS members and 78 non-members. Technology adoption rates were calculated among FFS and non-FFS members, as well as annual profits per cow. The results showed higher adoption rates among FFS respondents compared to non-FFS respondents for cemented barn floors, traditional lick-blocks, and manure composting, whereas fertilisation of fodder crops, treatment of hay with molasses/urea, and concentrate making were less adopted for the two groups. The annual gross margin was higher for the FFS-group (median: 654 US). The study showed that the dissemination of new technologies among non-supported, non-FFS farmers remained low. It is concluded from the results that FFS approach brings about a positive change in farmers' behaviour towards adopting improved technologies. However, the results identified a number of constraints limiting the effectiveness of this approach including the low availability of inputs, the low financial capacities of farmers, and the complexity and/or the high price of certain technologies. Our results may provide useful information for strengthening the FFS approach in Burundi. For instance, a consistent financial support and follow-up are important for the sustainability of FFS practices. Harmonizing the market prices along the milk value chain is also proposed to increase incomes from the sale of milk.
... This was monitored by adopting a reflexive stance comprising journaling and ongoing critical discussions with the research team to maintain awareness of saturation progress, reducing bias and enhancing data richness (Olmos-Vega et al. 2023). In exploratory studies involving participants with lived experience, 10-15 participants is sufficient to identify key themes and ensure the integrity and reliability of the data (Hennink and Kaiser 2022). A sample size of 15 participants per study site was considered appropriate for this study. ...
Aim
The aim of this study was to examine the perceptions and experiences of emergency nurses managing acute pain in critically ill patients.
Design
Qualitative descriptive study.
Method
Non‐participant observations (n = 46, 157 h across 10 shifts) and semi‐structured interviews (n = 30) were conducted at two Australian metropolitan emergency departments from November to December 2020. Transcribed data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis.
Results
The qualitative analysis yielded three main themes and eight subthemes: (i) being in the resuscitation area in which participants detail learning to work in the resuscitation area; influences in managing critically ill patients and confidence in acute pain management; (ii) prioritising pain management identified the challenges in optimising pain management and balancing departmental demands; and (iii) between being and doing and how nurse–patient interactions and care behaviours impacted on optimising pain management and comfort in the resuscitation area.
Conclusion
Emergency nurses were primarily responsible for the continuity of patient care and optimisation of pain control for critically ill patients. Confidence in managing acute pain in critically ill patients was variable. While nurses actively sought ways to provide a reassuring presence and comfort to critically ill patients, this was limited by unpredictable workloads, availability of staff and communication challenges.
Implications for the Profession and/or Patient Care
These study findings may assist in the development of policy and formal education of emergency nurses transitioning into the resuscitation area and the management of acute pain in critically ill patients.
Impact
Pain is under‐assessed and managed in critically ill patients, and this could stem from emergency nurses' practices. The findings could inform interventions to enhance pain management and practices.
Patient or Public Contribution
No patient or public contribution.
Reporting Method
This study adhered to the COREQ criteria.
... Data saturation was determined when no new codes or emerging themes relevant to the study concept were identified in three consecutive interviews. Code frequency counts were used to assess and confirm saturation [18]. To ensure rigor, OOO and another member of the research team independently analyzed the data, then convened to compare codes, themes, subthemes, and their relationships, ensuring inter-coder reliability. ...
Background
Early childhood caries remains a significant public health concern among Indigenous children in Canada. Integrating caries risk assessment (CRA) into primary care settings could improve early detection and intervention.
Objectives
This qualitative study explored the barriers to implementing and integrating the Canadian CRA tool into the primary care of First Nations and Métis children in Manitoba, based on the perspectives of non-dental primary care providers (NDPCPs).
Methods
Fifty NDPCPs providing care to Indigenous children under six years of age were purposefully selected from ten Indigenous communities in Manitoba, including Winnipeg, Selkirk, St. Laurent, Swan River, Pine Creek, Camperville, and Pine Falls. The study employed an exploratory design, with data collected through eight focus groups and twelve in-depth key informant interviews conducted between April 2023 and September 2024. All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using inductive thematic analysis with NVivo software.
Results
Participants included pediatricians, family physicians, public health nurses, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, dietitians, and child development workers, with an average age of 41 years (range: 24–61) and 13 years of practice experience (range: 1–40). Thematic analysis identified four major barriers to integrating the CRA tool: (1) Service provider level – time constraint, scope of practice, documentation/referral pathways, and funding; (2) Community level – oral care not priority, separation of dental and general health, lack of transportation, and healthcare distrust; (3) Caregiver and child level – lack of dental insurance, parental willingness, substituting CRA for dental visit; and (4) Provider training and skills – lack of training on fluoride varnish application and dental screening. Despite these challenges, participants expressed a positive attitude toward receiving training on early childhood caries prevention, fluoride application, and the use of the Canadian CRA tool.
Conclusion
This study highlights that NDPCPs in Manitoba recognize the Canadian CRA tool as a valuable resource for improving access to early preventive dental care for First Nations and Métis children. The identified barriers provide critical insights for dental, medical, and allied healthcare providers, offering a foundation for developing strategies, guidelines, and policies to enhance preventive oral health services for Indigenous children in Manitoba.
Misinformation permeates online news media, making it hard for users to trust and verify content. Building upon prior work that highlights online news challenges and the importance of digital literacy skills, we examine user digital media skills, online news consumption behaviors, and perceptions of current misinformation tools. To better understand these dynamics, we conducted a formative, mixed methods study (n=34) that included a survey, two weeks of browser-based application logging using a Chrome plugin, and follow-up semi-structured interviews. Contradictions in the survey and log results indicate that participants in our sample often overestimate their news consumption habits. While information and news media literacy scores are generally high, less than half (47%, 16/34) exhibit lateral reading. We provide insights into users' challenges in navigating today's information landscape and propose effective integrated solutions. Interview findings inform the design of online news interventions and personal informatics tools to further improve media literacy while maintaining user privacy.
Background
People living with HIV (PLWH) face numerous psychosocial challenges within the context of healthcare systems and the community where they live. This study aimed to describe psychosocial challenges and individual coping strategies among adults attending Care and Treatment Clinics (CTCs) in Ubungo Municipality, Tanzania.
Materials and Methods
A qualitative descriptive study was conducted at CTCs in Ubungo Municipality, an urban setting in Dar es Salaam. Data were collected through audio-recorded in-depth interviews with 10 purposively selected participants. Audio files were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using a thematic analysis approach.
Results
Difficulty in accepting HIV-positive test results, feeling desperate, fears of HIV disclosure, HIV-related stigma, and financial instability related to HIV infection were the main psychosocial challenges described by the participants. However, their main coping strategies included seeking social support, positive experiences from regular CTC attendance, adaptive coping, disregarding people’s comments, and seeking HIV-related information.
Conclusion
PLWH encounter various psychosocial challenges. Feeling desperate, fear of HIV disclosure, and HIV-related stigma are the main causes of psychosocial distress among people diagnosed with HIV. Changing the individual perspectives on these challenges through effective coping strategies can improve the quality of life for PLWH. The Ministry of Health, through the National AIDS Control Program, can design interventions focused on addressing these challenges. Future research should be undertaken to quantify the magnitude of these challenges and the coping strategies in similar settings.
Background
Despite the existence of plans and strategies for providing family planning methods in Tanzania, the uptake rate of modern contraceptives among Adolescent Girls and Young Women (AGYW) in Tanzania remains low. The fertility rate is 112 per 1000; only 15.2% of adolescents are using Modern Contraceptives Methods (MCMs) in Tanzania. Modern contraceptive use is one of the important interventions to reduce the burden of adolescent pregnancy which is as high as 22% in the country. However, little is known regarding AGYW’s perceptions and experiences with MCMs.
Objective
To explore the perceptions and experiences of AGYW with MCMs use in the Malinyi district of Morogoro, Tanzania.
Materials and Methods
This was a qualitative phenomenology study. Purposive sampling was used to select 19 study participants. An in-depth interview guide was used to collect data. Data were transcribed verbatim. A thematic data analysis approach was used to analyze data.
Results
Two major themes that emerged from the findings were experiences and perceptions of AGYW on MCM use. On the experiences of MCMs, the study findings revealed that AGYW have limited knowledge and awareness about modern contraceptive methods; some of them acknowledged the benefits of modern contraceptive methods in preventing unintended pregnancies, providing a sense of empowerment, and enabling them to pursue their life goals. On perceptions of MCM use some of the study participants shared challenges encountered, including side effects, social influence, cultural and religious beliefs, myths and misconceptions that contribute to the perceptions and use of MCMs.
Conclusion and recommendation
Healthcare providers at the health facilities should continue educating AGYW on the importance of using MCMs.
Background
The pressures on community Children and Young People’s Mental Health Service (CYPMHS) clinicians to manage and maintain caseloads can be immense, therefore discharging young people from CYPMHS in a safe and timely way is often discussed as a priority. However, there is limited research into how discharge can be done well, especially for discharge occurring prior to children and young people (CYP) reaching the upper age limit of CYPMHS. Thus, this study aimed to gain a better understanding of the barriers and facilitators discharging CYP from community CYPMHS, by exploring clinicians experiences of discharging CYP from their service.
Method
Semi-structured interviews of 30–40 minutes were conducted with 12 clinicians working at different CYPMHS in England and analysed using codebook thematic analysis.
Results
Six themes were identified. These included, “perfectionistic approach towards treatment outcomes”, “reducing dependence on CYPMHS through empowerment”, “a lack of flexibility in the wider system”, “lack of collaborative care”, “an increasing pressure on the service” and “keeping the focus on discharge”.
Conclusion
Clinicians face multiple barriers when discharging CYP which should be addressed, alongside enhancing the use of reported facilitators to ensure timely, safe and well-managed discharges.
Tuulivoima on lisääntynyt Suomessa nopeasti viimeisen vuosikymmenen aikana. Poliittiset tavoitteet, kuten hiilineutraalius ja energiaturvallisuus, luovat paineita kehityksen jatkumiselle. Samalla tavoitteet tuulivoimahankkeiden luvitusprosessin nopeuttamisesta ja paikallisen kuulemisen laajentamisesta voivat aiheuttaa ristiriitoja. Tutkimme tätä jännitettä tarkastelemalla tuulivoimahankkeiden päätöksentekoprosesseja ja asukkaiden kokemuksia kahdessa Pohjois-Suomen pienessä kunnassa, Simossa ja Pyhännällä, joissa on viime vuosina toteutettu suuria tuulivoimahankkeita, ja uusia hankkeita on vireillä. Aineistona käytämme kuntalaisten haastatteluja ja tarkastelemme havaintoja oikeudenmukaisuuden kolmijaon viitekehyksessä. Monille haastateltaville hankkeiden laajemmat ja epäsuorat vaikutukset, kuten alueiden jatkokäyttö voimaloiden käyttöiän päätyttyä, olivat epäselviä. Lisäksi keskeisiä huolenaiheita olivat tuulivoiman vaikutukset maisemaan, liikenteeseen, metsästykseen, eläimistöön ja kasvillisuuteen. Näitä korostivat tuulivoimaloiden kasvanut koko ja maankäyttötarpeet. Hankkeisiin liittyvä tieto koettiin usein hajanaiseksi ja vaikeasti saavutettavaksi. Tulokset osoittavat, että tuulivoimahankkeet vaikuttavat usein pieniin paikallisyhteisöihin, jotka kokevat vahvaa sidettä tiettyyn osaan laajaa kuntaa. Näiden ryhmien tavoittaminen on keskeistä hankkeiden hyväksyttävyyden ja oikeudenmukaisuuden kannalta. Oikeudenmukaisuuden näkökulmasta epäkohtia nousi erityisesti jako-oikeudenmukaisuudessa, sillä ulkopuolisten hanketoimijoiden ja kuntalaisten sekä siirtolinjojen ja voimala-alueiden maanomistajien välillä koettiin epätasapainoa. Tunnustavan oikeudenmukaisuuden puutteet nousivat esiin, kun tavalliset kuntalaiset kokivat jäävänsä päätöksenteossa maanomistajien ja hanketoimijoiden varjoon. Tulosten perusteella kohdennetut kehitystoimenpiteet hankeviestinnän ja osallistumismenettelyjen parantamiseksi voivat vähentää tarpeettomia konflikteja ja edistää tuulivoimahankkeiden paikallista hyväksyttävyyttä.
Parklar, kentlerin önemli kamusal yeşil alanlarından biridir. Bu alanların etkinliği fiziksel varlıklarının yanında kentliler tarafından nasıl ve ne şekilde kullanıldıkları ile ilişkilidir. Kullanım sonrası değerlendirme metodu bunu analiz edebilmek için etkin bir araçtır. Bu çalışmada, 2024 yılında kullanıma açılan, Ordu ili Gülyalı ilçesinde yer alan Turnasuyu Kordon Park çalışma alanı olarak seçilmiş ve parka ilişkin kullanıcı deneyimlerini kapsamlı bir şekilde incelemek amaçlanmıştır. Ordu Büyükşehir Belediyesi ile yapılan görüşmeler, park kullanıcılarıyla yapılan yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmeler ve parkta gerçekleştirilen gözlemler yoluyla veriler temin edilmiştir. Park, özellikle yürüyüş yolları, çocuk oyun alanları ve sosyal etkinlik alanlarıyla farklı toplumsal faaliyetlere uygun bir alan sunmaktadır. Farklı zaman dilimlerinde, farklı kullanıcı özelliklerine sahip kişiler tarafından özellikle piknik ve yürüyüş amaçlı kullanılmaktadır. Parkın görsel uyumu, mekân çeşitliliği ve bakımı kullanıcılar tarafından olumlu olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Öte yandan parkın etkinliğini artırmak için erişilebilirlik, güvenlik ve parkın aydınlatması gibi konularda geliştirmeler önerilmiştir. Ayrıca, bitki çeşitliliğinin artırılması, bisiklet yolu ve spor alanlarının eklenmesi gerektiği belirtilmiştir. Sonuç olarak, Turnasuyu Kordon Park, kentlinin kullanımı için dönüştürmüş, estetik ve fonksiyonel açıdan başarılı olarak değerlendirilebilecek bir kamusal alan örneği olmasına rağmen; erişilebilirlik, güvenlik ve konfor gibi unsurların iyileştirilmesiyle kullanıcı memnuniyetinin artırılabileceği sonucuna varılmıştır. Bu iyileştirmeler, parkın daha verimli ve kapsayıcı bir alan haline gelmesini sağlayacaktır.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to explore the determinants of diabetes self-management education and support (DSMES) program engagement among Asian Americans with type 2 diabetes living in California.
Methods
A qualitative descriptive study was conducted to explore DSMES experiences. Semistructured interviews with Filipino, Korean South Asian, Cambodian, Taiwanese, and Vietnamese Americans were conducted. Participants were recruited through outreach, referrals, and social media. All 12 interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The data analysis used a rigorous, iterative approach, beginning with open coding to generate initial codes, developing a codebook, and proceeding to a second coding level and thematic analysis to interpret key patterns.
Results
Analysis revealed 4 major themes and 10 subthemes organized using the ecological model. The major themes are (1) individual-level barriers and facilitators (microsystem), (2) cultural and social influences (mesosystem), (3) structural barriers (exosystem), and (4) optimizing DSMES for inclusive diabetes care (macrosystem).
Conclusion
Study findings highlight the need for culturally responsive DSMES programs, emphasizing family-centered approaches and prioritization of cultural beliefs. Improving DSMES engagement among Asian Americans requires multilevel interventions addressing systemic and individual barriers, highlighting the complex interplay of cultural, social, and structural factors in diabetes management.
Purpose
Child abduction murder (CAM) is a rare offence within the wider spectrum of child victimisation offences, yet its occurrence carries catastrophic consequences for victims’ families, police officers and society in general. Its complex and infrequent nature indicates that there is limited knowledge available to investigators and academics. The present study addressed this paucity of literature by examining the investigative difficulties experienced by Senior Investigating Officers (SIO) from the UK during CAM cases.
Design/methodology/approach
Semi-structured interviews with eight SIOs who had investigated a major CAM case were thematically analysed to identify the challenges faced by investigators during such investigations.
Findings
Three cross-cutting themes of investigative challenges were identified: Media Management, Organisational and Procedural Complexity and Operational Stressors, each with their own subthemes and constructs. The identified themes are areas of research in their own right, which if examined in future research, have the potential to assist in the continued improvement of CAM investigations.
Originality/value
The current study addresses a heavily under-researched form of criminal investigation and is the first to directly explore the investigative challenges synonymous with CAM investigations. The findings highlight areas that investigative agencies need to address to improve investigative practise.
Background
Unplanned discharge is common in substance use disorder (SUD) residential programs and associated with worse outcomes such as relapse and suicide. There is high variation in unplanned discharge rates across Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) SUD residential programs. Little is known about program factors related to unplanned discharge in these settings. We aimed to discover staff beliefs about avoiding unplanned discharge and related harms in VA SUD residential programs.
Methods
We identified VA sites with low (<10%) and high rates (≥30%) of unplanned discharge. Informed by the Theory of Planned Behavior, we conducted semi-structured interviews with staff members at sites to learn about staff beliefs about unplanned discharge and its related harms in SUD residential settings. Two analysts reviewed the data and employed a combination of directed-content analysis and inductive methods to identify themes stratified by high- versus low-rate sites.
Results
We enrolled 10 sites (20 participants). There was high variability in how participants and sites operationalized unplanned discharge. Participants at low-rate sites generally emphasized harm-reduction approaches as useful ways to treat problematic behaviors that could result in an unplanned discharge. Participants at high-rate sites, on the other hand, favored the use of boards or councils to manage these concerns.
Conclusions
SUD residential programs should standardize the way that they define and document unplanned discharge. Future research should study the role of harm-reduction strategies and councils in mitigating unplanned discharge and related harms.
Background: Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) disproportionately affects pregnant women who reside in low-income countries because they predominantly consume staple legumes and tubers such as conventional common beans (CCBs) and white-fleshed sweet potatoes (WFSPs). Such staples are either low in iron or rich in iron absorption inhibitors such as phytates. To fight IDA, a high-iron-biofortified common bean (IBCB) was introduced in Uganda. However, there is limited knowledge about its acceptability among pregnant women. This experimental crossover study determined the sensory acceptability of a low phytate:iron molar ratio dish, WFSP + IBCB (test food), against a high phytate:iron molar ratio dish, WFSP + CCB (control food), among pregnant women in rural Uganda. Their perceptions of consuming the test food during pregnancy were also explored. Methods: A total of 104 pregnant women participated in this study. The sensory attributes (taste, color, aroma, texture, and general acceptability) of the test and control foods were rated using a five-point facial hedonic scale ranging from “dislike very much”, “dislike”, “neutral”, “like”, to “like very much”. An attribute was acceptable if the participant scored either “like” or “like very much”. Focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted to explore participant perceptions about the factors that may influence them to eat WFSP + IBCB during pregnancy. The chi-square test was used to detect the proportion difference for each sensory attribute within participants between test and control foods, while FGD data were analyzed by thematic analysis. Results: All the sensory attributes were acceptable to the participants and not significantly different between control and test foods (p > 0.05). Participants were willing to consume IBCB if it was affordable, sustainably available, and provided healthy pregnancy outcomes. Conclusions: The sensory attributes of the test food were equally accepted as the control food, suggesting that the consumption of WFSP + IBCB has the potential to replace WFSP + CCB among the study participants. The study participants showed positive perceptions of consuming IBCB if it was accessible, sustainable, affordable, and provided healthy pregnancy outcomes.
Urban allotment gardens are increasingly recognized as multifunctional spaces that contribute not only to ecological sustainability, but also to social cohesion, civic engagement and community resilience. This study explores the role of urban gardens in the city of Valencia as green spaces that (re)produce social capital, as well as spaces produced by consolidated social capital. Using a qualitative methodology, fifteen in-depth interviews were conducted with key informants with experience in the coordination, management, study and promotion of urban garden projects. The analysis focuses on three interconnected dimensions: the strategic objectives guiding organizations involved, the core elements of social capital (networks, belonging, trust, reciprocity and values) and the governance models underpinning these initiatives. The results reveal that urban gardens function as relational infrastructures, facilitating intergenerational learning, intercultural exchange and inclusive participation through both formal and informal mechanisms. These processes are often rooted in local traditions and are underpinned by shared responsibilities and symbolic reciprocity. However, exclusionary attitudes and fragmented governance can limit their potential. In general, the results emphasize the value of urban gardens as platforms for the (re)production of social capital and the improvement of community well-being, which entails relevant implications for urban policies and sustainable development.
Aim
This study aims to identify factors that influence the role of community pharmacy teams in preventing prescription and over-the-counter (OTC) opioid misuse.
Design
Qualitative design using interviews; thematic analysis was used to generate themes mapped to the Capability, Opportunity and Motivation Behaviour (COM-B) model.
Setting
Community pharmacies in North East England.
Participants
28 community pharmacy staff including 16 pharmacists, 1 pharmacy assistant, 10 dispensers and 1 pharmacy technician.
Results
Factors related to the capability component include communication skills, ability to identify service users who misuse OTC opioids, and education and training. Factors in the opportunity component include staff and funding, tools for identification and referral of service users at risk of opioid misuse, and relationship with other healthcare professionals. For the motivation component, attitude towards role, attitude of pharmacist or pharmacy manager, perception about commissioners and commissioned services, and attitude towards service users were identified.
Conclusion
This study identified factors that could influence community pharmacists’ roles in opioid misuse. A critical factor influencing community pharmacy teams preventing opioid misuse is access to a single system to record the use of both OTC and prescription opioids. This would enable teams to identify service users misusing or at risk of misusing opioids, while supporting staff education and training and regulatory compliance. Future research should focus on developing interventions using these identified factors to enhance community pharmacists’ roles in opioid misuse prevention.
Introduction
Women undergoing induction of labour often utilise epidural analgesia. Obtaining consent for labour epidural presents a unique challenge for the obstetric anaesthetist, who must comply with the legal standards of consent. This study explores how women perceive the consent process for epidural analgesia during induction of labour.
Methods
This was a qualitative, single‐centre, interview‐based study. Fourteen women who received an epidural for labour analgesia were interviewed using a semi‐structured interview guide. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.
Results
Four themes described women's experience of the consent process. Understanding alternatives, risks and benefits; for example, time constraints hindering the effective communication of information around epidural analgesia, including alternative analgesic options. Timing of information; for example, the value of information was diminished by pain, fatigue and the imminence of the procedure. Timing of consent; for example, physiological and psychological demands of labour negatively impacted patients' ability to engage with the consent process. Anaesthetists' assessment of patient understanding; for example, confirmation of patient understanding by anaesthetists was lacking.
Discussion
Women's experiences of the consent process for induction of labour suggest that in the context of the pain and exhaustion of labour, inadequate and untimely information provision and dialogue between women and their anaesthetists can undermine the implementation of lawful consent.
Purpose
This study explores the lived experiences of gig economy workers balancing unpaid caregiving responsibilities and gig work, examining how these responsibilities serve as a key source of role conflict and emotional strain. It highlights the flexibility paradox, where the promised autonomy of gig work amplifies scheduling tensions, role overload, and coping mechanisms.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a qualitative interpretative phenomenological approach and the Gioia methodology, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 24 gig workers engaged in unpaid care responsibilities. The study applies Role Strain Theory, integrating algorithmic-mediated role strain, to analyse how platform algorithms exacerbate role conflicts and caregiving strain.
Findings
The study reveals a persistent flexibility paradox, where gig work’s promised autonomy amplifies role conflict and emotional strain. Participants reported physical exhaustion, scheduling pressures, and cognitive overload due to unpredictable gig work demands and caregiving responsibilities. Despite limited institutional support, workers employed adaptive coping mechanisms, such as micro-tasking and time prioritization, often at the cost of well-being and financial stability.
Originality/value
This research bridges the gap between gig work and unpaid care literature, extending the Role Strain Theory by contextualizing it within algorithmic labour dynamics. It challenges the dominant assumption that gig work inherently provides flexibility and offers practical and policy-driven recommendations to create equitable support systems for gig workers managing caregiving duties.
With the rapid development of China's property industry, residential construction projects face significant schedule delays due to inadequate progress management. It makes it difficult for enterprises to realize the return of funds on time, causing economic losses and reputational damage which brings serious economic losses and loss of corporate reputation. This study aims to identify and prioritize delay factors and propose effective control measures. Qualitative research methods, including semi-structured interviews, are used to collect data from the Yun Yue Dong Fang residential project in China, a case study, and analyze the influencing factors of project schedule management. Like construction, design, materials, finance, communication, non-human elements, planning, and supervision. Results show construction factors (particularly execution efficiency, funding timeliness, and resource allocation) dominate, as evidenced by their highest word frequency in interview coding. Followed by client factors, while the factors related to the design teams, as well as the factors related to the raw material and equipment suppliers have less impact. The study proposes strengthening control through integrated management systems and real-time monitoring, validated by the case study, to mitigate delays. The results of the study provide actionable insights for optimizing schedule management in residential projects as well as the project schedule management of residential development enterprises and enhancing enterprise performance.
Saturation, a core concept in qualitative research, suggests when data collection might end. It is reached when no new relevant information emerges with additional interviews. The aim of this research was to explore whether a mixed methods design could contribute to the demonstration of saturation. Firstly, saturation was conceptualized mathematically using set theory. Secondly, a conversion mixed design was conducted: a set of codes derived from qualitative interviews were quantitized and analyzed using partial least squares (PLS) regression to document whether saturation was reached. A qualitative study conducted by other researchers prior to this work (i.e. none of the present authors was involved in this study) was used to test saturation using PLS regression. This illustrative qualitative study aimed to investigate the impact of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) on nurses’ work in the hospital and the results were published elsewhere (Guillemin et al. 2015). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 nurses. Saturation was characterized by the cumulative percentage of variability accounted for by PLS factors. After 12 interviews, this percentage was 51% which suggests that saturation was achieved at least on main themes. Two main themes identifying similarities in the experience of nurses caring for patients with CDI were identified: Organization/Coordination of the working day and Time-consuming work. Although dependent on the coding of qualitative data, PLS regression of quantitized data from qualitative interviews generated useful information for the determination of saturation.
Data saturation is the most commonly employed concept for estimating sample sizes in qualitative research. Over the past 20 years, scholars using both empirical research and mathematical/statistical models have made significant contributions to the question: How many qualitative interviews are enough? This body of work has advanced the evidence base for sample size estimation in qualitative inquiry during the design phase of a study, prior to data collection, but it does not provide qualitative researchers with a simple and reliable way to determine the adequacy of sample sizes during and/or after data collection. Using the principle of saturation as a foundation, we describe and validate a simple-to-apply method for assessing and reporting on saturation in the context of inductive thematic analyses. Following a review of the empirical research on data saturation and sample size estimation in qualitative research, we propose an alternative way to evaluate saturation that overcomes the shortcomings and challenges associated with existing methods identified in our review. Our approach includes three primary elements in its calculation and assessment: Base Size, Run Length, and New Information Threshold. We additionally propose a more flexible approach to reporting saturation. To validate our method, we use a bootstrapping technique on three existing thematically coded qualitative datasets generated from in-depth interviews. Results from this analysis indicate the method we propose to assess and report on saturation is feasible and congruent with findings from earlier studies.
Saturation is commonly used to determine sample sizes in qualitative research, yet there is little guidance on what influences saturation. We aimed to assess saturation and identify parameters to estimate sample sizes for focus group studies in advance of data collection. We used two approaches to assess saturation in data from 10 focus group discussions. Four focus groups were sufficient to identify a range of new issues (code saturation), but more groups were needed to fully understand these issues (meaning saturation). Group stratification influenced meaning saturation, whereby one focus group per stratum was needed to identify issues; two groups per stratum provided a more comprehensive understanding of issues, but more groups per stratum provided little additional benefit. We identify six parameters influencing saturation in focus group data: study purpose, type of codes, group stratification, number of groups per stratum, and type and degree of saturation.
Background: Choosing a suitable sample size in qualitative research is an area of conceptual debate and practical
uncertainty. That sample size principles, guidelines and tools have been developed to enable researchers to set,
and justify the acceptability of, their sample size is an indication that the issue constitutes an important marker of
the quality of qualitative research. Nevertheless, research shows that sample size sufficiency reporting is often poor,
if not absent, across a range of disciplinary fields.
Methods: A systematic analysis of single-interview-per-participant designs within three health-related journals from
the disciplines of psychology, sociology and medicine, over a 15-year period, was conducted to examine whether
and how sample sizes were justified and how sample size was characterised and discussed by authors. Data pertinent
to sample size were extracted and analysed using qualitative and quantitative analytic techniques.
Results: Our findings demonstrate that provision of sample size justifications in qualitative health research is limited; is
not contingent on the number of interviews; and relates to the journal of publication. Defence of sample size
was most frequently supported across all three journals with reference to the principle of saturation and to
pragmatic considerations. Qualitative sample sizes were predominantly – and often without justification – characterised
as insufficient (i.e., ‘small’) and discussed in the context of study limitations. Sample size insufficiency was seen
to threaten the validity and generalizability of studies’ results, with the latter being frequently conceived in nomothetic
terms.
Conclusions: We recommend, firstly, that qualitative health researchers be more transparent about evaluations of their
sample size sufficiency, situating these within broader and more encompassing assessments of data adequacy.
Secondly, we invite researchers critically to consider how saturation parameters found in prior methodological
studies and sample size community norms might best inform, and apply to, their own project and encourage
that data adequacy is best appraised with reference to features that are intrinsic to the study at hand. Finally,
those reviewing papers have a vital role in supporting and encouraging transparent study-specific reporting.
Sample size determination for open-ended questions or qualitative interviews relies primarily on custom and finding the point where little new information is obtained (thematic saturation). Here, we propose and test a refined definition of saturation as obtaining the most salient items in a set of qualitative interviews (where items can be material things or concepts, depending on the topic of study) rather than attempting to obtain all the items. Salient items have higher prevalence and are more culturally important. To do this, we explore saturation, salience, sample size, and domain size in 28 sets of interviews in which respondents were asked to list all the things they could think of in one of 18 topical domains. The domains—like kinds of fruits (highly bounded) and things that mothers do (unbounded)—varied greatly in size. The datasets comprise 20–99 interviews each (1,147 total interviews). When saturation was defined as the point where less than one new item per person would be expected, the median sample size for reaching saturation was 75 (range = 15–194). Thematic saturation was, as expected, related to domain size. It was also related to the amount of information contributed by each respondent but, unexpectedly, was reached more quickly when respondents contributed less information. In contrast, a greater amount of information per person increased the retrieval of salient items. Even small samples (n = 10) produced 95% of the most salient ideas with exhaustive listing, but only 53% of those items were captured with limited responses per person (three). For most domains, item salience appeared to be a more useful concept for thinking about sample size adequacy than finding the point of thematic saturation. Thus, we advance the concept of saturation in salience and emphasize probing to increase the amount of information collected per respondent to increase sample efficiency.
An important aspect of qualitative research is reaching saturation—loosely, a point at which observing more data will not lead to discovery of more information related to the research questions. However, there has been no validated means of objectively establishing saturation. This article proposes a novel quantitative approach to measuring thematic saturation based on a sound statistical model. The model is validated on two data sets from different qualitative research projects involving interviews, focus groups, and literature surveys. The proposed model provides consistent estimates of saturation across data sets, within branches of data sets, and over the course of a research project. The model can be used for both quantifying saturation and estimating the number of observations required to achieve a specified level of saturation.
Objective:
report the experience of applying the theoretical data saturation technique in qualitative research with schoolchildren.
Method:
critical reading of primary sources and compilation of raw data, followed by thematic grouping through colorimetric codification and allocation of themes/types of statements in charts to find theoretical saturation for each grouping.
Results:
colorimetric codification occurred according to previously established themes: bodily hydration; physical activities and play; handling of sickle-cell disease; feeding and clothing. On the eleventh interview, it was possible to reach the theoretical saturation of themes, with four additional interviews being performed.
Conclusion:
this experience report enabled the description of the five sequential steps for identification of theoretical data saturation in qualitative research conducted with schoolchildren.
I explore the sample size in qualitative research that is required to reach theoretical saturation. I conceptualize a population as consisting of sub-populations that contain different types of information sources that hold a number of codes. Theoretical saturation is reached after all the codes in the population have been observed once in the sample. I delineate three different scenarios to sample information sources: “random chance,” which is based on probability sampling, “minimal information,” which yields at least one new code per sampling step, and “maximum information,” which yields the largest number of new codes per sampling step. Next, I use simulations to assess the minimum sample size for each scenario for systematically varying hypothetical populations. I show that theoretical saturation is more dependent on the mean probability of observing codes than on the number of codes in a population. Moreover, the minimal and maximal information scenarios are significantly more efficient than random chance, but yield fewer repetitions per code to validate the findings. I formulate guidelines for purposive sampling and recommend that researchers follow a minimum information scenario.
Saturation of data has been acknowledged by many social scientists as evidence of rigor in qualitative research. Though there is a consensus about its definition and usefulness in qualitative research, the methods for achieving saturation are scarce while the social scientists who mention data saturation in their research methodologies do not adequately describe how this is achieved. This paper describes a new method for achieving saturation in studies that use interviews. The method is called Comparative Method for Themes Saturation (CoMeTS). CoMeTS is comparative in two ways. First, all themes from all interviews are compared with each other. Second, the sequence of interviews is reordered multiple times in order to check saturation again. This is because the sequence of interviews during the check makes saturation vary and, therefore, reordering helps confirming saturation. This paper concludes that CoMeTS is a simple, comparative and holistic method for achieving saturation and that it can be used in complicated qualitative studies.
Saturation is a core guiding principle to determine sample sizes in qualitative research, yet little methodological research exists on parameters that influence saturation. Our study compared two approaches to assessing saturation: code saturation and meaning saturation. We examined sample sizes needed to reach saturation in each approach, what saturation meant, and how to assess saturation. Examining 25 in-depth interviews, we found that code saturation was reached at nine interviews, whereby the range of thematic issues was identified. However, 16 to 24 interviews were needed to reach meaning saturation where we developed a richly textured understanding of issues. Thus, code saturation may indicate when researchers have “heard it all,” but meaning saturation is needed to “understand it all.” We used our results to develop parameters that influence saturation, which may be used to estimate sample sizes for qualitative research proposals or to document in publications the grounds on which saturation was achieved.
Evaluators often use qualitative research methods, yet there is little evidence on the comparative cost-effectiveness of the two most commonly employed qualitative methods—in-depth interviews (IDIs) and focus groups (FGs). We performed an inductive thematic analysis of data from 40 IDIs and 40 FGs on the health-seeking behaviors of African American men (N = 350) in Durham, North Carolina. We used a bootstrap simulation to generate 10,000 random samples from each data set and calculated the number of data collection events necessary to reach different levels of thematic saturation. The median number of data collection events required to reach 80% and 90% saturation was 8 and 16, respectively, for IDIs and 3 and 5 for FGs. Interviews took longer but were more cost-effective at both levels. At the median, IDIs cost 20–36% less to reach thematic saturation. Evaluators can consider these empirically based cost-effectiveness data when selecting a qualitative data collection method.
Few empirical studies exist to guide researchers in determining the number of focus groups necessary for a research study. The analyses described here provide foundational evidence to help researchers in this regard. We conducted a thematic analysis of 40 focus groups on health-seeking behaviors of African American men in Durham, North Carolina. Our analyses revealed that more than 80% of all themes were discoverable within two to three focus groups, and 90% were discoverable within three to six focus groups. Three focus groups were also enough to identify all of the most prevalent themes within the data set. These empirically based findings suggest focus group sample sizes that differ from many of the “rule of thumb” recommendations in the existing literature. We discuss the relative generalizability of our findings to other study contexts, and we highlight some methodological questions about adequate sample sizes for focus group research.
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have become increasingly important in health care. Clinicians read them to keep up to date with their field [1],[2], and they are often used as a starting point for developing clinical practice guidelines. Granting agencies may require a systematic review to ensure there is justification for further research [3], and some health care journals are moving in this direction [4]. As with all research, the value of a systematic review depends on what was done, what was found, and the clarity of reporting. As with other publications, the reporting quality of systematic reviews varies, limiting readers' ability to assess the strengths and weaknesses of those reviews.
Several early studies evaluated the quality of review reports. In 1987, Mulrow examined 50 review articles published in four leading medical journals in 1985 and 1986 and found that none met all eight explicit scientific criteria, such as a quality assessment of included studies [5]. In 1987, Sacks and colleagues [6] evaluated the adequacy of reporting of 83 meta-analyses on 23 characteristics in six domains. Reporting was generally poor; between one and 14 characteristics were adequately reported (mean = 7.7; standard deviation = 2.7). A 1996 update of this study found little improvement [7].
In 1996, to address the suboptimal reporting of meta-analyses, an international group developed a guidance called the QUOROM Statement (QUality Of Reporting Of Meta-analyses), which focused on the reporting of meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials [8]. In this article, we summarize a revision of these guidelines, renamed PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses), which have been updated to address several conceptual and practical advances in the science of systematic reviews (Box 1).
Box 1: Conceptual Issues in the Evolution from QUOROM to PRISMA
Completing a Systematic Review Is an Iterative Process
The conduct of a systematic review depends heavily on the scope and quality of included studies: thus systematic reviewers may need to modify their original review protocol during its conduct. Any systematic review reporting guideline should recommend that such changes can be reported and explained without suggesting that they are inappropriate. The PRISMA Statement (Items 5, 11, 16, and 23) acknowledges this iterative process. Aside from Cochrane reviews, all of which should have a protocol, only about 10% of systematic reviewers report working from a protocol [22]. Without a protocol that is publicly accessible, it is difficult to judge between appropriate and inappropriate modifications.
This study examines 83 IS qualitative studies in leading IS journals for the following purposes: (a) identifying the extent to which IS qualitative studies employ best practices of justifying sample size; (b) identifying optimal ranges of interviews for various types of qualitative research; and (c) identifying the extent to which cultural factors (such as journal of publication, number of authors, world region) impact sample size of interviews. Little or no rigor for justifying sample size was shown for virtually all of the IS studies in this dataset. Furthermore, the number of interviews conducted for qualitative studies is correlated with cultural factors, implying the subjective nature of sample size in qualitative IS studies. Recommendations are provided for minimally acceptable practices of justifying sample size of interviews in qualitative IS studies.
Thematic analysis is frequently used to analyse qualitative data in psychology, healthcare, social research and beyond. An important stage in planning a study is determining how large a sample size may be required, however current guidelines for thematic analysis are varied, ranging from around 2 to over 400 and it is unclear how to choose a value from the space in between. Some guidance can also not be applied prospectively. This paper introduces a tool to help users think about what would be a useful sample size for their particular context when investigating patterns across participants. The calculation depends on (a) the expected population theme prevalence of the least prevalent theme, derived either from prior knowledge or based on the prevalence of the rarest themes considered worth uncovering, e.g. 1 in 10, 1 in 100; (b) the number of desired instances of the theme; and (c) the power of the study. An adequately powered study will have a high likelihood of finding sufficient themes of the desired prevalence. This calculation can then be used alongside other considerations. We illustrate how to use the method to calculate sample size before starting a study and achieved power given a sample size, providing tables of answers and code for use in the free software, R. Sample sizes are comparable to those found in the literature, for example to have 80% power to detect two instances of a theme with 10% prevalence, 29 participants are required. Increasing power, increasing the number of instances or decreasing prevalence increases the sample size needed. We do not propose this as a ritualistic requirement for study design, but rather as a pragmatic supporting tool to help plan studies using thematic analysis.
Use of public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) studies that collect local knowledge in a spatial format is increasing as a tool in natural resources management. Qualitative PPGIS studies have been conducted as individual interviews, as workshops, and in focus groups. As the number of qualitative PPGIS studies increases, so does the need to understand their quality. Saturation, the point when the researcher determines that the collection of additional data will provide minimal new information as it relates to a particular issue, directly reflects on the validity of the study. While the concept of saturation is well established, it is still inconsistently assessed and reported. Furthermore, how saturation applies to qualitatively collected spatial data has not been addressed. A method is presented to assess spatial saturation of qualitative PPGIS data from 19 focus groups that were conducted to investigate important places for recreation, livelihoods, and the environment in the Florida Panhandle.
Reaching a saturation point in thematic analysis is important to validity in quali- tative studies, yet the process of achieving saturation is often left ambiguous. The lack of information about the process creates uncertainty in the timing of recruitment closure. This exploratory study was conducted to demonstrate a rigorous approach to reaching saturation through two-stage establishment of a codebook used for thematic analysis. The codebook development involved inductive analysis with six interviews, followed by a refinement of the coding system by applying them to an additional 33 interviews. These findings are dis- cussed in relation to plausible pattern in code occurrence rate and suggested sample sizes for thematic analysis.
Guidelines for determining nonprobabilistic sample sizes are virtually nonexistent. Purposive samples are the most commonly used form of nonprobabilistic sampling, and their size typically relies on the concept of “saturation,” or the point at which no new information or themes are observed in the data. Although the idea of saturation is helpful at the conceptual level, it provides little practical guidance for estimating sample sizes, prior to data collection, necessary for conducting quality research. Using data from a study involving sixty in-depth interviews with women in two West African countries, the authors systematically document the degree of data saturation and variability over the course of thematic analysis. They operationalize saturation and make evidence-based recommendations regarding nonprobabilistic sample sizes for interviews. Based on the data set, they found that saturation occurred within the first twelve interviews, although basic elements for metathemes were present as early as six interviews. Variability within the data followed similar patterns.
Focus group studies are increasingly published in health related journals, but we know little about how researchers use this method, particularly how they determine the number of focus groups to conduct. The methodological literature commonly advises researchers to follow principles of data saturation, although practical advise on how to do this is lacking. Our objectives were firstly, to describe the current status of sample size in focus group studies reported in health journals. Secondly, to assess whether and how researchers explain the number of focus groups they carry out.
We searched PubMed for studies that had used focus groups and that had been published in open access journals during 2008, and extracted data on the number of focus groups and on any explanation authors gave for this number. We also did a qualitative assessment of the papers with regard to how number of groups was explained and discussed.
We identified 220 papers published in 117 journals. In these papers insufficient reporting of sample sizes was common. The number of focus groups conducted varied greatly (mean 8.4, median 5, range 1 to 96). Thirty seven (17%) studies attempted to explain the number of groups. Six studies referred to rules of thumb in the literature, three stated that they were unable to organize more groups for practical reasons, while 28 studies stated that they had reached a point of saturation. Among those stating that they had reached a point of saturation, several appeared not to have followed principles from grounded theory where data collection and analysis is an iterative process until saturation is reached. Studies with high numbers of focus groups did not offer explanations for number of groups. Too much data as a study weakness was not an issue discussed in any of the reviewed papers.
Based on these findings we suggest that journals adopt more stringent requirements for focus group method reporting. The often poor and inconsistent reporting seen in these studies may also reflect the lack of clear, evidence-based guidance about deciding on sample size. More empirical research is needed to develop focus group methodology.
In interview studies, sample size is often justified by interviewing participants until reaching 'data saturation'. However, there is no agreed method of establishing this. We propose principles for deciding saturation in theory-based interview studies (where conceptual categories are pre-established by existing theory). First, specify a minimum sample size for initial analysis (initial analysis sample). Second, specify how many more interviews will be conducted without new ideas emerging (stopping criterion). We demonstrate these principles in two studies, based on the theory of planned behaviour, designed to identify three belief categories (Behavioural, Normative and Control), using an initial analysis sample of 10 and stopping criterion of 3. Study 1 (retrospective analysis of existing data) identified 84 shared beliefs of 14 general medical practitioners about managing patients with sore throat without prescribing antibiotics. The criterion for saturation was achieved for Normative beliefs but not for other beliefs or studywise saturation. In Study 2 (prospective analysis), 17 relatives of people with Paget's disease of the bone reported 44 shared beliefs about taking genetic testing. Studywise data saturation was achieved at interview 17. We propose specification of these principles for reporting data saturation in theory-based interview studies. The principles may be adaptable for other types of studies.
Qualitative researchers often must make decisions about anticipated sample sizes in advance of data collection. Estimates are typically required for human subjects review committees, grant applications, and resource planning purposes. Once a study is underway or completed, researchers must evaluate whether the sample has been robust enough to address the research aims. The challenge is to find a sample that will produce thorough and meaningful findings while minimizing unnecessary burden on participants and expenditure of scarce resources such as time and research dollars. Currently, little guidance is available regarding what minimum sample size is needed to adequately identify the themes and codes in an area of inquiry. In addition, the issue of sample sizes needed to reach theme and code saturation across different qualitative methodologies or data analysis approaches is understudied.
Although researchers often cite having achieved saturation as a reason to conclude sampling, details regarding how saturation was determined are not provided for the most part (Bowen, 2008; Francis et al., 2010). Gentles, Charles, Ploeg, and McKibbon (2015) conducted an overview of the literature from influential authors within the traditions of grounded theory, phenomenology, and case study, and they noted the lack of clarity relative to sample size and saturation. Guetterman (2015) looked at the most-cited empirical articles in the fields of education and health sciences from 2008 through 2012 within five qualitative research approaches to assess specific samples sizes and the rationale for sample sizes. Sample size across the 51 studies varied widely, and most articles did not include a discussion of saturation or the adequacy of the sample.
Objective
Evidence-based recommendations for the a priori estimation of sample size are needed for qualitative concept elicitation (CE) interview studies in clinical outcome assessment (COA) instrument development. Saturation is described as the point at which no new data is expected to emerge from the conduct of additional qualitative interviews.
Study Design
A retrospective evaluation of 26 CE interview studies conducted with patients between 2006 and 2013 was completed to assess the point at which saturation of concept was achieved in each study.
Methods
For each of the 26 interview studies, saturation of symptom concepts was assessed by dividing the sample into quartiles and then comparing the number of responses elicited from the first 25% of participants to the next 25% of participants, from the first 50% of participants to the next 25% of participants, and then from the first 75% of participants to the last 25% of participants. The number of interviews required to achieve saturation was documented for each study and then summarized across studies.
Results
Findings indicate that 84% of symptom concepts emerged by the 10th interview, 92% emerged by the 15th interview, 97% emerged by the 20th interview, and 99% by the 25th interview.
Conclusions
Results provide practical guidance for estimating the number of interviews that may be needed to achieve saturation in a qualitative CE interview study for COA instrument development; address an important gap in qualitative research for the development of COAs in the context of medical product development; and offer useful information for study design and implementation.
The qualitative research “gold standard” for quality research is data saturation. The limited literature on reporting data saturation and transparency in qualitative research has supported an inconsistent research standard suggesting researchers have not adequately reported data saturation to promote transparency (O’Reilly & Parker, 2012). Confusion regarding how to analyze qualitative data to achieve data saturation, how to write clear qualitative research findings, and present these findings in a usable manner continues (Sandelowski & Leeman, 2012). A phenomenological asynchronous online focus group using WordPress® was employed to answer the research question. Based on the current literature on the topic of focus group data saturation, the study findings were analyzed by group, individual, and day of the study. Additionally, the data was presented in a chart format providing a visible approach to data analysis and saturation. Employing three different methods of data analysis to confirm saturation and transparency provides qualitative researchers with different approaches to data analysis for saturation and enhancement of trustworthiness. Placing data in a visual configuration provides an alternative method of presenting research findings. The data analysis methods presented are not meant to replace existing methods of achieving data saturation but to provide an alternate approach to achieving data saturation and reporting the findings in a clear, usable format.
There is much debate over the number of interviews needed to reach data saturation for themes and metathemes in qualitative research. The primary purpose of this study is to determine the number of interviews needed to reach data saturation for metathemes in multisited and cross-cultural research. The analysis is based on a cross-cultural study on water issues conducted with 132 respondents in four different sites. Analysis of the data yielded 240 site-specific themes and nine cross-cultural metathemes. We found that 16 or fewer interviews were enough to identify common themes from sites with relatively homogeneous groups. Yet our research reveals that larger sample sizes—ranging from 20 to 40 interviews—were needed to reach data saturation for metathemes that cut across all sites. Our findings may be helpful in estimating sample sizes for each site in multisited or cross-cultural studies in which metathematic comparisons are part of the research design.
Although the concept of theoretical saturation (ThS) was first introduced by Glaser and Strauss's grounded theory methodology, it is now more widely used as a fundamental concept in interview-based qualitative research. Despite its widespread use, the concept is nebulous and lacks systematization. An extensive literature review in 2007, and again in 2013, shows that this inexactitude characterizes most claims for using ThS. Yet qualitative methodologists seem strangely reluctant to accept criticism or possible improvement. By assuming ThS to be an analogue of the principle of diminishing returns, we propose a quantitative technique for determining ThS using lognormal distribution principles. Applying the technique to three large data sets provided strong evidence that the method is efficacious. Usefully, this study also shows both that the technique is not affected by the order of interviews and that corpus size is not necessarily a true indication of theoretical saturation.
'Tony Bryant and Kathy Charmaz are the perfect editors for this excellent and forward looking Handbook which is surely destined to be a classic'
- David Silverman, Professor Emeritus, Goldsmiths College
For anyone interested in grounded theory this is a must have book. No longer will students have to search the library or internet to find authoritative voices on a variety of topics. It's all right there at their fingertips
- Juliet Corbin, San José State University
Grounded Theory is by far the most widely used research method across a wide range of disciplines and subject areas, including social sciences, nursing and healthcare, medical sociology, information systems, psychology, and anthropology. This handbook gives a comprehensive overview of the theory and practice of Grounded Theory, taking into account the many attempts to revise and refine Glaser and Strauss' original formulation and the debates that have followed.
Antony Bryant & Kathy Charmaz bring together leading researchers and practitioners of the method from the US, the UK, Australia and Europe to represent all the major standpoints within Grounded Theory, demonstrating the richness of the approach. The contributions cover a wide range of perspectives on the method, covering its features and ramifications, its intricacies in use, its demands on the skills and capabilities of the researcher and its position in the domain of research methods.
The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory is an indispensable reference source for academics and researchers across many disciplines who want to develop their understanding of the Grounded Theory method.
Measuring quality in qualitative research is a contentious issue with diverse opinions and various frameworks available within the evidence base. One important and somewhat neglected argument within this field relates to the increasingly ubiquitous discourse of data saturation. While originally developed within grounded theory, theoretical saturation, and later termed data/thematic saturation for other qualitative methods, the meaning has evolved and become transformed. Problematically this temporal drift has been treated as unproblematic and saturation as a marker for sampling adequacy is becoming increasingly accepted and expected. In this article we challenge the unquestioned acceptance of the concept of saturation and consider its plausibility and transferability across all qualitative approaches. By considering issues of transparency and epistemology we argue that adopting saturation as a generic quality marker is inappropriate. The aim of this article is to highlight the pertinent issues and encourage the research community to engage with and contribute to this important area.
To compare two different approaches to performing focus groups and individual interviews, an open approach, and an approach based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF).
Patients with rheumatoid arthritis attended focus groups (n = 49) and individual interviews (n = 21). Time, number of concepts, ICF categories identified, and sample size for reaching saturation of data were compared. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square tests, and independent t tests were performed.
With an overall time of 183 h, focus groups were more time consuming than individual interviews (t = 9.782; P < 0.001). In the open approach, 188 categories in the focus groups and 102 categories in the interviews were identified compared to the 231 and 110 respective categories identified in the ICF-based approach. Saturation of data was reached after performing five focus groups and nine individual interviews in the open approach and five focus groups and 12 individual interviews in the ICF-based approach.
The method chosen should depend on the objective of the study, issues related to the health condition, and the study's participants. We recommend performing focus groups if the objective of the study is to comprehensively explore the patient perspective.
In the patient-reported outcomes (PROs) field, strict regulatory requirements must be met for qualitative research that contributes to labeling claims for medicinal products. These requirements not only emphasize the importance of reaching saturation but also of providing documentary evidence that saturation has been reached. This paper reviews qualitative literature for useful definitions of the concept and for practical approaches for assessing saturation. The paper considers approaches in light of the rigorous regulatory requirements for PRO research that are used to support labeling claims for medicinal products and the wider requirements for flexibility and creativity in qualitative research in general. This assessment is facilitated by the use of examples from our past qualitative PRO studies. Based on conclusions from this assessment, we offer preliminary recommendations for future qualitative PRO studies for assessing and documenting saturation.
A common misconception about sampling in qualitative research is that numbers are unimportant in ensuring the adequacy of a sampling strategy. Yet, simple sizes may be too small to support claims of having achieved either informational redundancy or theoretical saturation, or too large to permit the deep, case-oriented analysis that is the raison-d'être of qualitative inquiry. Determining adequate sample size in qualitative research is ultimately a matter of judgment and experience in evaluating the quality of the information collected against the uses to which it will be put, the particular research method and purposeful sampling strategy employed, and the research product intended.
How many interviews are enough? An experiment with data saturation and variability
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How many qualitative interviews is enough? Expert voices and early career reflections on sampling and cases in qualitative research
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Baker, S., Edwards, R., 2012. How many qualitative interviews is enough? Expert voices
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What is an adequate sample size? Operationalising data saturation for theory-based interview studies
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Does sample size matter in qualitative research? A review of literature in IS research
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