Cybersecurity and Cybercrime in Nigeria: The Implications on National Security and Digital Economy

Abstract

This study examines the implications of cybercrime and weak cybersecurity defense for Nigeria's national security and digital economy from the perspective of nontraditional discourse within international security debates. The research adopted a qualitative approach to data collection and analysis, with both primary and secondary source data employed. The primary data involved in-depth interviews with selected informants from the relevant agencies in Nigeria and the available governmental policy documents on cybersecurity and cybercrime, including conversations with security personnel, academics, senior officials from security research institutes, members of private institutions and government agencies in communication sectors. The secondary data consist of books, journals, and internet sources. Our analysis reveals that cybercrime is flourishing in Nigeria undetected, affecting its critical national infrastructure, causing prolonged terrorism affecting national security and the safety of national environment due to weak cybersecurity capability. The article recommends that Nigeria adopt measures toward strengthening its cyberspace and digital environment to prevent crimes and promote national security and the digital economy.

Full text

Journal of Intelligence and Cyber Security
27
Cybersecurity and Cybercrime in Nigeria: The Implications on National
Security and Digital Economy
Babayo Sule (Department of Political Science, Federal University of Kashere Gombe,
Gombe State Nigeria); Bakri Mat (School of International Studies, Universiti Utara
Malaysia); Usman Sambo (Department of Public Administration, Yobe State University,
Damaturu, Yobe State Nigeria); Mohammed Kwarah Tal (Department of Political Science,
Federal University of Kashere Gombe, Gombe State Nigeria); and Muhammad Aminu
Yahaya (Department of Public Administration, Gombe State University Gombe State
Nigeria).
*Corresponding author: babayosule@gmail.com
Abstract
This study examines the implications of cybercrime and weak cybersecurity defense for
Nigeria’s national security and digital economy from the perspective of nontraditional discourse
within international security debates. The research adopted a qualitative approach to data
collection and analysis, with both primary and secondary source data employed. The primary data
involved in-depth interviews with selected informants from the relevant agencies in Nigeria and
the available governmental policy documents on cybersecurity and cybercrime, including
conversations with security personnel, academics, senior officials from security research
institutes, members of private institutions and government agencies in communication sectors.
The secondary data consist of books, journals, and internet sources. Our analysis reveals that
cybercrime is flourishing in Nigeria undetected, affecting its critical national infrastructure,
causing prolonged terrorism affecting national security and the safety of national environment due
to weak cybersecurity capability. The article recommends that Nigeria adopt measures toward
strengthening its cyberspace and digital environment to prevent crimes and promote national
security and the digital economy.
Keywords: Cybersecurity, cybercrime, digital economy, national security, Nigeria, security.

Volume 4, Issue 1: October 2021
Introduction
The shift in the new paradigm of security discourse that emerged during the era of Cold
War and beyond stresses the need to pay attention to nontraditional or nonmilitary threats to
domestic and international security (Buzan & Hansen 2009). Indeed, the emergence of widespread
security challenges such as marine pirates, flood, drought, diseases, terrorism, environmental
hazards, and cybercrimes necessitates the rethinking of the foundation of contemporary global
security (Buzan 1983, 4). Cybersecurity in particular poses an unrelenting challenge, threatening
the existence of mankind and infrastructures across nation-states. Countries are making serious
efforts in protecting their cyberspace from cyberattacks and cybercrimes in the face of threats and
vulnerabilities that could cause billions of dollars’ worth of loss in properties, cash theft, and the
collapse of critical national infrastructures (Fischer 2009). Cybercrime is on the rise globally
(Buchanan 2016), affecting individuals, companies, organizations, and governments with damages
worth billions of dollars (Antonucci 2017).
Within this context, Nigeria is a developing country battling threats to national security on
numerous fronts, both traditional military threats and nontraditional challenges such as hunger,
diseases, erosion, sea piracy, drought, flood, terrorism, and the explosion of cybercrime both
within and outside its borders. Recognition of this latter threat led to the adoption of a policy
document on cybersecurity by the Nigerian government in 2015, a comprehensive policy statement
detailing the provisions and efforts of the government aimed at achieving a safer digital
environment. Many scholars (Schjolberg & Ghernaouti-Helie 2009; Reveron & Mahoney-Norris
2011; Schjolberg & Ghernaouti-Helie 2011; Singer & Friedman 2014; Mazurczyk, Drobniak, &
Moore 2016; Maurer 2018) have pointed out that internet and cyberspace are global and pose
multiple vulnerabilities to all nation states, and in fact, studies on Nigeria (Frank & Odunayo 2013;
Olayemi 2014; Omodunbi, Odiase, Olaniyan, & Esan 2016; Ajiji 2017; Chukwuma & Mogom

Journal of Intelligence and Cyber Security
29
2018; and Mohammed, Mohammed, & Solanke 2019), though scanty on the subject matter,
suggest that Nigeria is as vulnerable as other countries in the world to these threats.
The Nigerian case, however, is particularly important in terms of the study of cybersecurity
and cybercrime due to its unique set of circumstances. The country is the most populous state in
Africa, and by extension, the biggest Black nation on earth. It is the tenth-largest oil producing
state and the seventh most populous country in the world. The explosion of internet access in
Nigeria should be of prime concern for both policymakers and key players in the world of
cybersecurity, as vulnerability in the Nigerian context is always imminent. Yet, comprehensive
analysis of Nigerian cybersecurity issues is woefully inadequate, a gap this article seeks to address.
In addition to providing an overview of the situation we offer policy suggestions for the Nigerian
government on how to improve on the existing cybersecurity infrastructure in the country.
Literature Review
In this section, we discuss some of the empirical and theoretical issues related to the subject
matter of study. These include (1) the emergence of cybersecurity as a central global concern; (2)
the evolution and character of the global digital economy; (3) the emergence and patterns of
cybercrime globally and in Nigeria; (4) policies and regulations related to cybersecurity; (5)
Nigerian national security; and (6) Nigerian policy response to cybersecurity concerns and
cybercrime.
Cybersecurity in the Global Context
In the contemporary era, the rapid expansion of internet communication technologies and
digital activities, particularly the proliferation of cellular phones, has created a new security
concern, as large quantities of stored data have become the target of hackers and criminals (Rayes
& Salam 2019). Further, financial transactions carried out in the internet arena serve as a clear
avenue of vulnerability. With over five billion people in the world possessing mobile phones and

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over four billion having access to the internet, cybersecurity has become an inevitable and pressing
concern (Global Web Index 2019). As cyberattacks by nation-states among themselves and by
individual criminals against both states and public users have proliferated, a national security
paradigm shift has emerged in intellectual discourses (Reveron et al. 2011). In the specific case of
Nigeria, twenty-first-century statistics on mobile owners, internet users, and the digital economy
suggest that cybersecurity must be taken as a serious concern by both government and private
individuals.
Digital Economy
The digital economy and indeed, digital activities such as e-commerce, e-governance, and
e-learning, have been undergoing transformation for several decades. Countries have been moving
toward digital space for ease of life since the end of World War II, a phenomenon that dates to the
invention of the first computer (Severo 2019, 165). With the emergence of internet services, digital
activities began to proliferate in the 1980s (Noam, 2019). The contemporary explosion in internet
systems across the globe and the creation of communication gadgets such as mobile phones,
laptops, iPad, tablets, and other gadgets that use internet services has effectively succeeded in
digitalizing the world (Schwanholz & Graham, 2018).
In terms of commerce, by the twenty-first century, many businesses had adopted
technology aimed at innovation and improvement of customer services and operations, often with
positive results in terms of profitability and ease of operations. The advantages of conducting
business online are such that in 2018 more than 42 percent of business globally were conducted in
this manner (retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/sap/99-facts-on-the-future-of-business-in-
the-digital-economy-2018). At the same time, enterprises that have done so face the risk of
unauthorized use and malicious attacks, including theft, the destruction of intellectual property,
abuse by insiders, and illegal use of information, which is tantamount to the loss of data reliability

Journal of Intelligence and Cyber Security
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and confidentiality and affects the levels of trust between enterprises and their users/customers
(Shalhoub & Al Qasimi, 2010).
In an environment where the digital economy is characterized by the physical separation
of the buyer from the seller, the separation of the buyer from the product, and the risk of
cybercrime, enterprises must find ways of initiating and developing cyber relationships with
customers in sustainable ways, of which the best is establishing a trusted digital space. (Shalhoub
& Al Qasimi, 2010). The importance this point is underscored when we consider that most
countries in the world are currently going digital in virtually all aspects of national importance,
such as e-governance, e-commerce, e-voting, e-transaction, e-learning, and other vital aspects of
human endeavor in the society. Digital trust and security in this case take on paramount importance
and demand the attention of policymakers.
Emergence and Patterns of Cybercrime
Cybercrime emerged historically in the 1970s and 1980s during the Cold War era. During
that period, most patterns of cybercrimes revolved around nation-states engaged in the ideological
battle and involved attacking the computers and data of rival countries. Important data related to
nuclear proliferation, intelligence movements, and foreign policy were the subject of hacking by
professionals employed by the relevant governments. At the same time, individual criminals were
also actively hacking data, targeting critical national infrastructures and financial organizations for
the purposes of stealing of money and sabotage (Kshetri 2019; Mordi 2019). However, in terms of
its pervasiveness, cybercrime became far more extensive, dynamic, and pervasive after the
collapse of the USSR.
Cybercrime is believed to have generated an amount of money worth $1.5 trillion in 2018
and $2 trillion in 2019 across the globe through major hacks and thefts from websites and
organizations. The annual total amount (that we know of) realized from cybercrimes consists of

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$860 billion from illegal online markets, $500 billion from trade secrets and IP thefts, $160 billion
from data trading, $1.6 billion from crimeware; and $1 billion from ransomware. In the United
States, cyber frauds led to losses of $25 billion in 2010 alone; in Britain and Australia, losses in
2015 amounted to 3.6 billion British pounds and AU$94 million. These crimes have largely
involved multinational corporations and governmental information, with major examples of data
breaches in 2018 including Yahoo ($3 billion), Under Armour ($150 million), eBay ($145
million), Equifax ($110 million), Facebook ($87 million), JP Morgan Chase ($76 million),
Paystation ($77 million), Uber ($57.6 million), and Home Depot ($56 million) (Re-Hashed 2019).
Turning to Nigeria now, similar to other developing countries, the level of development in
internet and cyberspace in the 1970s and 1980s in that country was minimal. Even though it was
an appendage of capitalist states during the Cold War, cybercrimes in Nigeria during this time
were practically nonexistent. Beginning with the 1990s, however, Nigeria joined the retinue of
states facing nonmilitary security threats, with cybercrime front and central. For instance, if Africa
as a whole lost $3.5 billion in 2017 to cybercrimes, the Nigerian portion of this sum was $645
million, by far the largest (Kshetri 2019). A year later, it was reported that Nigeria lost $800 million
(N288 billion) collectively to cyberattacks in 2018 (Azeez 2019). More broadly, a 2019 report
disclosed that Nigeria has lost on average N127 billion ($328,842,878 million) annually to
cybercrimes in recent years (Ohwovoriole 2019). Furthermore, Nigeria has the reputation of being
the global headquarters of cybercrimes, due to frequent daily incidences linked to the country (even
though Statista data in 2017 did not even mention Nigeria among the top twenty countries in terms
of the highest incidence of cybercrime) (Mordi 2019). Finally, in addition to these glaring threats
posed by cybercriminals to the Nigerian economy, the Nigerian Communication Commission
(NCC) reported in 2018 that there were about 9 million unregistered lines in the country that were

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used by mobile owners; some of these were clearly being used for criminal activities such as
terrorism, rural banditry, communal violence, kidnapping and robbery, posing a serious threat to
national security.
Policies and Regulations on Cybersecurity
The need for policies on cybersecurity is anchored in the recognition that there has been a
shift in global governance toward e-governance and the security implications arising therefrom.
The 2009 cyberattacks on South Korea and United States present a good case for concern in this
regard (Andreason 2012, 77). According to Pelton and Singh (2015), cybersecurity laws should
target four major areas. The first is personal and family protection, which consists of protecting
stocks, bonds, bank accounts and credit cards, Medicare accounts, desktop computers and Wi-Fi,
personal cell phones, and family records. The second aspect involves cybersecurity policies for
smart phones and free Wi-Fi that operates through mobile phone security and access. The third
aspect is protecting vital infrastructure through the application of satellites with cybersecurity
implications. Finally, the fourth is strict government regulation and monitoring of cyber activities.
The reality, however, is that the development of such policies has been haphazard at best.
In an attempt to minimize the rate and severity of cybercrimes, various international
organizations have undertaken the responsibility of pushing toward cyber law development in both
the developed and developing countries. A leader in this respect, the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) launched the Global Security Agenda in 2007 and formed a
High-Level Expert Group to investigate the issues and develop proposals for long term strategies
(Shalhoub & Al Qasimi 2010, 18). The ITU in particular promulgates laws under its auspices that
have some applicability to information warfare attacks that use the electromagnetic spectrum or
international telecommunications network (Greenberg, Goodman, & Hoo 1998, 7).

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On the state level, governments have adopted antihacking laws to help promote
cybersecurity and attempted to approach the issue within the framework of the internationally
recognized right of nation-states’ rights to defend themselves when attacked, in accordance with
article 51 of the UN Charter (Guiora 2017, 63). The Convention on Cybercrime, initiated by some
European countries, is the only international agreement in existence at the global level in the area
of cybercrime. It is also open for membership to countries outside of Europe, being signed for
example by the United States, Canada, Japan, and Australia. The convention comprises three key
areas: substantive law, procedural requirements, and international cooperation. However, some
critics argue that these laws are outdated and have failed to help effectively protect either private
or government computers (Kosseff 2017). Further, as observed by Maurushat (2013), the
challenges of laws related to cybercrime are many, including but not limited to the issues of
freedom of expression/freedom of speech, copyright, tort of negligence, defamation, illegal
telecommunications interception (surveillance), privacy law, data protection, and data breach
notification.
National Security
The traditional thinking on national security was predicated on the assumption that state
actors are the major players in national and international politics (Buzan 1983, 2). A new
conceptual paradigm depicts that national security and indeed, international security, is more
complex and dynamic in the post–Cold War era because of the emergence of nonstate actors as
powerful players in national and transnational politics (Buzan & Hansen, 2009, 9). Indeed, the
failure of the balance of power that had reigned after World War II highlighted the importance of
collective security in the international system (Johari 1997, 215). To this end, a number of solutions
have been proffered, of which perhaps the most prominent is the deterrence theory as advanced by
Realist theorists such as Henry Kissinger (Taylor 2012).

Journal of Intelligence and Cyber Security
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Generally speaking, the national security policy of any state must identify threats
domestically and contain them accordingly before expansion toward the global level. Every state
may be involved in permanent warfare; control over subversion must be through domination and
natural leadership, which is attainable through armed forces (Chomsky & Herman 1979). At the
same time, in the present-day national security must address more than just military threats, to
include climate conditions, social settings, political structure, the economic basis of the country,
among other aspects, with cybersecurity prominent among them. With this context in mind, we
now turn briefly to a discussion of national security issues in contemporary Nigeria.
Nigerian National Security
Nigeria’s national security policy emphasizes domestic protection, African unity, peace,
and the promotion of global peace and security through cooperation, noninterference, and respect
for the dignity and value of mankind. Since political independence in 1960, Nigeria has adopted
many measures to ensure that the country would protect itself adequately while extending its
influence at the African level and globally (Yakubu 2012, 12). Of these goals, the fundamental
objective is the protection of the lives and properties of all the citizens and other inhabitants of the
country. This is meant to be achieved through building social cohesion, economic prosperity, and
mutual coexistence between different groups. Ostensibly, the Nigerian defense strategy is
anchored in the understanding the centrality of the recognition of the dignity of mankind, personal
well-being, and prosperity before other issues (Alkali 2010, 10). However, the failure of
policymakers to in fact pay adequate attention these values and ideals created a huge security gap,
which manifested in 1967 through the civil war and later in recent years through terrorism,
communal clashes, political violence, rural banditry, kidnapping, robbery, and cybercrimes.
Currently, Nigeria faces many security challenges, both internally and externally. Within
the country, the volatile political environment and fragile social settings emanating from

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multireligious, multiethnic, and regional politics have contributed to security dilemmas,
exacerbated by a large contiguous geography, porous borders, and economic problems. The
Anglophone and Francophone dichotomy is another security concern, in which Nigeria is
surrounded by four major West African countries with a French colonial past, creating a wide gap
in terms of communication, external allegiance, and cooperation (Yakubu 2012, 14). More
recently, Nigeria has come to face a new security threat, namely, terrorism, with the emergence of
the Boko Haram, which shields itself under the umbrella of religion to commit heinous crimes
against mankind in the northern part of the country, particularly the northeastern enclave. Within
this context, Sule et al. (2019) have suggested that the major focus of the Nigerian security
apparatus should pivot toward a nontraditional approach based in cybersecurity and intelligence
gathering to address nontraditional/nonmilitary threats.
Nigerian Policy Response to Cybersecurity and Cybercrime
In Nigeria, the Cybercrimes Prohibition Act of 2015 is the major policy instrument meant
to boost cybersecurity and prevent cybercrimes in the country. The policy document reiterates
unequivocally that the major aim of the act is the prevention of damage to critical national
infrastructure (part II, sec. 3 and 4). The act describes those offenses that are considered to be
cybercrimes and punishable by law (part III, sec. 5 to 36), including:
• offenses against critical national information infrastructure;
• unlawful access to a computer;
• illegal registration of a cybercafé;
• system interference;
• interception of electronic messages, email, or electronic money transfers;
• tampering with critical infrastructures;

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• willful misdirection of electronic messages;
• unlawful interceptions;
• computer related forgery or fraud;
• theft of electronic devices;
• unauthorized modification of computer systems;
• network data and system interference;
• fraudulent electronic signature;
• cyber terrorism;
• exceptions to financial institutions posting and authorized options;
• fraudulent issuance of e-instructions;
• fraudulent reporting of cyber threats;
• identity theft and impersonation;
• child pornography and related offenses;
• cyberstalking or cybersquatting;
• racist and xenophobic offenses;
• conspiracy;
• importation and fabrication of e-tools;
• breach of confidence by service providers;
• manipulation of ATM/POS terminals;
• spreading a computer virus;
• electronic card–related fraud and use of a fraudulent device or attached emails and
websites (Cybercrime Act, 2015).

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The punishments stipulated for the above identified cybercrimes offenses vary but are
related in terms of their severity. Some are punishable with ten-year imprisonment without an
option of a fine while some risk up to fifteen years without an option for a fine. Others are
punishable with a three-year imprisonment or an option of a fine amounting to seven million Niara.
The Case Study and Methodology
As of 2018, the Global Web Index reported Nigeria’s population to be 203.6 million, with
169.2 million (83 percent) having mobile phone connections. 89.49 million (42 percent) are
internet users and 27 million (13 percent) are active social media users. The digital growth
indicators in 2020 from that of 2019 indicate an increase of 5.1 million (2.6 percent) million in
Nigerian population. These figures indicate an important threshold in the study of internet and
digital communication in Nigeria.
Theoretical Framework: National Security of Developing Countries Model by Alagappa (1987)
This work adopts and expands the on the “National Security of Developing States” model
postulated by Muthiah Alagappa (1987), presented and discussed below. We did so for three
reasons. The first has to do with the chain of values and clear illustrations that are depicted in the
diagram for easy grasp of the concepts involved, namely, national security and possible
vulnerabilities and threats. Secondly, previous studies on our case have used other theories, such
as political realism, collective security, foreign policy analysis, and other related frameworks, but
none of them refer to this framework, clearly demonstrating the innovative nature, contribution,
and new ideas proposed by this study. Thirdly, the theory as it stands leaves room for future theory
building. Originally developed in 1987, the theory identified some internal and external threats to
national security of developing countries at a time when cybersecurity and cybercrime in
developing countries were practically nonexistent. But its postulations left the door open to explore
threats in the political, social, economic, and environmental areas, making it easy for researchers

Journal of Intelligence and Cyber Security
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to lean on the original postulations and build on the theory for further development of knowledge
in the field of social sciences.
Figure 1: The National Security of Developing States: A Framework of Analysis
Source: Muthiah Alagappa (1987). Expanded by the researchers.
INTERNAL
THREAT TO
NATIONAL
SECURITY
• Conflicts
over the
physical
definition of
the state
• Conflict over
the
organizing
ideology of
the state
• Problem of
legitimacy
EXTERNAL
THREAT TO
NATIONAL
SECUIRTY
• Conflicting
national
interest of
global and
other extra-
regional
powers
• Other states
in the region
NATURE
OF
THREATS
• Political
• Military
• Economic
• Social
• Terrorism
• Cyber
attacks
• Food
security
OBJECT TO
NATIONAL
SECURITY
• Idea of state
• Physical
base
• Information
infrastructu
re
• Territory
• Population
• Sovereignty
• Regime
security
• Maintenanc
e of
favourable
regional
environmen
t
EXTERNAL
• Geostrateg
y
• Historical
experience
s
• Relative
power
capabilitie
s
• Credibility
•
PERCEPTIO
N OF
THREATS
INTERNAL
• Domestic
Vulnerabil
ities
• Doctrinal
• Structural
• Psychologi
cal
• Religious
APPROACHES TO
NATIONAL
SECURITY
• Security through
strengthening the
state
A) Security through
political
development
B) Security through
economic
development
C) Security through
social
development
D) Security through
national
integration and
development of
national identity
• Security through
food sufficiency
• Counterterrorism
• Cybersecurity
• Security through
suppression
• Security through
power and
international
alignment
• Security through
non-alignment,
neutrality and
equidistance etc.
• Security through
regional cooperation
INSTRUMEN
TS OF
POLICY
• Diplomacy
• Military
Power
• Political
development
• Economic
development
• Social
development
• Legal
measures
• Psychologic
al measures
• Counter-
terrorism
Regional
approach
Intelligence
Communication

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The above model indicates that there are, esentially, two major threats to national security:
internal and external threats, with both being possibly either traditional or nontraditional. In the
internal case, there may be social incoherence and other vulnerabilitites that might lead to armed
groups—which is a traditional threat—while at the external level there might be territorial and
national interest issues that might set one country at conventional military conflict with another.
From the nontraditional perspective, issues such as the economy, geography, social settings, or sea
and land rights can be potential conflicts that might lead to insecurity internally and externally for
developing states like Nigeria. For example, case of Boko Haram here falls within both the
traditional and nontraditional threats and internal and external security threats that Nigeria is
facing. The nature of threats can be economic, military, political, or, as we propose in this research,
related to terrorism, food insecurity, or cyber attacks. Thus, as identified by Alagappa (1987), any
serious developing country that seeks absolute national security must pay attention to both internal
and external security and also must give consideration utmostly to both the trational and
nontraditional military threats.
The framework advanced by Alagappa (1987) is suitable for this study because it has the
leverage of providing an all-round explanation of national security of countries like Nigeria, that
is, accounting for both traditional and nontraditional threats. Other theoretical frameworks
discussed in the above section can explain either the political angle or the economic perspective
of cybersecurity and cybercrime. However, the theory we lean upon is all-encompassing in terms
of both theoretical and empirical analysis. For instance, looking at the figures of users of mobile
phone and internet in Nigeria and examining the loss of billions of dollars in cybercrime, one can
easily use this framework to establish and illustrate that the phenomena are related to national
security. The trillions of Naira deposited in Treasury Single Account (TSA) by the government

Journal of Intelligence and Cyber Security
41
and the hundreds of billions used monthly for the payment of salaries under the Integrated
Personnel Payroll Information System (IPPIS) present a node of vulnerability if the Nigerian
cybersecurity system is hit. In our work, we rely on empirical evidence related to cyber
communication by criminals and terrorists in building the theoretical apparatus. In essence, our
empirical findings strongly support the theory’s suggestion that nontraditional security threats to
countries like Nigeria can be as strong as traditional ones.
Our work is inspired, certainly, by that of others. For instance, Cavelty & Wenger (2019)
opined that there is a great deal of effort within the international relations discipline aimed at
situating its analytical discourse toward an inclusive focus on cybersecurity as a part of global
security concerns. Cavelty et al. (2019) stress that cybersecurity is connected to political security
because state actors are dealing with state and nonstate actors on the international scene whenever
there are threats and vulnerabilities of attacks from a perceived hostile enemy. Cavelty et al. (2019)
presented three key drivers that influence cybersecurity politics and research in the field. They
include politics (divided into domestic politics and international politics), science (consisting of
academic debates and institutionalization), and technology (involving key events and development
and use). One of the areas that this research is interested in is domestic and international politics
of Nigeria with regard to cybersecurity, and of particular relevance to us is that Cavelty et al.
(2019) found it expedient to expand the rationale behind why research of this nature is undertaken
from the theoretical perspective.
There are other studies (Koops 2016; Aniekan & Afolabi 2017; Diogenes & Ozkaya 2018;
Kremling & Parker 2018; and Kshetri 2019) similar to that of Cavelty et al. (2019) on the nature
and necessity of undertaking cybersecurity research and cybercrime protection from the
perspective of politics. These studies suggest strongly that any serious country and indeed other

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organzations as well as individuals today must have a serious provision and concern for securing
their personal belongings, data, and environment against political attacks via cyberwarfare. The
Nigerian case is especially pertinent because of the shortage of adequate research on the political
implications of cybersecurity in the country from the vantage point of national security. Research
of this nature should be of paramount importance not only for policymaking but also for setting
the foundation of future research on cybersecurity and politics in the Nigerian contexts and by
expansion, in Africa. Finally, we should note an interesting work (World Bank, 2017) that
emphasizes more the digital aspect of the question: namely, the World Bank posits that the extent
to which consumers and organizations are going digital makes it imperitive for countries to secure
their cyberspace.
The theoretical and empirical contribution of our research supports the conclusion that the
assumptions and strategies presented by the likes of Alagappa (1987), Cavelty et al. (2019), and
Kshetri (2019) for identification of cybersecurity as a nontraditional political security threat that
requires counteraction should be analyzed and digested by researchers and policymakers in the
area of study. To reiterate, we settled ultimately for Alagappa’s model because of its permeability,
comprehensiveness, and wider horizon in embracing all the elements and variables discussed in
the study, such as national security, cybersecurity, cybercrime, digital economy, policy responses,
and collective security in general.
Data Collection and Analysis
Primary source data came from interviews with some selected participants drawn from
different categories, as well as from the policy document on cybersecurity adopted by the Nigerian
government and other reports from relevant agencies. A total number of thirty interviewees were
selected, to be sorted in four categories coded as category A, B, C, and D. In category A, eight
military or paramilitary security personnel were selected from different agencies directly dealing

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43
with security issues. A senior security officer in Nigerian military was selected based on
accessibility and possession of quality relevant data on the subject matter of study; another senior
officer from the Nigerian Police Force was chosen based on accessibility and possession of
valuable information. Other interviewees in this category included a senior officer from the
Department of State Security, a senior officer from the Nigerian Immigration Services, a senior
officer from the Nigerian Prison Services, a senior officer from the Nigerian Security and Civil
Defense Corps, a senior officer from the Nigerian Custom Services, and a senior officer from the
Nigerian Federal Road Safety Corps.
In category B, ten senior officials were chosen from institutes and agencies handling
security issues, including two senior officials from the National Institute for Policy and Strategic
Studies (NIPSS) Kuru Jos, two senior officials in the National Defense Academy (NDA), two
senior officials from the Nigeria Police College Wudil Kano, two senior officials from the Ministry
of Defense, and two senior officials from the National War College Abuja. For its part, category
C comprised academicians, wherein six professors were selected from three universities based on
the proximities of the researchers. Two are professors in political science with specialization in
security and strategic studies from a reputable national university, two are professors of computer
science with specialization in cybersecurity and digital environment, and the last two are
professors of sociology with specialization in criminology from a reputable national university.
In category D, six members of private institutions that deal with cyber activities were
selected randomly and interviewed. These comprise a senior bank official in Abuja in one of the
commercial banks, two senior officers from the telecommunications companies operating in
Nigeria, a senior official in the Nigerian Communication Commission (NCC), a senior official
from the Nigerian Technology Development Agency (NITDA), and a senior official from the

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Federal Ministry of Communication. All of them were selected and interviewed in Abuja, where
their head offices are located.
There were three criteria used to identify the informants to be interviewed for this study.
The first was the identification of stakeholders who are closely linked and related to the subject
matter of national security, cybersecurity, and cybercrime and digital economy. The researchers
were instructed by various agencies and ministries to consult staff or units on cybersecurity in
security parastatals and other ministries. They were directed by senior officials there to consult the
most informed in the unit on the subject matter of cybersecurity. The selected informants were
interviewed based on the condition of anonymity and confidentiality. The second criteria used was
the accessibility. For instance, academicians who were consulted were chosen based on
accessibility in addition to their possession of in-depth knowledge on the subject matter; the same
was true for some government ministries and agencies. The third criteria used was based on
Sharan’s postulate (2009) that the minimum number of interviewees for a qualitative research
project should be either four or five and that the maximum should be thirty, depending on the
availability of the resources and informants with quality information.
While the questions were prepared separately for each category, some general questions
were posed to all four categories of interviewees. Semistructured questions were designed to
enable for flexibility and free flow of information from the informants. The method used for
gathering the data was written questionnaires organized in semistructured sessions, adapted to the
different categories of the informants. Some of them were interviewed through phones, some
responded through email, and others through WhatsApp.
Finally, as mentioned, the other primary sources of data included the government policy
document on cybersecurity enacted in 2015 by the Nigerian government, together with various

Journal of Intelligence and Cyber Security
45
reports by national and international agencies on cybersecurity in Nigeria. Secondary sources
consisted of books, journals, and internet sources relevant to the topic at hand. The data obtained
were grouped into themes and analyzed using content analysis in which the previously existing
literature was analyzed in relation to the findings of this work and the application of the theoretical
framework for conclusion and findings.
Discussion and Findings
This section discusses the major findings from the fieldwork, contextualizing it within the
existing literature and the adopted theoretical framework, which enabled the identification of the
knowledge gap and contribution to knowledge. The data are discussed in thematic form under
three major themes: perspectives on challenges and prospects of cybersecurity in Nigeria, the
effects of cybercrimes on Nigeria’s national security, and implications of cybercrime for the digital
economy.
Perspectives on Challenges and Prospects of Cybersecurity in Nigeria
We have previously noted the rapidly increasing number of internet and computer users in
Nigeria, a population that is vulnerable to cybersecurity breaches and cybercrime. The potential
for negative outcomes has been further escalated with the emergence of social media usage in the
country, to include emails, Facebook, WhatsApp, Telegram, YouTube, Instagram, and many other
technologies. In addition to data presented earlier, we should note that digital growth indicators
from 2019 to 2020 show that mobile connections increased by 12 million (+7.7 percent), the
number of internet users grew by 2.2 million (2.6 percent), and active social media users increased
by 3.4 million (14 percent). These data substantiate the conclusion that Nigeria has been going
digital rapidly in recent years: for example, from 2013 to 2019 the number of internet users
increased from 51 million to 93 million, as seen in figure 2.

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Figure 2: Number of Internet Users in Nigeria from 2013 to 2019
Source: Adopted from Statista 2019.
Another source from the Nigerian Communication Commission (NCC) disclosed the figure
of internet users in Nigeria as 111.6 million in December 2018, an increase of more than 10 million
over Statista’s data. In any event, the increase in the use of social media also contributes to the
vulnerability and exposure of the private users and government agencies, organizations, and
corporations to cybercrime.
The figures above imply that there is a clear need in Nigeria for allocating a huge sum of
money and adopting a strong policy on cybersecurity in order to minimize vulnerability and
effectively combat related crimes. Indeed, this was the justification for the adoption of the
Cybersecurity Act in 2015. On the other hand, Nigeria faces a serious challenge in the
cybersecurity sector because of poor infrastructure, low levels of digital know-how and low-level
information transmission. The 2018 Cybersecurity Index concisely pinpointed Nigeria’s
vulnerabilities in this regard (table 1).

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Table 1: Nigeria’s Cybersecurity Index 2018
Rank
National Cybersecurity Index
Digital Development Level
Difference
45
44.16
35.86
8.30
Source: Global Cybersecurity Index 2018.
And yet, not all of our sources viewed the prospects of and challenges to cybersecurity in
Nigeria in identical ways. We summarize and present their views here in tabular form (table 2).
Table 2: Responses of Informants on the Prospects and Challenges of Cybersecurity in Nigeria
Category
Informants
Prospects
Challenges
A
1
Strong rules and regulations
Lack of enforcement
2
Improved awareness
Information flow
3
Existence of cybersecurity laws
Lack of adherence to rules
4
Global cooperation and interconnectivity
Borderless crimes
5
Increase users and malware protection
Anonymity aspect
6
Global awareness forum and policies
Weak digital know-how
7
Increased protection through policies
Poor management of cybersecurity
8
Low level of internet users
Vulnerability
B
1
Emergence of sanctions on cybercrime
Borderless nature of internet
2
Availability of policies on cybersecurity
Vulnerabilities in the cyberspace
3
Increased information flow
Low level of infrastructure
4
Emergence of programs on cybersecurity
Limited number of experts
5
Technical support from advanced countries
Suspicion and lack of digital trust
6
Bridging the knowledge gap on internet
Low level of information flow
7
Establishment of cybersecurity laws
Failure of enforcement by
authorities
8
Digital protection through policies
Anonymous and external threats
9
Training and modern equipment
Low technical support in operation
10
Points for identifying suspicious activities
Corruption and mismanagement
C
1
Increasing the horizon of security studies
Inadequate professionals and
experts
2
Existence of specific policies and sanctions
Lack of adequate awareness
3
Global awareness and technical support
Vulnerability and human rights
4
Increasing conscience of the public
Global nature of cyberspace
5
Strong policy and performance
Low level of protection
6
Spying on criminals for detection
Infringement on privacy
D
1
Low level of digital activities
Lack of knowledge on the field
2
The presence of regulations
Fragile security situation
3
Training of professionals for cybersecurity
Lack of political will
4
Management information flow system
Lack of qualified manpower
5
Digitalization policies by the government
Lack of awareness of the threats

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6
Resistance to fraudsters and cybercriminals
Increase number of internet users
Source: Field Survey from interviews conducted between July to December 2018 with the selected
informants by the researchers.
In addition to the summary above, there are one or two views that are revealing and should
be expressed here. In an interview, one of the informants narrated that “Nigeria is tilting towards
cyberspace like other world countries but there is a huge challenge that should awaken the
policymakers towards particularly securing the cyberspace through an effective cybersecurity.
This is because Nigeria lost N288 billion in 2018 alone to cybercrime which is alarming and a
threat to the internet users in the country” (Interview with an informant in category A on October
27, 2018, in Abuja at 11:30 am). From a different perspective, another informant revealed that “the
weak cybersecurity space in Nigeria disclosed how vulnerable the country. Nowadays, we are no
longer battling with terrorism alone but cyberterrorism because even the terrorists themselves were
using the cyberspace through the anonymity doctrine to undertake their heinous crimes” (Interview
with an informant in category C on September 18, 2018, at 9 am).
Effects of Cybercrime on National Security in Nigeria
Cybercrime has now become a major security headache across the globe because of its
nature, which is cross-border, anonymous, and very difficult to detect or prove. In Nigeria in
particular, the cybercrime indices indicate a harmful and vulnerable situation, with the country
listing among the ten top countries in the cybercrime index as reported by US Federal Bureau of
Investigation. The report revealed that the United States ranks first, United Kingdom second,
Nigeria third, followed by Canada, Romania, Italy, Spain, South Africa, Russia, and China. Apart
from the above, the interviewed informants revealed different views on the effects of cybercrime
on national security in Nigeria. The views are summarized and presented below in a tabular form
(table 3).

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Table 3: Summary of Informants Views on the Effects of Cybercrimes on National Security
Category
Informants
Responses
A
1
It creates room for terrorism
2
It escalates insurgency
3
It creates fear and spread of undetected crimes
4
It leads to the spread of insecurity in all parts of the country
5
Resources in billions are lost annually
6
Kidnappings and other crimes are flourishing undeterred
7
Vital national information is accessed without authorization
8
People are not safe in the country, including security personnel
B
1
Critical national infrastructure is at risk
2
Individuals are affected in their private dealings
3
Terrorists are utilizing cyberspace for coordination of attacks
4
Internal and external fraudsters are defrauding Nigerians undetected
5
Security personnel are finding it difficult to handle insurgency
6
Counterinsurgency is facing setbacks because of the use of the internet
7
Criminals are extorting billions of naira through e-fraud
8
The economy is affected through cybercrimes
9
The social setting is suffering from crimes undertaken using internet
10
The emergence of cellphones allows for cybercrimes and insecurity
C
1
Cybercriminals use smartphones and internet for their activities
2
Terrorism is increased by cyberspace through internet communication
3
External treats exist trough e-attacks on digital businesses
4
Hacking of organizational data leads to stealing of billions of naira
annually
5
The national economy is dragged backward because of threats
6
The digital economy is sluggish due to fear of cybercrimes
D
1
Cybercrimes lead to increased terrorism which affects national security
2
Online businesses are affected by cybercrimes via mutual suspicion
3
Vital governmental information is accessed by unauthorized persons
4
National security planning is at risk of hacking by criminals
5
Use of private cellphone and emails exposes individuals
6
Individuals are tacked and targeted through cyberspace
Source: Field survey from interviews conducted between July to December 2018 with the selected
informants by the researchers.
In an interview, one informant underscored a crucial point, namely that “critical national
infrastructures are at great risk in the country such as payment platform like IPPIS and Treasury
Single Account as well as many other segments that are using the internet for delivering important
services to the nation. The repercussions are that once Nigeria by either advertent or inadvertent

Volume 4, Issue 1: October 2021
accident found itself under cyberattacks, the damage would be unimaginable” (Interview with an
informant in category B on November 11, 2018, at 8:30 pm). Furthermore, another informant
disclosed that “the global trend for national security is shifting towards cyberspace and collective
security is now moving globally towards securing the cyberspace which is more important.
Criminal activities that can threaten national security of a country like Nigeria such as terrorism,
cyber fraud, looting of national treasury and lack of national databank for emergencies are possible
if the cybersecurity of Nigeria is not given adequate attention that it deserves as other world
countries are doing today” (Interview with an informant in category D on December 19, 2018, at
11:00 am). Theoretically, the Alagappa model is useful to strengthen the analysis here because the
activities of hackers and terrorists as indicated above show that the insecure cyberspace in Nigeria
has greatly exposed the country to criminal activities that affect national security.
Additionally, during fieldwork the researchers themselves noted a daily incidence of an
average of two mails per day via their emails, where they are targeted for cybercrimes and fraud.
Some of the emails bore European, American, or Arabic names, claiming to come from the United
Nations and other reputable international organizations; the content of the email would ask the
recipients to assist in the transfer of millions of dollars from various world destinations into
Nigeria. The targeted individual would be asked to help by providing his account details for the
transaction and in return he would allegedly receive half of the proceeds of the transfer. In other
mails, the targeted individual would be congratulated and asked to forward his details as the winner
of the World Health Organization’s annual charity, or a prize given by the United Nations,
UNICEF, or other related agencies. All the informants who were consulted as interviewees for this
study also attested to the same experience. Sometimes it is a direct call from some unscrupulous
elements claiming that you must send your account number and Bank Verification Number (BVN)

Journal of Intelligence and Cyber Security
51
for rectification of an account issue. Once sent, you will start receiving alerts that you are
withdrawing money, your account hacked, and the money stolen. “In essence, once your email is
online and you are a frequent user of internet and emails especially academicians who published
articles with their details of addresses and other organizations that place the details of their staff
on net, you are vulnerable and exposed to these cybercriminals” (Informants in category B, views
expressed during an interview on September 17, 2018, at 9:30 am).
In another view, some of the informants also narrated that cybercrimes are carried out
through the use of computers and smartphones, leading to national insecurity. For instance,
terrorists in Niger-Delta who steal oil and bomb the oil wells and pipelines communicate through
phones and emails; similarly, the Boko Haram terrorists carried out their insurgency using internet
communication such as computers, YouTube to release video messages, phones, and other means
of modern communication. The lack of a proper mechanism put in place by the government to
detect the criminals is causing a serious security breach and a potential threat to national security
as is now being witnessed where the entire country is enmeshed in one form of insecurity or the
other such as Boko Haram in the northeast, armed bandits and kidnapping in the northwest, a
Farmers-Herders conflict in the north central region, militants’ activities in Niger-Delta,
kidnappings in the southeast and armed robbery in the southwest.
Implications of Cybercrime on Digital Economy
Globally, there are around three and a half billion internet users and five billion mobile
phone users. Ninety-nine percent of the world’s population lives in a place that is covered by a
mobile-cellular network and 84 percent of people on the planet live somewhere covered by mobile
broadband networks (Graham 2019, 3). The above statistics indicate that the world is fast
becoming connected by internet and cyberspace activities, including Nigeria, and this by
implication means a commensurate rate of cybercrimes and threats to digital economy. Cybercrime

Volume 4, Issue 1: October 2021
in Nigeria in particular has great implications for the digital economy because Nigeria is an
emerging economy well-positioned to survive and prosper via e-commerce due to its population
of about 200 million, enormous potential market, and diverse natural resources. The above
assertion is supported by the statistics below.
The online purchase of consumer goods in Nigeria in 2020 discloses a significant number
of users of digital economy in the country. About 76.6 million Nigerians are shopping online,
worth an amount of $3.37 billion; 2.2 percent of the GDP comprises the activities of online
consumer. The value of the e-commerce market is recorded at $13 billion, which signifies an
increase of 42 percent from 2019 and an average of $401 per consumer. Forty percent of
transactions in 2020 were conducted using mobile phones. Of the payment method of e-commerce
in Nigeria, the following may be said (as of 2020): 27 percent was credit card, 24 percent cash, 23
percent bank transfer, 9.0 percent e-wallet, and 17 percent other. The number of people who are
making digital payment transactions is 105 million, with a total annual value of $21.61 billion,
signifying an increase of 21 percent from 2019 with $206 as an average digital payment per digital
payment user. The value of the total digital advertising market is $1.17 billion, with $412 million
spent on digital search ads, $516 million on social media ads, $89 million spent on digital banner
ads, $94 million on digital video ads, and $55 million on digital classified ads (Global Web Index
2020).
A summary of the views of the informants on the implications of cybercrimes on the digital
economy in Nigeria is presented below in table 4.

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Table 4: Summary of the Views of Informants on the Implications of Cybercrime on Digital
Economy in Nigeria.
Category
Informants
Responses
A
1
Low level of digital trust
2
Affect economic growth and development particularly e-commerce
3
Prevents utilization of cyberspace for jobs creation
4
Discourages entrepreneurs from initiating a business model on the internet
5
Leads to loss of billions of USD
6
Sabotage the economy
7
Decline in the service sectors and Value Added Tax (VAT)
8
Stymied modernization of business activities leading to physical transactions
B
1
Affects governmental revenue generation
2
Consolidates overdependence on oil only as the major source of revenue
3
Deprives service sectors from performing
4
The usual relief of physical task of business is not benefitted from [sic.]
5
Many businesses collapsed
6
It deprives aspiring entrepreneurs of innovation and initiation
7
Resources are wasted and lost unnecessarily
8
Lack of confidence and cynicism about digital activities
9
Secrecy is violated and compromised
10
Waste of time, energy, and resources
C
1
Lack of digital trust
2
e-commerce is crippled
3
Cyberspace is being mis-utilized for social media only, without any benefit
4
Energy and time is wasted in physical transactions
5
Risk and uncertainties increased through physical transaction
6
Valuable services are lost
D
1
People failed to benefit from digital transaction leading to low technological spread
2
Mis-utilization of cyberspace for trivial activities instead of productive ventures
3
Corporations are finding it difficult to operate nowadays
4
Small scale businesses are not developing in e-commerce
5
Investment is lost and wasted
6
Public confidence is affected in e-businesses
Source: Field survey from interviews conducted between July to December 2018 with the selected
informants by the researchers.
As before, some informants’ major points are relevant to be quoted here. One of them
disclosed that “the Nigerians are now enjoying digital economy through e-commerce and digital
shopping from the comfort of their homes. But inadequate awareness, exposure, vulnerability, and

Volume 4, Issue 1: October 2021
weak cybersecurity is threatening the revolution in digital economy in the country even with the
reality that the country can no longer survive without going digital, the colossal loss to hackers
and cyber fraudsters recorded in the country disclosed that the digital economy has a serious
challenge” (Interview with an informant in category C on August 6, 2018, at 10: 00 am). Another
informant revealed that “corporations in Nigeria are finding it difficult to make transaction easier
for its customers due to the alarming rate of cybercrime in the country and even the government
itself is slow in transferring towards e-governance and e-transaction due to hackers and a weak
cybersecurity in the country” (Interview with an informant in category A on August 17, 2018, at
3: 00 pm).
Conclusion and Recommendations
The study concludes that Nigeria has recognized the importance of cybersecurity owing to its
establishment of the Cybersecurity Act 2015, as a direct response to the recent emergence of
cybercrimes in the country. The study contributed to the scholarly literature both empirically and
theoretically. Empirically, the study revealed statistics regarding mobile and internet users in
Nigeria as well as digital online activities in the country. It reported scientific views from
informants on the effects of cybercrimes on national security and digital economy in Nigeria.
Theoretically, the study succeeded in linking the connection between the various existing
propositions on matters of national security and cybersecurity and the emerging empirical evidence
from the area of study. The study also has policy implications in terms of initiating some proposals
for policymaking in cybersecurity to prevent cybercrimes in Nigeria. The recommendations are
listed below:
1. The government and other agencies responsible for ICT regulations should create popular
awareness on the need to prevent the exposure of security codes and other vital information
online;
2. People should be sensitized to report suspicious transactions to the agencies that are
responsible for the handling of cybersecurity policies;

Journal of Intelligence and Cyber Security
55
3. Experts should be engaged to train existing staff within the relevant agencies on
cybersecurity technicalities for easy identification of threats;
4. Workshops and media advertisements should be regularized quarterly to enlighten the
public, organizations, and governmental agencies on the workings of cybercrime and how
to adopt measures for protection;
5. Those who are caught in cybercrime activities should be punished severely according to
the regulations of Cybersecurity Act 2015 to deter other criminals from future occurrence
and
6. A databank for internet users and mobile phones should be created to enable the
identification of suspicious calls and transactions in order for criminals to be apprehended
immediately upon initiating an attack.
Acknowledgement of Funding
The work for this study was undertaken with research grant assistance from Professor Madya Bakri
Bin Mat, an Associate Professor of Security and Strategic Studies in the School of International
Studies, College of Law, Government and International Studies, Universiti Utara Malaysia.
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