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Souvenir-cum-Abstract Book: National Conference on Priorities in Crop
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NATIONAL CONFERENCE
on
Priorities in Crop Protection
for
Sustainable Agriculture
(16-18 March 2021)
Jointly Organized by:
CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, IMPHAL, MANIPUR
and
ICAR-NATIONAL BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL INSECT
RESOURCES, BENGALURU
Souvenir-cum-Abstract Book
Edited by
Shravan M Haldhar
R. K. Saha
M. Nagesh
N. Bakthavatsalam
Bireswar Sinha
DIRECTORATE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
Citation : Haldhar S. M., Saha R. K., Nagesh M., Bakthavatsalam N. and Sinha B.
(2021). Souvenir-cum-Abstract Book: National Conference on Priorities
in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture. Pub: Directorate of
Extension Education, CAU, Imphal pp-282.
Published by : Directorate of Extension Education,
Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Mamipur-795004
Layout & Design : Shri Y. Premchand Singh and N. Kenedy Singh
First edition : 2021© Copyright reserved with the editors
Printed at : Nest Advertising & Marketing Pvt. Ltd.
Babupara, Imphal, Manipur
Sponsored by : ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru
© Directorate of Extension Education, Central Agricultural University, Imphal
e views expressed in the articles are the
personal opinion of the contributors.
FOREWORD
ere is a realization that although green revolution has changed the face of agriculture, yet poor and
marginal farmers are less benetted. Similarly, modern agricultural practices which actually ushered in
the green revolution has done more harm to natural resources partly due to imbalanced and inadequate
supplementation of nutrients. Similarly, the use of pesticides also caused harm to natural resources, oen
because of excessive and faulty use of these chemicals. As a result, there is a new awakening on resource
management in agriculture. It is also said that Green Revolution technologies were inappropriate for
marginal and poor farmers, but peasants were excluded from access to credit, information, technical
support and other services that would have helped them use and adapt these new inputs if they so
desired.
In this context, crop protection has an important role to play in the evolution of agriculture
towards more environmentally sustainable farming system. Crop protection has to oer through
integrated management of insects, weeds and critical diseases.
e proposed conference will provide a platform for the scientists, researchers, policy maker,
entrepreneurs and other stakeholders like state government ocials and farmers for cross learning with
an approach towards sustainable crop protection strategies and its commercialization so that it enable
the farmers to reap more economic gain or prot from the organic based farming system for sustainable
agriculture under North East India.
I hope these three days National Conference on “Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable
Agriculture” will cover all aspects to safeguard the crop protection strategies, its utilization; uses which
will reduce on the dependence on pesticides as a result enhance the production, productivity and
income of farmers.
I wish the Conference a grand success.
Dr. Anupam Mishra
Vice-Chancellor
(Anupam Mishra)
Tel: (0385) 2415933(O)
Fax: 2410414
Email: vcofcecau@yahoo.in
CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
LAMPHELPAT, IMPHAL-795004, MANIPUR (INDIA)
Development of environmentally safe and ecological sound technologies on integrated plant health
management for enhanced production is more important but challenging under present changing
climate conditions. But it can be achieved by developing biocontrol based IPM modules including
compatible technologies. For the management of plant diseases involving biocontrol agents, research
has long been focused on the study of strains of biocontrol agents and on their interaction with
pathogens and host plants.
It is noteworthy to mention that ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources
(NBAIR) holds one of the repositories of live insects and insect derived resources and has a wealth
of information on insect resources. In addition, NBAIR along with the centres of ICAR- All India
Coordinated Research Projects on Biological Control works on identifying potential bio-agents, create
awareness on biocontrol strategies amongst various stake-holders, monitors the sudden outbreaks of
indigenous pests and entry of invasive pests and strives to provide sustainable solutions for pests and
diseases attacks on crops. However, the practical application and success of biocontrol technologies
depends on active public-private partnership, which can lead to ne tuning and commercialization
of these technologies. is would further enable timely availability of quality biocontrol products
in required quantities. I strongly feel that our future thrust should be on identication and
commercialization of potential biocontrol technologies.
I hope these three days National Conference on “Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable
Agriculture” will cover all aspects to safeguard the crop protection strategies, its utilization; uses which
will reduce on the dependence on pesticides as a result enhance the production, productivity and
income of farmers. I am sure that this conference will provide platform and opportunity to researchers,
students, extension agencies and the industry to take stock of the current situation on the subject
and suggest way forward to enhance the utility of bio-agents and feasible biocontrol management
technologies.
I congratulate the organisers and wish the participants a successful meet.
Dr. S. C. Dubey
ADG (PP), ICAR, New Delhi
(S. C. Dubey)
MESSAGE
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Krishi Bhavan: New Delhi
FROM THE DESK OF DIRECTOR NBAIR
e Indian Agricultural Production is continuously showing a positive trend during the past 3 years,
thanks to the timely monsoon, support from various agencies for the supply the inputs, technical
support from ICAR, SAUs, State and Central Department of Agriculture and of course the hard work
of the farmer friends. In India more than 5-40% of yield losses have been reported on various crops
and weeds cause more than 37% yield loss followed by insects (29%), pathogens (22%) and other pests
(12%). However, in India the use of insecticides is very high (65%) compared to others like herbicide
(16 %) and fungicide (15%). e consumption pattern of pesticides in India is still very low (0.291 kg
ha-1) compared to other countries.
e Country is facing serious threats from the emerging pests such as locust, rugose whitey,
fall army warm, thrips, hoppers and mealybugs which were earlier considered as minor pests and
are becoming major pests, probably attributed to the climate change. Besides, the past two decades
witnessed invasion by more than 6 insects which created extensive damage to the crops. Fortunately,
scientists have developed and validated successful technologies to manage these pests eectively,
employing Biointensive Integrated pest management methods.
e science and technology have been advancing day by day with the invention of new pesticide
molecule, tolerant varieties, new biological control agents, ecient strains of microbials and their
formulations and cutting edge pheromone technologies which will denitely see a paradigm shi in
the pest management strategies.
e National Conference on “Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture” is
being organized by Central Agriculture University , Imphal during 16-18th March 2021 with a view
to take stock of the present pest scenario and suggest newer methods of pest management.
I wish the National Conference a grand success.
Dr. N. Bakthavatsalam
Director, ICAR-NBAIR
Bengaluru
(N. Bakthavatsalam)
ICAR - NATIONAL BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL INSECT RESOURCES
P. B. No. 2491, H. A. Farm Post, Ballari Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru - 560 024, INDIA
(Formerly National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects)
PREFACE
Green Revolution technologies were inappropriate for marginal and poor farmers, but peasants were excluded
from access to credit, information, technical support and other services that would have helped them use and
adapt these new inputs if they so desired. Clearly, the historical challenge for the publicly funded agricultural
research community is to refocus its eorts on marginalized farmers and agro ecosystems and become catalysts in
their sustained growth, which will lead to the welfare of agriculture and country. Keeping in view the huge scope
of the crop protection in NEH region, Central Agricultural University, Imphal and ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
are organizing a three day national conference on “Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture”
from 16th to 18th March, 2021 at College of Agriculture, Iroisemba, Manipur, India.
In this Souvenir-cum-Abstract Book, several aims to take stock of the prevailing agricultural resources
and their pest management strategies and how to augment them so that its benets are reaped by the small
stakeholders residing in diverse and adverse conditions in a sustainable way based on the use of local resources
and indigenous knowledge. Earnest eorts have therefore, been made to compile information on above theme in
a systematic manner, grouped in dierent chapters and presented in the form of “Souvenir-cum-Abstract Book:
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture”.
For this purpose, the Hon’ble Vice-Chancellor has given his consent to plan and publish this souvenir-
cum-abstract book. erefore, I am grateful to Dr. Anupam Mishra, Hon’ble VC, CAU, Imphal for his constant
support and encouragement. I am also thankful to Dr. S. Basanta Singh, DI, CAU, Imphal, Prof. K. Mamocha
Singh, Registrar, CAU, Imphal, Prof. Indira Sarangthem, Dean, COA, Imphal, Dr. N. Bakthavatsalam, Director,
ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru for sponsoring the national conference and publishing the souvenir-cum-abstract
book. I am also thankful to Dr. M. Nagesh, Principal Scientist & HOD, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru, Dr. S. M.
Hadhar, Asso. Prof. (Entomology), COA, CAU, Imphal and Dr. Bireswar Sinha, Assistant Professor (SS), COA,
CAU, Imphal for their constant help and cooperation to publish this souvenir-cum-abstract. e dream seen
so far has now been converted into reality due to very valuable eorts of all the contributors; therefore, my
sincere thanks are recorded towards all of them. Bringing out this guide book in the existing shape has been
possible due to rigorous and continuous eorts of all the sta of the Directorate of Extension Education, CAU,
Lamphelpat, and Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal especially Dr. K. I. Singh,
Asso. Prof. & Head (Entomology), Dr. Dipak Nath, Dy. Director of Extension Education, Mr. Y. Premchand
Singh., Computer Operator, Mr. G. Amritkumar Sharma, Video-photographer, Smt. Narita L, PA to Director
(EE) and others.
I am condent this publication will be an important source of information in the eld of crop protection
for the stakeholders and extension functionaries devoted to the services of farming communities.
(Ratan Kumar Saha)
(Prof. Ratan Kumar Saha)
Director of Extension Education
CENTRAL AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
LAMPHELPAT, IMPHAL-795004, MANIPUR (INDIA)
NATIONAL CONFERENCE ORGANIZING PERSONS
Chief Patron
Dr. Anupam Mishra
Vice- Chancellor, CAU, Imphal
Patron
Dr. N. Bakthavatsalam
Director, ICAR- NBAIR, Bengaluru
Chairperson
Prof. Ratan K. Saha
Director (Extension Education) CAU, Imphal
Co-Chairpersons
Dr. S. Basanta Singh
Director of Instruction, CAU, Imphal
Prof. Indira Sarangthem
Dean, COA CAU, Imphal
Prof. K. Mamocha Singh
Registrar,CAU Imphal
Convener
Dr. M. Nagesh
PS & HOD, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Organizing Secretary
Dr. Shravan Manbhar Haldhar
Associate Professor, Entomology, CAU, Imphal
Co-Organizing Secretary
Dr. A. N. Shylesh
HOD, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. Sunil Joshi
HOD, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. Bireswar Sinha
Assitant Professor, Plant Pathology, CAU, Imphal
Dr. B. N. Hazarika
Dean, CoHF, Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh
Dr. P. P. Dabral
Dean, CoH, Bermiok, Sikkim
Dr. L. Hmar
Dean, Co Vty Sc & AH, Aizawl, Mizoram
Dr. Wricha Tyagi
Dean i/c, CPGSc in Agr. Sc. Umiam,
Meghalaya
Dr. Ng. Joykumar Singh
Dean i/c, CFT, Imphal
Prof. E V Divakara Sastry
PBG, COA, Imphal
Prof. U. Chaoba Singh
Horticulture, COA, Imphal
Prof. Ph. Sobita Devi
Plant Pathology, COA, Imphal
Prof. D. B. Ahuja
Head, Plant Protection, CHF, Pasighat
Dr. LNK Singh
Head, Plant Pathology, COA, Imphal
Dr. A. Kandan
ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. Amala Udaykumar
ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. Omprakash Navik
ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. Ankita Gupta
ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. P. K. Pandey
Dean, CoF, Lembucherra, Tripura
Dr. U. K. Behera
Dean, CoA, Kyrdemkulai, Meghalaya
Dr. Puspita Das
Dean, CoCSc,Tura, Meghalaya
Dr. Arun Kr. Sangwon
Dean, Co Vty Sc & AH, Jalukie, Nagaland
Dr. Latrinsang Puii
Dean i/c, CoH, enzawl, Mizoram
Prof. L. Nabachandra Singh
Agronomy, COA, Imphal
Prof. M. Kunjaraj Singh
Agri. Extension, COA, Imphal
Prof. R. K. Tombisana
Head, Crop Protection, CPGAS, Barapani
Dr. Kh. Ibohal Singh
Head, Entomology, COA, Imphal
Dr. Dipak Nath
Dy. DEE, CAU, Imphal
Dr. Sampath Kumar
ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. Richa Varshney
ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. Jagadeesh Patil
ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. Ramya
ICAR-NBAIR, Beng
EXECUTIVE MEMBERS
Prof. S. N. Puri
Former VC, CAU, Imphal
Prof. K. S. Khokhar
Former VC, CCSHAU, Haryana
Prof. B. C. Deka
VC, AAU, Jorhat
Prof. Amar Yumnam
VC, Manipur University, Imphal
Prof. G. P. Prasain
VC, Tripura University, Tripura
Prof. Pardeshi Lal
VC, Nagaland University, Nagaland
Prof. B. K. Agarwala
Chairman, TSPCB, Agartala, Tripura
Dr. N. K. Krishna Kumar
Former DDG (Horticulture), ICAR, New Delhi
Dr. T. P. Rajendran
Former ADG (PP), ICAR, New Delhi
Dr. K. R. Kranthi
Head of Technical Information, ICAC,
Washington DC
Dr. Chandish R. Ballal
Former Director, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Prof. C.A. Srinivasamurthy
Former Director of Research, CAU, Imphal
Dr. V. K. Mishra
Director, ICAR RC NEH, Umiam
Dr. A. K. Tripathi, Director
ICAR-ATARI, Zone-VI (Guwahati) & VII
(Umiam)
Dr. Santhosh J Eapen
Acting Director, ICAR-IISR, Kerala
Dr. Jagdish Kumar
Joint Director, ICAR-NIBSM, Maharashtra
Prof. M. Premjit Singh
Former VC, CAU, Imphal
Prof. H. C. Sharma
Former VC, Dr YSPHUHF, Solan
Prof. D. C. Nath
VC, Assam University, Silchar
Prof. S. K. Srivastava
VC, NEHU, Sillong
Prof. K.R.S. Sambasiva Rao
VC, Mizoram University, Mizoram
Dr. T. R. Sharma
DDG (CS), ICAR New Delhi
Dr. C. D. Mayee
Former Chairmen, ASRB, New Delhi
Dr. S. C. Dubey
ADG (PP&B), ICAR New Delhi
Dr. Pranjib K. Chakrabarty
Member, ASRB, New Delhi
Dr. K. K. Sharma
Director, ICAR-IINRG, Ranchi
Dr. Abraham Verghese
Former Director, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Dr. Y. G. Prasad
Director, ICAR-CICR Nagpur
Dr. Subhash Chander
Director, ICAR-NCIPM, New Delhi
Dr. P. K. Mukherjee
Director, IBSD, Imphal
Dr. A. Bhattacharyya
DR, AAU, Jorhat
Dr. G. J. Rajkhowa
Joint Director, ICAR-RC NEH, Nagaland
Dr. I. Shakuntala
Joint Director, ICAR-RC NEH, Mizoram
Dr. Rampal
Director, NRCO, Sikkim
NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Dr. H. Kalita
Joint Director, ICAR-RC NEH, Arunachal
Pradesh
Dr. Ravi Kant Avasthe
Joint Director, ICAR-NOFRI, Sikkim
Dr. B. K. Kandpal
Joint Director, ICAR RC NEH, Tripura
Dr. Satyajit Roy
Acting ICAR-DMAPR, Gujarat
Dr. M. Kalyanasundaram
Dean, AC&RI, TNAU, Coimbatore
Prof. G. A. Shantibala Devi
Dean, SLS, MU, Imphal
Prof. S. K. Mehta
Dean, SLS, MU, Mizoram
Prof. S. Chakraborty
Dean, HKSLS, AU, Silchar
Dr. V. V. Ramamurthy
Former Prof., Division of Entomology,
ICAR-IARI, New Delhi
Prof. R. Varatharajan
Coordinator, Dept. of Zoology, MU,
Imphal
Dr. I. T. Asangla Jamir
Professor, Dept. of Entomology, NU
Medziphema
Dr. I. Meghachandra Singh
Joint Director, ICAR-RC NEH, Imphal
Prof. R. Swaminathan
Former Dean, RCA, MPUAT, Udaipur
Dr. Srinivas
Dean, UAS, Bangalore
Dr. Jayanta Deka
Faculty of Agriculture, AAU, Jorhat
Prof. Akali Sema
Dean, SAS & RD, NU, Nagaland
Dr. G. T. Gujar
Former Head, Division of Ento., ICAR-IARI, New
Delhi
Prof. N. M. Meitei
Head, Dept. of Zoology, MU, Imphal
Dr. N. TiamerenAo
Head, Dept. of Pathology, NU, Medziphema
Prof. SarbaniGiri
Head, DLS & B, AU, Silchar
Prof. A. K. Yadav
Head, Dept. of Zoology, NEHU, Silcha
S. No. eme Abstract code Page no
1. Changing scenario and invasive species of
pests and diseases in agriculture ecosys-
tems
LI-1 to LI-3
I-1 to I-12
1-40
2. Priorities in biological control of insect
pests and diseases
LII-1 to LII-6
II-1 to II-21
41-92
3. Priorities in host plant resistance, crop ar-
chitecture and semiochemicals for pest and
disease management
LIII-1 to LIII-6
III-1 to III-19
93-158
4. Priorities in biodiversity, biosystematics
and molecular taxonomy for crop protec-
tion
LIV-1 to LIV-4
IV-1 to IV-7
159-184
5. Priorities in integrated approaches for pest
and disease management
LV-1 to LV-3
V-1 to V-21
185-214
6. Priorities in traditional vis-a-vis
eco-friendly pesticides on crop pest man-
agement
LVI-1
VI-1 to VI-34
215-250
7. Priorities of plant protection services of
KVKs and social networking in ensuring
food and nutritional security
LVII-1 to LVII-2
VII-1 to VII-7
251-270
8. Dierent committees - 271-274
9. Proceeding of national conference on
priorities in crop protection
for sustainable agriculture
- 275-282
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
1
Theme-I
Changing Scenario and
Invasive Species of Pests and
Diseases in Agriculture
Ecosystems
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
2
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
3
LI-1
Recent experiences and preparedness in management of invasive insect pest, the desert locusts
S. N. Sushil
ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow-226 002 Uttar Pradesh, India
Corresponding author email: snsushil@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
One of the most dangerous international transboundary insect pests the desert locust,
Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk) is posing threat to agricultural production in Africa, Middle east and south
west Asia since centuries. India is one the countries suffered heavily in crop losses in recent past.
Due to its strong migratory behaviour, India is facing frequent invasion of desert locust and a
continuous threat to agricultural crops grown in prone areas. The present review paper would cover
global perspectives with special reference to India on desert locust distribution, bio-ecology,
behaviour, plagues and upsurges, critical analysis on recent upsurges of locusts, various mitigation
measures and international and national co-operations in managing the menace of desert locusts.
Keywords:
Schistocerca gregaria,
transboundary pest, locust invasions, pest management
Introduction
Desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Forsk) is an international transboundary insect pest causing
threats to agriculture production and livelihood and in general to environment, in arid and semi-arid
regions. About ten species of locusts are reported globally, among these only four species are present
in India, viz., desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria), migratory locust (Locusts migratoria), bombay locust
(Nomadacris succincta) and tree locust (Anacaridium sp.). The desert locust is considered to be the most
dangerous of all migratory pest species in the world due to its ability to reproduce rapidly, migrate
long distances, gregarious in nature and devastate crops (Cressman, 2016). During quiet periods
(known as recessions) desert locust is found only in the semi-arid and arid deserts of Africa, near
East and South-West Asia that receive less than 200 mm rainfall annually. During plagues, desert
locusts may spread over an enormous area of some 29 million square kilometers, extending over or
into parts of 60 countries, ranging from Mauritania through the Sahara and Arabian Peninsula to
Western India. Locust plagues generally take several years to develop after a series of events in which
locust numbers increase steadily (Roffey and Magor, 2001). During plagues, the desert locust has the
potential to damage the livelihood of a tenth of the world's population. The magnitude of the
damage and loss caused by the locusts is very gigantic beyond imagination as they have caused the
starvation due to its being voracious polyphagous nature. Locust swarms may vary from less than
one square kilometer to several hundred square kilometers. There can be up to 80 million locust
adults in each square kilometer of swarm. A swarm of locusts spread across an area of one square
kilometer can eats the same amount of food in one day as about 35,000 people (FAO, 2020). Their
appetite is voracious and one locust can consume food equal to its own weight – about two grams
on a daily basis. Locust do cause damage by devouring the leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, bark and
growing points and also by breaking down trees because of their weight when they settle down in
masses. Desert locusts usually fly with the wind at a speed of about 16-19 km/ hr. depending on the
wind. Swarms can travel about 100-150 km in a day at a height upto 2000 meter (Pedgley, 1981).
Locusts can stay in the air for long periods of time. For example, locusts regularly cross the Red Sea,
a distance of 300 km. Solitary desert locust adults usually fly at night whereas, gregarious adults
(swarms) fly during the day (FAO, 2004). Due to its strong migratory behaviour, India has been
facing serious threats to its agricultural crops grown in the states adjoining to the neighbouring
country Pakistan. In recent past attack of desert locust in India has increased several folds and that
necessitated to gear up for strategic planning in mitigation of this most dangerous invasive insect
pest.
Distribution of desert locust
The desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, is one of the most notorious insect pests of the world
which inhabits a broad belt of arid and semi-arid which stretches from Atlantic Ocean to north
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
4
western India. Thus, it covers over 16 million sq kms spread over 30 countries during the normal
outbreak period. While, during plague and serious outbreaks, it may invade to 29 million sq kms
spread over 60 countries. In western region, locust affected countries in West and North-West Africa
include Algeria, Chad, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Senegal, Tunisia, Burkina Faso, Cape
Verde, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Tunisia, Niger. In central region, locust-affected countries
along the Red Sea include Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda,
Yemen, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt,
Syria,Turkey. In eastern region, locust-affected countries in South-West Asia include Afghanistan,
India, Iran and Pakistan. (FAO, 2004, Dirsh, 1974). Cressman (2016) elaborated its distribution
including recession area and limit of invasion area and breeding areas. However, desert locusts are
also reported from Philippines and China 2002 (CABI, 2001, Chen 2002).
Bio-ecology of desert locusts
Desert Locust females lay eggs in an egg pod primarily in sandy soils at a depth of 10-15
centimeters below the surface. A solitary female lays about 95-158 eggs whereas, a gregarious female
lays usually less than 80 eggs in an egg pod. Females can lay at least three times in their life time
usually at intervals of about 6-11 days. Up to 1,000 egg pods have been found in one square meter. A
Desert Locust lives a total of about three to five months although this is extremely variable and
depends mostly on weather and ecological conditions. The life cycle comprises of three stages: egg,
hopper and adult. Eggs hatch in about two weeks (the range is 10-65 days), hoppers develop in five
to six stages over a period of about 30-40 days, and adults mature in about three weeks to nine
months but more frequently from two to four months (FAO, 2004).
In all there are three breeding seasons for locusts (i) Winter breeding (November to
December), (ii) Spring breeding (January to June) and (iii) Summer breeding (July to October). India
has only one summer breeding season. The neighboring country Pakistan has both spring and
summer breeding (Cressman, 2016). Favourable conditions for Desert Locust breeding are (i) moist
sandy or sand/ clay soil to depths of 10-15 cm below the surface, (ii) some bare areas for egg-laying,
and (iii) green vegetation for hopper development. As Desert Locusts increase in number and
become more crowded, they change their behaviour from that of acting as an individual (solitarious)
insect to that as acting as part of a group (gregarious). The appearance of locust also changes as the
solitary adults are brown whereas, gregarious adults are pink (immature) and yellow (mature). Adult
locusts are passive fliers and are carried by the wind. Solitarious adults fly in the early evening while
swarms fly during daylight hours, starting early in the morning once the adults have warmed up and
continuing until just before sunset. Swarms can fly up to 100-150 km in a single day at heights up to
2,000 m. While migrating over water, swarms can fly continuously for 20 or more hours. Locusts
migrate between seasonal breeding areas. For example, summer-bred swarms often migrate from the
Sahel of West Africa and Sudan to Northwest Africa, or from Sudan to the Red Sea coast; winter-
bred swarms migrate from the Red Sea coastal plains to the interior of Saudi Arabia or Sudan, and
spring-bred swarms can migrate from the interior of Arabia to Sudan and West Africa, or from the
Horn of Africa to the Indo-Pakistan border (Pedgley, 1981, Cressman 2016).
Locust plagues and upsurges in India
The attack of desert locust used to occur earlier in phases of plague cycles, a period of more
than two consecutive years of wide-spread breeding and swarm production followed by a period of
1-8 years of very little locust activity called as the recession period. India witnessed several locust
plagues and locust upsurges and incursions during last two centuries as indicated below. In India, in
the year 1993, 172 swarm incursions were recorded. After a gap of 27 years, 276 swarm incursions
were recorded during 2019 and 103 swarms in 2020. In between years, in 1997, 4 swarms and in
1998, 2002, 2005, 2007 and 2010 small scale breeding was recorded in Indian territory. (Table-1)
(http://ppqs.gov.in/divisions/locust-control-research/locust-plagues-and-upsurges). The decline in
desert locust plagues in the past 50 years can be attributed to a number of factors such as the
introduction of chemical pesticides, improved transportation and infrastructure, and advances in
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technologies related to precision spraying, communications, geopositioning, spatial analysis, remote
sensing, and early warning (Magor et al., 2007).
Table 1. Locust plagues and upsurges in India
Locust plagues
Locust Upsurges
Year
No. of Swarm Incursion
1812-1821
1964
4
1843-1844
1968
167
1863-1867
1973
6
1869-1873
1974
6
1876-1881
1975
19
1889-1891
1976
2
1900-1907
1978
20
1912-1920
1983
26
1926-1930
1986
3
1940-1946
1989
15
1949-1955
1993
172
1959-1962
1997
4
2019
2020
276
103
India-International Cooperation on locust management
India is a member of FAO Commission for Controlling the Desert Locust in South-West
Asia (SWAC) since 1964. In SWAC, other participating countries are Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan.
India is regular member of Desert Locust Control Committee (DLCC) since 1959. India is regularly
participating in the meetings/ sessions of the FAO‘s SWAC & DLCC, Joint Survey Programmes
with Pakistan and Iran organized by FAO; Indo-Pak joint border meeting during summer months.
India is also participating in Inter Regional workshop like Desert Locust Information Officers‘
workshop, Contingency Planning and Financing System for locust control etc. (DPPQ&S, 2020).
Locust Warning Organization (LWO) in India
In the nineteenth century, India experienced serious locust outbreaks during 1812, 1821,
1843-44, 1863, 1869, 1878, 1889-92, and 1896-97. Several efforts were made by British Government
to combat the swarms. The first of these measures was to systematically collect and record data on
locust occurrences. The Government encouraged the entomologists to conduct research on locusts
with the hope of understanding the locust plague. Only after the result of series of locust outbreaks
between 1926-32, that ravaged the central and western part of the undivided British India, the need
was felt for establishment of a centralized organization. This resulted in the formation of the
Standing Locust Committee in 1929 and the Central Locust Bureau in 1930. Research on the desert
locust began in 1931 and established a permanent Locust Warning organization (LWO) in March
1939, with headquarters at New Delhi and a substation at Karachi in 1942. Later, this organization
was merged with the Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage, Department of
Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare,
Government of India in 1946. LWO is responsible for monitoring, survey and control of Desert
Locust in Scheduled Desert Area (SDA) mainly in the States of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The area of
scheduled desert is about 2.05 lakh square Kilometer covering major parts of Rajasthan, Gujrat states
and very minor area of Haryana and Punjab. LWO has its central headquarters at Faridabad, while
field headquarters at Jodhpur. Besides, Locust Circle Offices (10 nos.) located in Rajasthan and
Gujarat, one Field Station Investigation Laboratory (FSIL) is located at Bikaner. Incursion of exotic
locust swarms into India is prevented by LWO through organization of suitable control operation in
coordination with state agriculture and other departments.
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LWO keeps itself abreast with the prevailing locust situation at National and International level
through monthly Desert Locust Bulletins of FAO issued by the Desert Locust Information Service
(DLIS), AGP Division Rome, Italy. Survey data are collected by the field functionaries from the
fields which are transmitted to LWO circle offices, field HQ Jodhpur and Central HQ Faridabad,
where these are compiled and analyzed to forewarn the probability of locust outbreak and upsurges.
The locust situation is appraised to the State Governments of Rajasthan and Gujarat with the advice
to gear up their field functionaries to keep a constant vigil on locust situation in their areas and
intimate the same to the nearest LWO offices for taking necessary action at their end. The objectives
of LWO are:
To monitor, forewarn and control locust in Scheduled Desert Area (SDA) being International
obligation and commitment.
To conduct research on locust and grasshoppers.
Liaison and coordination with National and International Organizations.
Human resource development through training and demonstration for staff of Locust Warning
Organization (LWO), State officials, BSF personnel and Farmers.
To maintain control potential to combat locust emergency by organizing locust control
campaign.
Lot of innovations have been made in the field of locust survey and surveillance for quick
transmission of locust survey data, their analysis, decision making, mapping of survey areas through
computerization, adoption of new software like eLocust3 and RAMSES by the LWO. eLocust3g, is a
GPS satellite communicator that can send basic data in real time on a standard form. SWAC
headquarters at FAO, Rome is analyzing the data received from India and other countries and releasing
locust watch bulletin on weekly basis for forewarning on locust breeding, outbreak, swarm movement
etc. (FAO, 2020).
Genesis of recent upsurges 2018-2020- a case study
The genesis of current desert locust upsurges was summerised by FAO, 2020 (1)
(http://www.fao.org/ag/locusts/en/info/2094/index.html)
2018: Cyclones in May and October brought heavy rains and that led to favourable breeding
conditions in the empty quarter of the southern Arabian Peninsula for at least nine months since
June. As a result, three generations of breeding occurred that was undetected and hence no control
measure taken.
2019: During January, the first swarms left the Empty Quarter to Yemen and Saudi Arabia, reached
southwest Iran where heavy rains fall was occurred. Between February to June, widespread spring
breeding occurred in Yemen, Saudi Arabia and Iran that caused large numbers of swarms formation.
However, the control operations were less successful in Iran and Yemen. Between June and
December, the swarms invaded the Indo-Pakistan border from Iran and up to three generations of
multiplication and large number of swarm formation occurred due to longer than normal monsoon.
In Yemen, swarms formed and moved to North Somalia and Ethiopia where again breeding
occurred and more swarms formed. During October to December 2019, the swarms moved from
Ethiopia and North Somalia to Eritrea, Djibouti, E Ethiopia, the Ogaden, C and S Somalia and then
to NE Kenya. Hopper bands and swarms formed along the parts of the Red Sea, coastal plains in
Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Eritrea and Sudan.
2020: During January, the swarms continued to invade, spread, mature and lay eggs in Ethiopia and
Kenya. Other swarms moved into interior of Yemen and Saudi Arabia. During February, the swarms
continued to invade Kenya, a few reached Uganda and South Sudan and Tanzania. Widespread
hatching and bands formation occurred in Kenya. Other swarms reached both sides of the Persian
Gulf. During March, widespread hatching caused a new generation of swarm formation in Ethiopia
and Kenya. A few swarms invaded Uganda and South Sudan. Widespread swarm laying and hatching
occurred in southern Iran and Baluchistan in Pakistan and subsequently invaded India. It is clear that
desert locust breeding occurred outside the Indian territories. Mostly at adult stage desert locust
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invade India and that stage is most difficult to control. First time desert locust swarms reached to
Delhi and adjoining states in spite of all control measures taken. Each of the swarms was several
times sprayed with heavy doses of insecticides to control.
Management strategies against desert Locusts
Economic threshold level (ETL) which is 10,000 adults/ ha and 5-6 hoppers/ bush. Major
reliance is still on use on chemical insecticides for the control of Locusts. However, other control
measures including botanicals, pheromones and entomopathogens are also deployed for the
management of locusts globally. Entomopathogens, Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum and Paranosema
locustae were found effective against hoppers of locusts in Africa, China, Australia etc. Recently,
Central Insecticide Board & Registration Committee (CIB&RC), India has also allowed Metarhizium
anisopliae var. acridum for imports for research trials against locusts. A detail of locust control
campaign organized by LWO from 1993 onwards is depicted in Table 2. Perusal of the table is
clearly indicating that major emphasis, so far, has been given on chemical control methods for the
management of locusts. Apart from LWO, local state governments are also engaged in managing the
locusts in India. In the following sub-heads different control strategies are mentioned in detail.
Table 2. Locust control campaigns from 1993 onwards by LWO in India
Year
Period
Type of campaign
Area
treated(ha)
Pesticides
used
(kg/l)
Pesticide
1993
July to
October
Yellow/Pink desert locust
hoppers &swarms
(Jaiaslmer, Barmer, Jalore,
Bhuj)- 172 swarms
310482
688255
30934
47577
36860
BHC 10 % Dust
Dieldrin 18%
Malathion ULV
Fenitrothion ULV
1997
July to
October
Yellow/Pink desert locust
hoppers &swarms
(Jaisalmer &Barmer)- 4
swarms
23596
7974
3660
Fenitrothion ULV
Malathion ULV
2002
July
Migratory locust
population (Jodhpur)
42
42
Malathion 96% ULV
2005
September
to
December,
Loose pink swarm and
hoppers (Jodhpur,
Bikaner, Jaisalmer)
16,640
10,476
1,883
Malathion 96% ULV
Fenitrothion 96%
ULV
2007
April to
September,
Loose pink/ yellow
swarm and hoppers
(Jodhpur, Bikaner,
Jaisalmer)
536
536
Malathion 96% ULV
2010
October to
November,
Hoppers/ fledgling
(Jaisalmer)
4,700
4,700
Malathion 96% ULV
2016
June
Migratory Locust
(Leh area of J&K)
1205
1928
Chloropyriphos 20%
EC
2016
Nov
Tree Locust
(Jodhpur)
40
40
Malathion 96% ULV
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2017
Nov
Tree Locust
(Jodhpur)
40
40
Malathion 96% ULV
2019-
20
May 2019
to Feb
2020
Desert Locust
(Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Punjab)
4,03,488
3,14,645
Malathion 96% ULV
2020
April-Oct
Desert Locust
(Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Punjab, Haryana, Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh)
2,87,983
2,44,840
750
Malathion 96% ULV
Others
(Lambdacyhalothrin5%
EC
Deltamethrin 1.25%
ULV
Chlorpyriphos 50%
EC)
Chemical control
In order to manage the menace of locust swarms invasions in India, CIB&RC, Govt. of
India extended label claim for 11 different formulations of insecticides for use against desert locusts
on crops and tress and 4 different formulations for use against desert locusts in scheduled desert area
as mentioned in Table 3 & 4 (DPPQ&S, 2020).
Table 3. Approved insecticides for control of desert locusts on crops and tress in India
S. No.
Chemical Name
Dosage
a.i. (gms)/ha
Formulations
(gm/ml)/ha
Dilution in water
(Lit/ha)
1.
Chlorpyriphos 20% EC
240
1200
500
2.
Chlorpyriphos 50% EC
240
500
500
3.
Deltamethrin 2.8% EC
12.5
500
500
4.
Deltamethrin 1.25% ULV
12.5
1000
N/A
5.
*Diflubenzuran 25% WP
60
240
Need based
6.
Fipronil 5% SC
6.25
125
500
7.
Fipronil 2.92% EC
6.25
220
500
8.
Lambda cyhalothrin 5% EC
20
400
500
9.
Lambda cyhalothrin 10% WP
20
200
500
10.
Malathion 50% EC
925
1850
500
11.
Malathion 25% WP
925
3700
500
* Only for hopper control.
Table 4. Approved insecticides for control of desert locusts in Scheduled Desert Area in India
Sl.
No.
Chemical Name
Dosage
a.i. (gms)/ha
Formulations
(gm/ml)/ha
Dilution in water
(Lit/ha)
1.
Malathion 96% ULV
925
1000
NA
2.
Malathion 5% DP
925
20000
NA
3.
Fenvalrate 0.4% DP
80-100
20000-25000
NA
4.
Quinalphos 1.5% DP
375
25000
NA
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Biological Control
Mycopesticides are currently, the best alternate options to replace synthetic insecticides
(Goettel and Johnson, 1997;
Prior, 1992; Prior and Greathead, 1989)
. The recent development of
effective oil formulations of Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum spores in Africa, Australia and South
America, opens up new possibilities for environmentally safe control operations. Metarhizium
biopesticide kills 70- 90% of treated locusts within 14-20 days, with no measurable impact on non
target organisms (
Kooyman et al.,
1997 and
Lomer et al.,
2001)
. These products act slowly and are
thus inappropriate for emergency situations. However, they should have a role in an integrated
control strategy alongside classic insecticides (
Lomer et al., 1999
). They are now available on the
locust control market and are part of the FAO list of products recommended for locust control
(FAO 1999).
An integrated pest management strategy, with an emphasis on the use of Metarhizium, that
incorporates rational use of chemical pesticides with biological options such as the microsporidian
Nosema locustae and the hymenopteran egg parasitoids Scelio spp., has become a realistic option (
Lomer
et al., 2001
). Recently in India, Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum was allowed for import for research
test trial b. The work is under progress.
Botanicals
Neem is a key ingredient in non-pesticidal management of insect pests, providing a natural
alternative to synthetic pesticides. Neem seeds are ground into powder that is soaked overnight in
water and sprayed on the crop. Neem does not directly kill insects on the crop. It acts as an anti-
feedant, repellent and egg-laying deterrent and thus protect the crop from damage of several insect
pests. Azadirachtin is a secondary metabolite present in neem seeds. It was found to be active as a
feeding inhibitor towards the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) (Butterworth & Morgan, 1968, 1971).
The first detailed experiments on neem was conducted in India against desert locusts in 1928 and the
study revealed a strong antifeedant (phago-deterrent) effects of neem (Chopra, 1928). Pradhan et. al.
(1962) found extraordinary repellent property of neem seed against adult locusts at IARI, New Delhi.
Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE) @ 0.1% was found effective in avoiding the risk of crop damage
from locusts in semi-field and large-scale field trials. The NSKE spray remained effective for over
two weeks and locusts did not feed on sprayed leaves. (Pradhan et al. 1962, 1963). A number of
locust and grasshopper species refuse to feed on neem-treated plants for up to several days,
sometimes for a longer period; these include the desert locust. (Schmutterer, 1990). Azadirachtin
sprayed on barley seedlings infested with S. gregaria nymphs protect plants at low doses (2 ppm)
(Nasiruddin & Mordue 1993). In another study, Azadirachtin prolonged incubation period and
reduced hatchability of desert locust eggs (Ghazawy et al, 2010). Neem oil extracts demonstrated a
remarkable effect on feeding activity and growth of the nymphal instar of S. gregaria (Bashir & Shafie,
2014). Azadirachtin was found to inhibit moulting of nymphs of Migratory locust, Locusta migratoria.
(Siber & Rembold, 1983). The neem seed products were able to delay development, prevent further
moulting of instars, stabilize under conditions of delayed watering, enabled them to confine the
desert locust to their breeding sites as immatures without threat of swarm formation and limited
damage to local growers (Abdelbagi et. al. 2019). Considering the study done in India and aboard, it
is very much clear that NSKE or azadirachtin are very effective as antifeedant, repellent or growth
retardant against locusts. It can very well be used as a prophylactic measure as part of the integrated
pest management for locusts.
Over the period of time, a number of formulations of Azadirachtin have been registered by
Central Insecticide Board & Registration Committee (Govt. of India) against different pests of
agricultural crops. ICAR Institutes or SAUs based in Scheduled Desert Area (SDA) in collaboration
with Field Station Investigation Laboratory (FSIL), Bikaner (a unit of Locust Warning Organization,
Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage) may take up the work of evaluation of
different formulations of Azadirachtin against locusts for further strengthening of the management
programme.
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Pheromones
Use of pheromones may play a great role in monitoring of the locust outbreaks. Pheromone
traps could detect population growth at the transient stage, which is very difficult to study, and thus
improve the preventative strategy by better forecasting the outbreak of upsurges. Moreover,
pheromones may be used as a means of control, by making locusts transient and more sensitive to
predator attack or by increasing their sensitivity to sub lethal doses of insecticide (Hassanali et al.,
2005). For 20 years, various research and development agencies have been working with affected
countries to develop alternative control technologies, including on a pheromone, phenylacetonitrile
(PAN), that affects gregarization behavior (Hassanali et al., 2005, Simpson et al., 2005). Aggregation
pheromones have a crucial role in the transition of locusts from a solitary form to the devastating
gregarious form and the formation of large-scale swarms (Pener and Simpson, 2009; Wang and
Kang2014). However, none of the candidate compounds reported (Fuzeau-Braesch et al., 1988;
Niassy et. al., 1999 and Nolte et al., 1973) to meet all the criteria for a locust aggregation pheromone.
Using behavioural assays, electrophysiological recording, olfactory receptor characterization and field
experiments, 4-vinylanisole (4VA) (also known as 4-methoxystyrene) has been reported as an
aggregation pheromone of the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria). Both gregarious and solitary
locusts are strongly attracted to 4VA, regardless of age and sex. Although it is emitted specifically by
gregarious locusts, 4VA production can be triggered by aggregation of four to five solitary locusts. It
elicits responses specifically from basiconic sensilla on locust antennae. OR35 was identified as a
specific olfactory receptor of 4VA. Knockout of OR35 using CRISPR–Cas9 markedly reduced the
electrophysiological responses of the antennae and impaired 4VA behavioural attractiveness. Finally,
field trapping experiments verified the attractiveness of 4VA to experimental and wild populations.
These findings identify a locust aggregation pheromone and provide insights for the development of
novel control strategies for locusts (Guo, 2020). Similar study may find a way against desert locust.
Guaiacol is produced in the gut of desert locusts by the breakdown of plant material. This process is
undertaken by the gut bacterium Pantoea (Enterobacter) agglomerans. Guaiacol is one of the main
components of the pheromones that cause locust swarming (Dillon et al., 2000).
Other Techniques
There are various other recommendations in vogue like making noise by beating drums,
blowing sound by beating utensils etc., poisoning the breeding grounds, mass collection and
burning or burying the locusts, Lighting fires, burning rubber tires to scare them off and blasting off
shotguns etc. Besides, trenches are to be dug and dusted to halt them arch of hoppers, but this is
very labour-intensive and is difficult to undertake when large infestations are scattered over a
wide area. These miscellaneous techniques have been adopted by the inhabitants of locust affected
areas.
Future thrust areas
Desert locust
has been a serious threat to agriculture in about 20% area of the globe. During last
two decades it was not a major problem in Indian sub-continent, however, it continued to pose
challenge to the food and nutritional security in the horn of Africa and neighbouring countries.
Considering its threat to Indian agriculture as witnessed during 2019 and 2020, there is urgent need
to focus on research priorities for the sustainable management of desert locusts in Indian sub-
continent. Some of the key thrust areas are mentioned hereunder.
Utilization of satellite imaginary and geographic information system (GIS) for monitoring of
locust swarm movement on daily basis.
Establishment of strong research platform to study all the aspects of biological behavour and
develop management strategy using cutting edge technologies.
Development of user-friendly technology for management and mass trapping through
behavioural control of locusts using pheromone/ hormone.
Search for potent isolates of entomo-pathogens and their utilization in locust management
programme.
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Utilization of resistant genes from resilient plant species in varietal breeding programme of crops
grown in locust prone areas.
Research on utilization of botanicals as prophylactic measure for the management of locusts.
Development of mechanical device, which can efficiently repel/ catch locust swarms from the
field.
New chemical pesticides having low mammalian toxicity should be evaluated and promoted.
Acknowledgements
The author is thankful to the Plant Protection Advisor to the Govt. of India and to the staff
of Locust Warning Organization, Jodhpur for providing information. Thanks are also due to the
Director, ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow for providing necessary facilities.
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59: 225–244.
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Directorate of Extension Education
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LI-2
Changing scenario of insect pests and diseases in Indian cotton ecosystem and critical
issues in their management
Y.G. Prasad1, Babasaheb B. Fand2 and Dipak T. Nagrale3
1Director, 2Scientist (Agricultural Entomology), 3Scientist (Plant Pathology)
ICAR-Central Institute for Cotton Research, Panjari, Wardha Road, Nagpur – 440 010, Maharashtra, India
Corresponding author email: ygprasad@gmail.com
Abstract
Since the introduction of transgenic cotton in the year 2002 for commercial cultivation,
Indian cotton ecosystem had witnessed phenomenal changes in its pest and disease status.. There
have been frequent resurgences of already existing pests, emergence and re-emergence of certain
pests and diseases, as well as few new invasions occurred recently which were hitherto not reported
to be the pests of cotton in India. In recent decades, climate change and increased frequency of
extreme weather events with a high degree of uncertainty in their prediction further added to the
woes of the cotton farmers causing widespread yield losses. The present paper provides a detailed
overview of changing scenario of pests and diseases in Indian cotton ecosystem in the context of
changing scenario of cropping practices and impending climate change, along with critical issues
involved in their management in a sustainable manner.
Keywords: Boll rot, cotton, climate change, emerging insects and diseases, pink bollworm
Introduction
Cotton, Gossypium sp. (L.) also known as ‗white gold‘ is one of the most important fibre crops
of global significance. With 125.84 lakh ha area under cotton cultivation and an annual production of
360 lakh bales of lint (CCI STAT, 2019), India is the leading cotton producer in the world. Cotton is
grown mainly for its fibre used in the manufacture of cloth for mankind, and thus plays a prominent
role in the national and international economy. In India, the cotton crop is cultivated both under
rain-fed and irrigated conditions. Cotton fibre is an important raw material for many textile industries
and it would continue to remain same in the years to come. Cotton in India provides direct
livelihood to 60 million people employed in cotton cultivation trade and processing (Chockalingam,
2016). The national average productivity of Indian cotton is 522 kg lint ha-1, which is far below the
world average of 765 kg lint ha-1 showing a deficit of 31.76%. Maharashtra ranks first in cotton
cultivation in India with an area of 4.37 million ha, production of 8.2 million bales and average
productivity of 319 kg lint ha-1, which is lowest as compared to national average of 522 kg lint ha-1
(CCI STAT, 2019).
There are many reasons for low productivity of cotton in India. High dependency of cotton
production on monsoon rainfall which is highly variable and erratic in its distribution, changing
climate, diverse ecological and soil conditions, and constant threats from emerging insect pests and
diseases are considered as the major biological challenges to sustainable cotton productivity. In
addition to various abiotic stresses like temperature, rainfall, soil fertility, etc., the damage due to
various insect pests and diseases is one of the major yield limiting factors for cotton. The cotton crop
is attacked by nearly 1326 species of insect pests throughout the world, of which about 162 different
species of insects and mites found to devour cotton at different stages of crop growth in India
(Ghosh, 2001; Nagrare et al., 2009). Similarly, the cotton crop suffers from several diseases of which
foliar diseases and boll rot are assuming serious proportions in recent times, taking a heavy toll in
yield (Chattannavar et al., 2006; Monga et al., 2011; Bhattiprolu, 2012; Nagrale et al., 2020). Cotton
ecosystem has experienced a sea-change in its pest and disease status in recent two decades of post
Bt cotton era. The present paper provides a detailed overview of changing scenario of insect pests
and diseases in Indian cotton ecosystem. The recently emerging and re-emerging pest and disease
problems have been discussed in the context of impending climate change, changing scenario of
cropping practices and the critical issues involved in pest and disease management. This information
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will be crucial in formulating effective management strategies for newly emerging pest d disease
problems in cotton ecosystem.
Emerging Pest and Disease Problems in Indian Cotton Ecosystems
A. Changing Scenario Of Insect Pests In Cotton
Cotton crop is attacked by various insect pests at different stages of its growth right from
seedling to maturity. Jassids, thrips, aphids and whiteflies are the major sap feeder pests that attack
the crop during early vegetative stage (Nagrare et al., 2019). Prior to introduction of transgenic
cotton, the bollworm complex comprising American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera (Hùbner), spotted
bollworm Earias vitella (Fabricious) and pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) were causing
severe damage during reproductive stage of the crop by infesting squares, flowers and bolls (Nagrare
et al., 2019). The development of genetically engineered transgenic cotton carrying genes encoding
delta-endotoxin proteins from entomopathogenic soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) had opened
new avenues for managing dreaded bollworms in cotton. Subsequently, single gene (Cry 1Ac) and
dual gene (Cry 1Ac + Cry 2Ab) Bt cotton hybrids were commercially introduced in India during
2002 and 2006, respectively (Choudhary and Gaur, 2010), targeting the dreaded bollworm complex
which included H. armigera, E. vitella and P. gosypiella.
Among the major sap sucking insects, the frequently damaging outbreaks of mealybugs and
whiteflies have been observed, and recently damage due to thrips, Jassids and red cotton bug is seen
increasing in the era of post Bt cotton phase and impending climate change. During the initial years
of its introduction, Bt cotton technology offered promising control of bollworm complex until 2009.
Even after over 15 years of continuous cultivation of Bt cotton in India, negligible resistance has
been observed in two major bollworms viz., H. armigera and E. vitella. However, after a long gap of
nearly one and half decades, P. gosypiella has suddenly emerged as a major pest problem in central and
southern cotton growing belts of India where its natural field infestations have been recorded on
both single gene (Bollgard I) and dual gene (Bollgard II) Bt cotton hybrids (Naik et al., 2018; Fand et
al., 2019a).
1. Widespread infestation of invasive mealybug (2007)
Severe outbreak of invasive species of mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera:
Pseudococcidae) occurred on cotton in India during 2007 which caused huge economic damage,
thereby reducing yields up to 50% in affected cotton fields (Nagrare et al., 2009). The infestation was
recorded in all the nine major cotton growing states of India viz, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan from
North zone; Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh from Central Zone; and Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu from South zone. Infestation of cotton mealybug at most of the places in
north and central zones was high during 2007 and 2008 but it was reduced to a minor pest from 2009
onwards. Mealybugs suck sap from all parts of the plant, resulting stem distortion, twisting and
bushiness of the affected portion; resulting in death of the plant in case of severe infestation. Since
its invasion in India, P. solenopsis is the extensively studied insect pest of cotton so far with respect to
various aspects of its bioecology like recording of new and expanding host range, and infestations
levels (Jhala et al., 2008; Nagrare et al., 2009; Venilla et al., 2010; Tanwar et al., 2011); important
biological control agents including predators and parasitoids that are appetizing on the natural
populations of P. solenopsis (Tanwar et al., 2008; 2011; Fand et al., 2010a,b, Fand et al., 2011; Suroshe
et al., 2013); potential geographic distribution based on bioclimatic variables, temperature dependent
population growth potential and climate change impacts on future invasiveness and spread (Fand et
al., 2014a,bc). A detailed account of this mealybug with a major focus on its origin and distribution,
biosystematics, bioecology, host range, management options and its potential threat under future
climate change has been reviewed by Fand and Suroshe (2015).
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Severe infestation of mealybug P. solenopsis on cotton. Damaged field (a), mealybug nymphs and dults
on green boll (b).
Photo credit: Mr. BV Naikwadi, Technical Assistant (T3), ICAR-CICR, Nagpur
2. Outbreak of papaya mealybug in cotton areas of Tamil Nadu (2010)
Papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink was recorded in a
severe form for the first time on cotton in Coimbatore and then in other districts like Erode,
Tirupur, Salem, Namakkal and Karur districts of Tamil Nadu state (Tanwar et al., 2010). The pest is
now seen in traces. The nature of damage, symptoms of infestation and management measures are
similar to that of cotton mealybug P. solenopsis.
3. Outbreak of whitefly in North cotton growing zone (2015)
Whitefly Bemisia tabaci Gerard (Hemiptera: Aleyurodidae) is a key pest of cotton, and is
occurring in all the three cotton growing zones of India. However, it is economically most important
sucking pest in North Indian cotton growing states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan by virtue of its
capability to transmit cotton leaf curl virus disease (CLCuD), especially in hirsutum cotton. The cotton
whitefly is a vector of begomoviruses (family Geminiviridae) and is reported to transmit over 111 plant
viruses (Tiwari et al., 2013). Whitefly causes direct damage by sucking phloem sap from plant tissues,
while indirect damage through the excretion of sticky honeydew which promotes a fungal sooty
mould that interfere in photosynthesis in leaves and deteriorate the quality of cotton. Several
outbreaks of whitefly were reported in India (Jayaraj, et al., 1987) but the recent one witnessed during
2015 in north India was most widespread and devastating (Kranthi, 2015). Due to severity of damage
caused by whiteflies, famers rely mostly on use of chemical insecticides for management of ravages
of this pest in cotton. The insecticide use on cotton has been increased from 2374 MT in the year
2006 to 6372 MT in 2011 (Gutierrez et al., 2015). This is primarily due to increase in area under
cultivation of Bt cotton hybrids that are susceptible to the sucking pests, resurgence of sucking pests
and due to progressive increase in levels of resistance by sucking pests to insecticides (Naveen et al.,
2017). Several field issues like poor selection of chemicals, non-compliance of label claim, sub-
standard practices of pesticide application such as tank mixtures of different pesticides, repeated use
insecticides of same active ingredients, and intensive and indiscriminate use of insecticides have
augmented the problem of insecticide resistance in cotton whitefly. This is often manifested at field
level as control failure following insecticide application. An ideal integrated management programme
to strengthen the whitefly management in cotton should include: adoption of sucking pest tolerant
cotton cultivars; a suitable rotation of insecticides with different modes of action; use of insecticides
that are relatively safer to non-targets like beneficial natural enemies; regular monitoring of the pest
through use of yellow sticky traps; avoiding indiscriminate insecticide use, especially of resurgence
triggering synthetic pyrethroids during early vegetative growth stage of the crop
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Severe outbreak of cotton whitefly in north India. Damaged field (a), whitefly nymphs and adults on
lower surface of leaf (b).
Photo credit: Dr. SP Gawande, Scientist (Plant Pathology), ICAR-CICR, Nagpur
4. Re-emergence of pink bollworm in Bt cotton: a serious threat and concerns
Pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), (Lepidoptera: Gelechidae), is one of the
serious lepidopteran insect pests of cotton, and is widely distributed throughout tropical America,
Africa, Asia, Australia, Egypt, USA and Mexico, wherever cotton is grown (CABI, 2017). Before the
use of broad-spectrum insecticides and introduction of Bt cotton, pink bollworm was a major pest of
cotton in India accounting colossal yield losses to the tune of 20 – 90 % (Patil, 2003). With the
introduction of Bt cotton in 2002 for commercial cultivation in India (Choudhary and Gaur, 2010),
pink bollworm was under control until 2010. However, after a long gap of nearly one and half
decade, it has recently re-emerged as serious pest problem in India mainly due to development of
resistance against Bt cotton (Dhurua and Gujar, 2011; Naik et al., 2018). This pest has recently
become a serious menace on transgenic Bt cotton (both single gene Cry1Ac and dual gene, Cry1Ac +
Cry2Ab) in Central and Southern India, causing widespread damage and approximate yield losses to
the tune of 20-30% (Fand et al., 2019a).
Field infestation of pink bollworm in cotton. Damaged green boll with larva (left), Opened boll with
damaged lint (right)
Photo credit: Dr. Babasaheb B. Fand, Scientist (Agril. Entomology), ICAR-CICR, Nagpur
The primary reasons for resuming pestilence in pink bollworm against Bt cotton are: non-
compliance of refuse strategy by cotton growers, cultivation of long duration Bt cotton hybrids with
different flowering and fruiting windows making continual food availability for perpetuation of pest,
and extending the crop season beyond normal window of crop season (Kranthi, 2015; Fand et al.,
2019a). The re-emergence of pink bollworm, on Bt cotton in India had posed a serious threat to all
the cotton farming stakeholders viz., Bt technology developers, farmers, researchers, seed companies
and policy makers.
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Adoption of the integrated measures for pink bollworm management that helps to restore the
susceptibility in resistant population will be the sustainable solution for ensuing durability of Bt
cotton technology in cotton. Thus, an ideal IPM for PBW should include: implementation of refuge
in bag (RIB) policy involving provision of a single seed bag carrying mixture of Bt (90 - 95 %) and
non-Bt (5 - 10 %) cotton seeds of same variety/hybrid (The Gazette of India, 2016), avoiding pre-
monsoon sowing of cotton crop to ensure mismatch between suicidal emergence of off season pest
population and onset of cotton fruiting structures, regulating the seed market so as to make seed
availability only for the recommended sowing season of cotton crop and adoption of community
approach for area wide management campaigning for PBW (Fand et al., 2019a).
5. Migratory infestations of fall armyworm on cotton from maize (2019)
The infestation of fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda (J.F. Smith) (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) has been reported for the first time in India on Cotton crop grown in the vicinity of
maize crop in Susare village of Pathardi Tehsil of Ahmednagar District in Maharashtra State (Fand et
al, 2019b). It was a migratory infestation of FAW from infested residues of maize fields to adjacent
cotton crop. Once the maize stubbles started drying, they became less preferred food for FAW larvae
making them to march like an army (as they have their name army worm) into the neighbouring
cotton field. The migration of voraciously feeding larvae in their mid-developmental stage (4th instar
onwards) onto the cotton crop bearing flower buds and developing bolls have resulted in extensive
damage to the flowers and bolls of cotton. The FAW infested cotton crop was surrounded by other
crops like maize, sorghum, bajara and sugarcane on which also the pest infestation was recorded.
Almost all these crops are grown in the premises of the village Susare, indicating the ample diversity
of food crops for FAW.
Damage to green boll of cotton by FAW (left); destruction of residues of infested maize to prevent
pest migration to adjacent standing cotton crop (right)
Photo credit: Dr. Babasaheb B. Fand, Scientist (Agril. Entomology), ICAR-CICR, Nagpur
Maize is the preferred host for FAW; therefore, in presence of the maize crop, the possibility of
FAW migration and damage to surrounding cotton and other crops is relatively low. However, at
physiological maturity maize becomes least preferred food for FAW larvae. Further, maize being
short duration crop (90-100 days) compared to cotton (150-180 days), its early harvesting increases
the possibility of migrating FAW on to the cotton and other crops in the surrounding areas. The
FAW populations occurring in India has been reported to be of C-strain, which prefers maize
followed by cotton, thus in absence of maize, the pest may shift to cotton and cause incidental
damage. The damage symptoms by FAW on cotton are similar to that of bollworms. The measures
for holistic management of FAW in cotton may include: prompt removal and destruction of infested
crop residues of maize and or other crops if present in the vicinity of cotton, collection and
destruction of egg masses and gregarious larvae, removal and destruction of infested flowers and
green bolls of cotton and monitoring the moth activity by installing pheromone traps (Fand et al.,
2019b).
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B. Changing Scenario of Cotton Diseases
During the last two decades, the profile of cotton diseases in India has experienced the
significant changes leading to colossal losses in the cotton. These changes may be due to change over
from the cultivation of Asiatic or desi (G. herbeceum and G. arboreum) to American cotton (G. hirsutum)
and hybrids. Grey mildew caused by Ramularia areola is an economically important emerging disease
in India causing losses to the tune of 29.20% in India (Monga et al., 2013). Recently, boll rot disease
is emerging as a serious concern for cotton production in India (Nagrale et al., 2020). Hence,
understanding the influence of weather factors, diverse genotypes, edaphic factors, anthropogenic
activities and changing climate scenario, it is prerequisite to study the biodiversity of emerging and
re-emerging disease pathogens and devising integrated management strategies for them.
1. Emergence of inner boll rot and boll rot complex of cotton
Boll rot is an important disease in cotton because it not only reduces the yield but also affects
the quality of lint and seed. Most of the times, boll rot has become a complex problem involving
disease symptoms produced by principal pathogenic agent, bollworm damage and secondary invaders
at boll development stage. The bacteria viz., Erwinia aroideae (Chinthagunta, 2008) and Pantoea dispersa
(Nagrale et al., 2020) have been reported as the principal causal agents of inner boll rot of cotton in
India. The disease occurrence is specifically observed during principal rainy season months (August -
September) that coincide with the boll development stage of cotton crop. The disease symptoms
initially appear in the inner part of boll without any visual external symptoms on the bolls. Therefore,
it is very difficult to diagnose the disease from outside with visual inspection of green bolls thus lacks
timely management actions resulting into huge crop damage and yield looses. During 2018-19,
unusually higher incidence of inner boll rot was reported from farmers‘ fields in cotton growing
tracts of Maharashtra and Gujarat states (Nagrale et al., 2020). The losses due to cotton boll rot differ
year by year subjected to the climatic conditions, population of insect vectors, presence of pathogens
and geography.
Symptoms of inner boll rot disease in cotton
Photo credit: Dr. DT Nagrale, Scientist (Plant Pathology), ICAR-CICR, Nagpur
2. Prevalence of target leaf spot of cotton caused by Corynespora cassiicola
There have been widespread reports of target leaf spot on cotton caused by Corynespora
cassiicola, across multiple cotton cultivars along the cotton growing regions of India since last three
years (2017-2019). Target spot has only recently become a threat to cotton, but is an established
disease in soybean, sesame, tomato, cucumber and container-grown ornamental crops. Little is
known about how C. cassiicola spread to cotton crops, where it came from initially, or how likely it is
to affect cotton yield from year to year. While the initial report of target spot on cotton was from
southwest Georgia (Fulmer et al., 2012), it has now been reported in Alabama (Conner et al., 2013),
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China (Wei et al., 2014), Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana (Price et al., 2015), Mississippi, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia (Butler et al., 2016). The occurrence of target leaf spot on
cotton was first documented by Sarbhoy et al. (1971) from southern India and by Salunkhe et al.
(2019) from Central India. The symptoms of the disease include premature defoliation up to 70%,
abundant characteristic spots on the leaves and bracts, and losses of several hundred kg of lint/ha.
The symptoms appear as early as 68 days after planting. The possible combination of early disease
onset and frequent rainfall/irrigation triggers the rapid premature defoliation upto 75% (Fulmer et
al., 2012; Conner et al., 2013).
Symptoms of target leaf spot disease of cotton
Photo credit: Dr. DT Nagrale, Scientist (Plant Pathology), ICAR-CICR, Nagpur
3. Emergence of grey mildew of cotton caused by
Ramularia areola
Grey mildew disease caused by Ramulari areola was first reported on upland cotton G. hirsutum
from Auburn, USA (Atkinson, 1890). Later on, the disease was found affecting all the four cultivated
species of cotton grown around the world (Bell, 1981). In India, the disease is reported from Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and
Bihar (Chauhan, 1983), severely affecting the diploid cottons and is commonly known as ‗Dahya’ or
‗Dahiya’ disease in Maharashtra owing to the sprinkled curd like symptoms on the foliage (Gokhale
and Moghe, 1967). Very high incidence of grey mildew on G. hirsutum in Maharashtra was reported
by Holey and Moghe (1977). Frequent rains during October-December with a temperature range of
20-30ºC and relative humidity above 80% favours the rapid disease development (Johnson et al.,
2013). Highest incidence of grey mildew was observed in the transitional zone of Karnataka whereas
it was almost nil in northern dry zones (Ramanagouda and Ashtaputre, 2019). As per earlier records,
In India only the Asiatic cotton were affected by grey mildew, however Holey and Moghe (1977)
reported extensive incidence of this disease on G. hirsutum in Maharashtra. Majority of the Bt hybrids
released in India are moderate to highly susceptible to grey mildew (Hosagoudar et al., 2008). Cotton
monoculture favours the development of diseases, which causes early defoliation and boll rotting,
thus decreasing the yield. Grey mildew was severe on diploid cotton in central India but in recent
years become serious problem of G. hirsutum and Bt hybrids (Monga et al., 2011).
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Symptoms of grey mildew of cotton
Photo credit: Dr. DT Nagrale, Scientist (Plant Pathology), ICAR-CICR, Nagpur
4. Tobacco streak virus (TSV) disease: an emerging threat in central India
It is transmitted by insect vector thrips (Thrips tabaci) and usually prevalent in Southern states
of India but recently also reported from Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh (Sharma et al., 2007; Jagtap
and Dey, 2013). The symptoms include chlorotic appearnace of growing tip in young leaves, the
bronzing, curling with necrosis of leaves and plants become stunted (Gawande et al., 2019).
5. Emerging problem of cotton leaf curl disease (CLCuD) in North India
This disease is transmitted by insect vector white fly (Bemisia tabaci). The virus and insect vector
has wide host range. Currently, disease is prevalent only in north India including Punjab, Haryana
and Rajasthan (Rajagopalan et al., 2012). The symptoms of the disease include yellowing and small
veins thickening (SVT) on the lower surface of young leaves. Downward or upward curling of leaves
is prominent with stunted plant growth. Under severe conditions, a small leaf like outgrowth on the
lower side of the infected leaves (enations) may also visible (Gawande et al., 2019).
Cotton leaf showing the symptoms of
Tobacco streak virus (TSV) disease
Cotton plants showing the symptoms of leaf
curl disease
Photo credit: Dr. SP Gawande, Scientist (Plant Pathology), ICAR-CICR, Nagpur
The strategies for holistic and sustainable management of diseases in cotton ecosystem should
always be focused on approaches like: field sanitation by removal and destruction of infected crop
residues to reduce the inoculums load of disease; pathogen exclusion to prevent its spread into the new
areas by strict enforcement of quarantine procedures; cultivation of tolerant and resistant
varieties/cultivars/hybrids recommended for particular region; adoption of clean cultural practices
involving maintenance of fields free from weeds and alternate hosts, facilitating proper drainage for
removal of excess rain water and avoiding excess use of nitrogenous fertilizers; managing the
populations of disease vectoring insects; use of ecofriendly and safer alternatives like plant growth
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promoting bacteria and biocontrol agents; and need based use of label claim fungicides at
recommended doses (Gawande et al., 2019; Nagrare et al., 2019; Nagrale et al., 2020)
Acknowledgements
All the sources of information accessed have been duly acknowledged in the reference section
of the manuscript. Due credits have been given to the providers of good quality relevant
photographs of insect pests and diseases used in different sections of the manuscript.
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LI-3
Recent experiences and preparedness in management of invasive insects: biosecurity and
quarantine regulatory perspective
K. Selvaraj, B.V. Sumalatha, R. Sundararaj, and A. N. Shylesha
ICAR- National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Hebbal, Bengaluru-560024, Karnataka, India
1ICFRE- Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Malleswaram, Bengaluru-560024, Karnataka, India
Correspondence author email: K.Selvaraj@icar.gov.in
Introduction
Invasive alien species are non-native or exotic organisms that occur outside their natural
adapted habitat and dispersal potential. Some of the alien species become invasive when they are
introduced deliberately or unintentionally outside their natural habitats into new areas where they
express the capability to establish, invade and out-compete native species. The trade of exotic plants
is attributed to many accidental introductions of insects from their native geographical area. It is an
agent of change and threatens native biological diversity. Invasive insects in India have been a major
threat to household commodities, human health, agricultural produce and environment. India is
highly diversified in its weather and climate, which supports the establishment of various introduced
insects from other parts of the world. Furthermore, globalization has facilitated numerous
introductions of invasive insect pests. These species are non-native or exotic species which have
great power of dispersal and adaptation.
So far more than 110 exotic insect species had been reported from India, of which, whiteflies
and mealybugs constitute a major part of the invasive species (Mandal, 2011) and become one of the
world's worst invasive pests. Smaller size, cryptic nature, internal borer and immature stages and
being attached to the host-plant which lead to the frequent movement of invasive especially
whiteflies, mealybugs, internal borer and scale from one region to another region. Thus, these
invasive are one of the most commonly transported invasive arthropod groups and among the most
successful groups in terms of invading new geographical areas. Moreover, changes in climate and
global warming could influence new introductions and distribution of invasive species and increase
the chances of their survival in new environment.
Pathways of invasion: Pathways are the predicted routes helping the invasive species in transit to
new environments. The most common pathways include the sea, land or air. Today, due to
globalization, the frequency of invasion and its consequences has increased exponentially. Some of
the species were knowingly transported to a new ecosystem, while some are a matter of ignorance.
The most important pathways are introduced as contaminants, living industry pathway and
transportation related.
Characteristics of an invasive species: Most of the invasive species are very resilient, short life
cycle, broad host range, high dispersal ability, ability to withstand many environmental conditions,
high fecundity, voracious feeders and benefits from mutualist interaction.
Steps in invasion: The process of invasion of an alien species follows certain sequential steps, viz.,
introduction, establishment, spread and naturalisation.
Introduction: In order to become a habitant of a new locality, beyond the natural ranges, the insect
must have to first move or get itself moved from its current habitat. This movement of the insect is
called as passive transport which is brought about by vectors. The most common vectors nowadays
are humans or human consignments. Passive transports of these invasive species are very common
and are difficult to control. Sometimes insects themselves have an inherent capacity of migration to
long distances. Hence any deviations from the favourable condition make them migrate from that
place. Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda is one of the recent invasive insect pests in India. They are
excellent fliers and can fly almost 100 kilometres in certain hours (Johnson, 1989; Bajracharya et al.,
2019); hence they are believed to have fled from Africa to the Indian subcontinent, but still the mode
of arrival of the invasive pest is uncertain.
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Establishment: Short colonization is very common, but the insect cannot be regarded as an invasive
one unless it has established itself in the new environment which is possible only when the invaded
insect overcomes the environmental barriers. Insects are more prone to invasiveness due to increased
resource availability and decreased biotic resistance. Global warming is another cause of rapid
invasiveness of the insects. Global warming has modified the resource availability and habitat
suitability, thereby deteriorating biological regime of the native insects, hence favoring the
establishment of the alien insects.
Spread: Spreading is the process where the initially established species spreads to other areas.
Spreading is guided by environmental factors such as weather conditions, microclimate and habitat
quality. Apart from that the established insect can also spread through human-mediated
transportation.
Naturalisation: Naturalization starts when abiotic and biotic barriers to survival rate are
surmounted and when various barriers to regular reproduction are overcome.
Recent invasive insects of India: Since 2015, there are 7 invasive whitefly species, one mealy bug,
cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero and one lepidopteran internal borer, fall
armyworm, Spodoptera furgiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has introduced to India having
agricultural importance. Economic importance, symptoms of damage, distribution, and natural
enemies are briefed in detail.
1. Invasion of sucking pests: Two most important sucking pests viz., whiteflies and mealy bugs
invaded in India cause direct and indirect yield losses in agriculture, horticulture and forestry crop
plants. These exotic whiteflies and mealy bugs are predominantly distributed in through south India
and coastal belts of India. Mealy bugs once considered as minor pests have assumed the status of
major status due to their polyphagous nature coupled with high reproductive capacity with short life
cycle which is more favored due to prolonged drought and quick dispersal through wind, seeds and
planting materials. Whereas, exotic whiteflies can multiply in large proportion in a short time, exhibit
high phenotypic plasticity, and have a strong potential to compete with native species and cause
damage to economically important crop plants.
1.1 Invasive whitefly species: In India, 469 whiteflies species belonging to 71 genera are known to
breed on agriculture, horticulture and forestry crop plants. India experienced its first invasive
whitefly, spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus Russel in the Western Ghat of mountain range in
South India during 1995 (David and Regu, 1995) and established on many host plants including
economically important crops in India. Recently within a span of five years, seven whiteflies viz.,
solanum whitefly/pepper, Aleurotrachalus trachoides (Back) (2015) (Dubey and Sundararaj, 2015);
rugose spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin (2016) (Sundararaj and Selvaraj, 2017);
Bondar's nesting whitefly, Paraleurodes bondari Peracchi (Josephrajkumar et al., 2019); nesting whitefly,
P. minei Ιaccarino (Mohan et al., 2019); legume feeding whitefly, Tetraleurodes acaciae (Quaintance)
(2018) (Sundararaj and Vimala, 2018); palm infesting whitefly/coconut whitefly, Aleurotrachelus atratus
Hempel (Selvaraj et al., 2019) and woolly whitefly, Aleurothrixus floccosus (Maskell) (2019) (Sundararaj
et al., 2020) invaded India. Most of these invasive species are believed to be native of Neotropical
origin, especially, Central America and the Caribbean regions.
These invasive whiteflies cause direct damage to their host by sucking the plant sap which leads to
removing of the nutrients and water there by interfering with its normal growth, and causing premature
leaf drop. Indirectly, they cause damage by producing wax and excreting sticky honeydew which
provides a substrate for the growth of black sooty mould on infested plant reducing the photosynthetic
capacity of the plant and some species such as solanum whitefly reported to act as vector for
transmission of begomovirus. Produce waxy flocculent material profusely in severely infested areas
creates nuisance to human being.
The spiralling whitefly was first invasive whitefly recorded in Western Ghats of south India
on tapioca and is now distributed throughout the country including the Andaman, Nicobar and
Lakshadweep islands. Solanum whitefly was found heavily infesting the ornamental plant, Duranta
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erecta and cultivated plant, Capsicum annum in Karnataka. Subsequently it spread to Kerala, Tamil
Nadu and Maharashtra within span of five years of incursion. Incidence of rugose spiralling whitefly
was recorded on coconut at Pollachi, Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. Further spread to
Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Assam, West Bengal and recently to Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Meghalaya, Telangana, Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Lakshadweep islands was observed in the
subsequent years. Similarly, Bondar's nesting whitefly was reported in India on coconut palms from
Kerala and subsequently reported from Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, The Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep islands.
Nesting whitefly was reported on coconut in Kerala and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Subsequently, this species rapidly spread to Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Legume feeding whitefly was
recorded on subabul in Bengaluru, Karnataka and its infestation was also reported on orchid and
tamarind in Karnataka. Palm infesting whitefly/coconut whitefly was recorded initially on coconut
and ornamental palm in Mandya district of Karnataka and subsequently spread to Mysore,
Ramanagara, Hassan, Kodagu, Tumkur, Bengaluru Rural and Bengaluru Urban district of Karnataka
and Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri districts of Tamil Nadu. Incidence of woolly whitefly was observed
on guava in Kozhikode district of Kerala. Later it spread to Ramanagara, Bengaluru Rural, Bengaluru
Urban, Mysore, Udupi and Mandya districts of Karnataka and Coimbatore, Salem, Krishnagiri,
Namakkal, Karur and Dharmapuri districts of Tamil Nadu and few islands of Lakshadweep. All this
whiteflies were primarily spreading mostly through movement of infested seedling from pest affected
areas.
All these invasive whiteflies are highly polyphagous and have host preference towards many
economically important crop plants such as coconut, guava, banana, custard apple, oil palm.
Moreover, these invasive whiteflies were found increasing their host range. Spiralling whitefly was
reported to infest 481 host plants throughout the world, of which it is known to attack 253 host
plant species in India (Srinivasa, 2000) and it has been reported on over 320 plant species belonging
to 225 genera and 73 families in India (Sundararaj and Pushpa, 2012). Solanum whitefly was found
to breed on 37 host plants, representing 11 families (Sundararaj et al., 2018). Solanum whitefly breeds
on several plants of the family Solanaceae, Araceae, Apocynaceae and Convolvulaceae (Dubey and
Sundararaj, 2015).
Rugose spiralling whitefly is highly polyphagous and reported to feed on about 120 plant
species including economically important cultivated and palm plants. In India, it was found to feed
on about 45 host plants especially coconut, banana, mango, sapota, guava, cashew, ramphal, oil palm,
maize, oil palm, Indian almond, water apple, jack fruit and many other ornamental plants like bottle
palm, Indian shot, false bird of paradise and butterfly palm (Selvaraj et al., 2017). Bondar's nesting
whitefly was reported to feed on more than 25 host plants which include banana, citrus, cassava,
custard apple, coconut, guava, subabul and ficus in India (Vidya et al., 2019). Similarly, P. minei is
found to colonize on coconut, banana, guava, mango, jamun, Ixora sp., and Heliconia (Mohan et al.,
2019; Sujithra et al., 2019). Legume feeding whitefly infests mainly the plants belonging of family
Fabaceae including subabul, the host on which it was found breeding in Bangalore, Udupi district of
Karnataka.
Incidence of Neotropical palm infesting whitefly was observed on coconut, areca nut, oil
palm and ornamental areca palm. However, it is known to colonize on more than 110 plant species
belonging to Arecaceae, Rutaceae, Solanacee, Cycadaceae and Lauraceae (Malumphy and Treseder,
2011). Woolly whitefly was feeding on 20 plant families and exhibits a strong host preference for
citrus but so far in India, it was found to infest on guava only. These invasive whiteflies expanding its
host range could be a mechanism to overcome abiotic stress and this can buffer the depletion of
available optimal resources. Host preference of these invasive whiteflies towards coconut and guava
in the country of their origin would have led to quicker establishment on these host plants in the
newly introduced regions. Out of the eight invasive species, spiralling whitefly, rugose spiralling
whitefly, woolly whitefly, nesting whiteflies were found to infest guava and coconut in India. The
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host range expansion is ultimately leading to increases in population growth and potentially to
geographic range expansion (Crowl et al., 2008).
Explorative study revealed the presence of two parasitoids, Encarsia guadeloupae Viggiani and
E. dispersa Polaszek (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) were found to colonize A. dispersus and A.
rugioperculatus (Mani 2010; Selvaraj et al., 2017). These parasitoids believed to have been accidentally
introduced along with the A. dispersus into India. Encarsia guadeloupae was the dominant parasitoid
which parasitized 62-95% and 56-82% on A. dispersus and A. rugioperculatus, respectively (Mani 2010;
Selvaraj et al. 2016; Selvaraj et al., 2017) whereas E. dispersa parasitized 28-92% and 5-10% on A.
dispersus and A. rugioperculatus, respectively (Mani, 2010; Selvaraj et al., 2017).
Predators such as Pseudomallada astur Banks (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), Jauravia pallidula
Motschulsky, Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and Cybocephalus indicus
Tian & Ramani (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) were also observed to be feeding on A. rugioperculatus and
A. dispersus (Mani 2010; Selvaraj et al., 2017). In addition, entomopathogenic fungus, Isaria fumosorosea
Wize was found to be effective against all the life stages of A. rugioperculatus (Sumalatha et al., 2020).
Isaria fumosorosea was highly pathogenic to the egg and early nymphal instar stage with mortality up to
91% in these stages and up to 80% mortality in the late nymphal instar stages. Pseudomallada astur,
Cybocephalus indicus, Axinoscymnus puttarudriahi Kapur, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant (Coleoptera:
Coccinellidae) and Acletoxenus indicus Malloch (Diptera: Drosophilidae) were recorded on solanum
whitefly, nesting whiteflies and woolly whitefly (Selvaraj et al., 2019; Sundararaj et al., 2020). In India,
no parasitoid was known to attack on these whiteflies still date.
1.2. Invasive mealy bugs: Solenopsis mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley papaya mealybug,
Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink and jack beardsley mealybug, Pseudococcus
jackbeardsleyi Gimpel and Miller (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) are invasive mealy bugs reported so far
in India. Recently, cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero is reported on tapioca
(cassava), Manihot esculenta in the three south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka
during 2020 (Joshi et al., 2020). Phenacoccus manihoti is one of the most destructive pests of cassava in
the world. It is native to South America, but has become acclimatized throughout sub-Saharan Africa
since its unintentional introduction into the continent in the early 1970s causing up to 84% loss of
yield and endangering the subsistence of about 200 million people. This pest was not known to occur
in Asia until 2008, when it was first detected in Thailand. In addition Kilifia accuminata, Protopulvinaria
longivalvata, Trijuba oculata scales have been found in the quarantine samples collected from the
imported fruits and vegetables. Formicococcus polysperes, F. formicarii, Anomalococcus crematogastri, Pulvinaria
urbicola and Exallomochlus hispidus (Morrison) were also being identified as pests for the first time in
various crops in India. Consignments of Ficus received from Malaysia contained Fiorinia fioriniae
(Targioni Tozzetti) and from Dracaena: Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli (Cooley) from Citrus fruits: Parlatoria
pergandii Comstock (From Uruguay) Olive: Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) are intercepted regularly
although these are present in India.
Cassava mealybug is known to infest plants belonging to 9 families viz., Cyperaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Portulacaceae, Rutaceae and
Solanaceae. Besides cassava, P. manihoti can infest crops like citrus, Solanum species and basil. Three
predators viz., Cardiastethus sp. (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), Spalgis epeus (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) and
Scymnus coccivora (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) were found to be predating upon the mealybug (Joshi et
al., 2020). Biological control is known to be very effective against this invasive pest, but no
parasitoids were found in the Indian samples of cassava mealybug. Apoanagyrus lopezi (De Santis) has
already been introduced to Thailand, where it has provided effective control of the mealybug, and
has since been introduced from Thailand to Indonesia and Laos. The first priority in India should
therefore be screening for the occurrence of indigenous parasitoids and introduction of A. lopezi.
Efforts have been made to introduce this parasitoid for the effective management.
1.3. Invasion of internal borer: Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera furgiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) was recorded from many locations in Karnataka on maize crop during 2018. Occurrence
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of S. frugiperda in southern India is reported along with associated natural enemies. Severe damage
was noticed in Chikkaballapur, Hassan, Shivamogga, Davanagere and Chitradurga during July–
August 2018 (Shylesha et al., 2018). Spodoptera furgiperda lay eggs on the inner side of the whorl and
also on the under surface of the leaf in a mass and is deposited in layers. The eggs are dome shaped
brownish yellow coloured. After the eggs hatch the young larvae feed on the opened leaves by
scraping and skeletonizing the upper epidermis leaving a silvery transparent membrane. Later on the
larvae enters into the whorl and start feeding between the leaves. Usually within a whorl, one or two
larvae are present as a result a lot of faecal matter gets accumulated within the whorl leading to the
characteristic symptom of damage. The older larvae feed on the developing primordial shoot, thus
resulting in dead heart symptoms. Tassel feeding was also noticed. Host range: A serious
polyphagous pest of voracious nature with a wide host range of approximately more than recorded
plant species under 27 families (Goergen et al., 2016). This pest prefer plants from Gramineae family
including many economically important plants such as maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, rice, wheat,
etc. There are reports on its infestation on other field crops like cowpea, groundnut, potato, soybean,
cotton, etc. Egg parasitoids viz., Telenomus remus (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) and Trichogramma
pretiosum (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae); larval parasitoids viz., Coccygidium melleum, Campoletis
chlorideae, Eriborus sp., Exorista sorbillans, and Odontepyris sp; three predators viz., Forficula sp., Harmonia
octomaculata, and Coccinella transversalis, and entomofungal pathogen, Nomuraea rileyi were recorded
(Sharanabasappa et al., 2019).
2. Biosecurity and economic importance: These invasive species pose a challenge to Indian
economy as biologists and the public world-wide increasingly recognize the damage caused by
invasive non-indigenous species. Despite the severe ecological damage and economic loss caused by
the invasive species, the factors contributing to successful invasion remain elusive. Non-native
species can achieve major pest status when they are accidentally moved to new locations as they
become separated from their natural enemy complexes. Further, enhancement of invasion processes
from initial introduction through establishment and spread under extreme climatic conditions and
the on-going dispersal of exotic species or rearrangement of species geographical is one of the most
striking biological outcomes of global climatic changes.
3. Management of invasive insects: The global invasive species program proposes three major
management options: prevention, early detection, and eradication for the management of alien
species. Prevention of an invasion is the most economical option as it contains pest to spread to neo
geographical regions. Post incursion management mostly through timely implementation of classical
biocontrol programme using potential natural enemies by importation. Fortunately, most of such
invasions, especially those of hemipteran species of the suborder Sternorrhyncha, which includes
whiteflies, scale insects, aphids and mealybugs are amenable for classical biological control. Effective
biological control programme has been implemented for A. rugioperculatus and A. dispersus resulting in
saving millions of rupees by mitigating their adverse impacts on agriculture. The process of
management of invasive insects includes management at three different levels of invasion of pest:
A. When the pest has not been introduced: Preventive measures are taken to avoid the entry of
the invasive insect, viz., pest risk analysis, quarantine and monitoring. This is the best way in
managing the invasive species.
B. When the species is introduced but is not spread to nearby areas: Post-quarantine measures
are taken in such cases such as rejection of the consignment from which the pest has introduced
and eradication by means of fumigation of the consignment lot.
C. When the introduced insect has established itself: Various curative measures such as
cultural, biological and chemical means of management are adopted.
4. Quarantine and regulatory perspective: Plant quarantine regulations are promulgated by the
national and the state governments to prevent the introduction and spread of harmful pests and
pathogens. Plant quarantine activities in India are carried out under the Destructive Insects and Pests
Act (DIP Act) of 1914 as amended from time to time, prohibiting the import of plants and plant
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material, insects, fungi and weeds to India from foreign countries (Dent, 1991). Rules and regulations
have been made prohibiting the movement of certain diseased and pest infested materials from one
stage to another in India. This comes under domestic quarantines. Seed was not covered under the
DIP Act until 1984, when the Government of India brought forward a comprehensive Plant, Fruits
and seeds order, 1984 which came into force in June 1989 (Anonymous, 1989). Further, the
significance of Plant Quarantine has increased in view of Globalisation and liberalisation in
International trade of plants and plant material in the wake of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement
under WTO. The phytosanitary certification of agricultural commodities being exported is also
undertaken through the scheme as per International Plant Protection Convention, 1951.
The DIP Act empowers the central Government to make rules for regulating the import of
seeds/planting materials into India and also the movement of the materials from one state to another
within the country. The state Governments are also empowered to enact rules/ regulations to
regulate the movement of materials from one region/area to another within a state. Plant quarantine
facilities include integrated information management system, integrated pest risk analysis system and
a national pest risk analysis unit for conducting integrated pest surveillance, integrated phytosanitary
border control system, national phytosanitary database and a national management centre for
phytosanitary certification to continuously review the national standards for export phytosanitary
certification. i. Monitoring: There is a total of 71 plant quarantine stations across major and minor
ports (34 seaports, 12 airports, 14 land frontiers and 11 foreign post offices) in India which deals
exclusively on restricting the import of any foreign contaminants. Identification of the species
requires expertise in insect taxonomy which is a limiting constraint in India. Hence the government
of India has established molecular diagnostic facilities across the quarantine station for easy and rapid
detection of invasive insects. During quarantine inspections Exallomochlus philippinensis Williams was
intercepted from Rambutan imports from Thailand and Malaysia. More than 24 different Scales and
mealybugs have been recorded for the first time in India in the last 4 years which are being
monitored for their spread.
ii. Biological control: The boom reproduction of invasive insects in a new environment is because
of non-availability of their natural enemy and unlimited food supply. Biological control is an ancient
practice to control introduced pests, which deals with a timely introduction (classical biological
control), augmentation (mass release of native or exotic natural enemies) and conservation (habitat
management) of natural enemy (predators and parasitoids) from their (invasive insect‘s) native places
in hope that they may reduce the invasive pest population to non-harming levels (Kenis et al., 2019).
Biological control is sufficient to control the alarming invasiveness if once the natural enemy is
established, has long-term effects and is cost-effective too.
iii. Chemical control: Prevention is always better than cure. Hence, strict quarantine is the best
solution for the management of invasive insects, that is, a thorough investigation of all kinds of
imported goods and products in order to hamper the introduction of dangerous species. However,
after the breaching for this barrier, the next prompt control measure is pesticides (chemicals).
Pesticides are quick acting and are very efficient in reducing or eradicating the invasive insects.
5. Future thrust: The spatial structure of invasive species populations has important implications for
early warning systems and designing effective control strategies. Early detection of invasive species
and immediate implementation of biological control methods could minimize the economic losses.
Further, monitoring of introduced species is very important to determine the status and temporal
trends, distribution over time, changes in species composition, expansion of host plants and
geographical range to evaluate the invasiveness and assess the impact on crop plants. These invasive
are highly invasive, mobile and capable of spreading very fast from one location to another location.
Available evidence suggests that new infestations have often resulted from transportations of
infested plants. Chemical control is not practicable because of the abundance of host plants and wide
spread distribution. Moreover it is imperative to mention that correct and timely identification of this
complex is very essential for carrying out further studies on their bioecology, population dynamics on
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31
different environments and development of management strategies especially biocontrol programs.
There is urgent need to document a potential natural enemy complex or introduce from their native
countries to develop efficient biocontrol management strategies for nesting whiteflies, woolly and
palm infesting whiteflies. Further, a nation-wide surveillance programme is required to mapping of
the potential areas of its distribution, and host range to prevent further spread by restricting the
exchange of planting materials.
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National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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I-1
Growth performance and biometric characteristics of fall armyworm
Spodoptera frugiperda
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) reared on different host plants vis a vis diet
R. Gopalakrishnan1 and Vinay Kalia2
1PhD Scholar, Division of Entomology, IARI, New Delhi -110012
2Principal scientist, Division of Entomology, IARI, New Delhi -110012
Corresponding author email: gopalsmile1104@gmail.com
The fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) is an invasive polyphagous pest
reported in India during May 2018. The pest has extended its host range from cereals to millets and
other non-host plants like groundnut and soybean. A change in pest scenario was reported in maize
ecosystem over other pests like maize shoot fly and stem borer complex after invasion of FAW. In
context with that, present study was conducted under controlled laboratory condition to evaluate the
biological parameter i.e., larval period, pupal period, adult longevity, larval weight, pupal weight, adult
weight and fecundity of FAW on four different hosts viz., Zea mays (maize), Gossypium hirsutum
(cotton), Ricinus communis (castor), and B. oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower) and a semi-synthetic diet.
Shortest life cycle of 32.8 ± 0.52 days in male and 34.1 ± 0.43 days in female was observed on
maize. Semi-synthetic diet was found better with higher mean fecundity (1324.6 ± 61.21 eggs), larval
weight (503 ± 0.02 mg), pupal weight (263 ± 0.01 mg) and adult female weight (128 ± 0.0 mg) than
natural hosts. Cotton was found to be least preferred host with longer total life span of 49.5 ± 0.50
days. The head capsule width and height were measured and the growth rate was validated using
Dyar‘s rule. The mean first instar head capsule width of FAW on different host was 0.35±0.00 mm
and the maximum width was 2.76±0.03 mm, on 6th instar larva grown on diet. The relationship
between the head capsule width and larval instar of five hosts were fitted with Dyar‘s rule and the
Dyar‘s ratio varied within the range of 1.2719 to 1.8286, a few supernumerary instar individuals on
castor, diet and maize showed lower ratios. The maize and semi-synthetic diet were found to be on
bar in terms of their host fitness towards FAW followed by castor.
Keywords: Biology, fall armyworm, host plants, dyar‘s rule
I-2
Incidence of leaf spot disease of turmeric in Meghalaya and assay of bacterial biocontrol
agent against the causal agents
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Madhusmita Mahanta, T. Rajesh, R.K. Tombisana Devi and Pranab Dutta
School of Crop Protection, College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, Central Agricultural University
(Imphal), Umiam, Meghalaya- 793 103
Corresponding author email: madhusmita.mahanta12@gmail.com
Turmeric is one of the most important commercial spice crops cultivated in Meghalaya
covering an area of 2,649 ha with a total production of 16,497 MT. Out of different varieties,
Lakadong of Meghalaya is considered to be one of the world‘s best turmeric due to its high curcumin
content (6.8-7.5%). Turmeric being an important commercial spice crop suffers severely from
different foliar and soil borne diseases out of which leaf spot disease caused by Colletotrichum spp. is
considered as the major constraints for its successful cultivation in the country as well as in
Meghalaya. But detail literature on prevailing pathogenic isolates and disease incidence in the state
Meghalaya is rare. So, with an aim to gather data on incidence of turmeric leaf spot disease, a survey
was conducted in the Ri-Bhoi district and West Jaintia Hills districts of Meghalaya during the month
of August, September, October and November. The survey revealed that in the month of
November, highest incidence (59.93%) and severity (58.77%) of leaf spot disease was recorded from
Lakadong area of West Jaintia Hills district and lowest disease incidence (22.69%) and severity
(27.88%) was recorded in Bhoirymbong of Ri-Bhoi district during August. Further, the study on
cultural, morphological and microscopical characteristics showed variability amongst the isolates and
highest frequency of the putative pathogen as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Out of different isolates of
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34
C. gloeosporioides, the isolate from Lakadong was found to be highly virulent. Five bacterial endophytes
were tested in vitro against C. gloeosporioides and highest per cent inhibition (68.11%) was recorded for
NGB 21. This was followed by BE1 with mycelial growth inhibition of 59.89%. The study revealed
that the leaf spot disease of turmeric caused by C. gloeosporioides is a serious foliar disease in
Meghalaya. The endophyte isolates NGB 21 and BE 1 are found effective against the pathogen but
further studies to make a microbial-consortia using effective endophytic flora for management of
turmeric leaf spot disease is necessary to save the crop.
Keyword: Incidence, leaf spot disease, meghalaya, survey, turmeric, management
I-3
Seasonal incidence of aphid,
Macrosiphum luteum
(Hemiptera: Aphididae) on
Epidendrum
radicans
in Sikkim Himalayas
Rumki H Ch Sangma1, 2, Geetanjali Pradhan1 and RK Singh1
ICAR-National Research Centre for Orchids, Pakyong-737106, Sikkim, India1
ICAR-Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam-793103, Meghalaya, India2
Seasonal incidence of aphid, Macrosiphum luteum was studied on orchid, Epidendrum radicans
under polyhouse conditions. The lowest mean population of 6.03 aphids (mean of thirty plants) was
recorded during 17th Standard week in April and highest population was recorded in 48 Standard
week with a mean population of 94.7 aphids, respectively. The minimum and maximum temperature
recorded during 17 Standard week in April, 2017 ranged from 14 °C and 23.71 °C respectively,
minimum and maximum relative humidity ranged from 45.14% to 65.71% and rainfall recorded 1.87
mm. The maximum temperature recorded during 48th standard week was 18.29 ºC and a minimum
of 6.71 ºC and maximum Relative Humidity of 68.21% and a minimum of 46.14 % with a
precipitation of 0.10mm. The maximum temperature of the day has positive correlation (r=0.018)
with the population of aphid.
I-4
Effect of ecological constraints on population dynamics of sucking pest and their natural
enemy on brinjal,
Solanummelongena
L.
Vinod Kumar Garg and Yogesh Patel
Jawaharlal Nehru KrishiVishwaVidyalaya
College of Agriculture, GanjBasodaDistt.Vidisha- 464221(M.P.) India
Corresponding author email: vinodkumarjnau@gmail.com
The brinjal or eggplant (Solanummelongena L.) is one of the most common and key vegetable
crops grown in India and other parts of the world. It is originated from India and second largest
producer of brinjal after china. In India, it is cultivated mainly in West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Gujarat
and Madhya Pradesh states (Garget al 2018). In Madhya Pradesh, it is cultivated in 0.40 lakh ha an
annual production of 1.016 lakh tones and a productivity of 24.97 MT (Metric Tonn) per
hectare(Shaikh and Patel 2012).The experiment was laid out at instructional farm of College of
agriculture, Ganjbasoda district Vidisha (MP) India during winter season 2016-2018 and rainy
season2018-2020. The variety was transplanted during winter and rainy season in a plot size 4.5 m x6
m with 60x45 cm plant spacing. All horticultural practices were followed from time to time to raise
the crop successfully as per package of practices prescribed for the region except plant protection.
The crop was regularly monitored after transplanting till final harvest for the seasonal population
dynamics of whitefly and Jassid .Observations regarding the population of whitefly, and Jassid from
six compound leaves ( 3 middle + 3 lower) of ten randomly selected tagged plants. Numbers of
insects (nymph and adult) were recorded in the morning and cumulative population of whitefly and
jassid per plant was calculated. The population of lady bird beetle (LBB) recorded on whole plot
basis. To assess the effect of different sowing season environments and weather conditions on
seasonal population of whitefly, jassid and LBB on brinjal. The activity of these insects were initiated
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35
in 44th standard meteorological week (SMW) with 30.16, 19.12 and 3.40individuals / plant and peak
population of whitefly with 37.84 individuals / plant on 12th SMW, jassid found maximum with
25.36 individuals / plant with 11th SMW however population of LBB get maximum (5.14 / plant) in
10th SMW respectively and remained active up to 13rdSMWduring winter season although seasonal
activity of these insects were commencement from 27th SMW with 2.5, 1.29 and 3.40 individuals /
plant and reached at maximum with 36.17 and 5.78 of whitefly as well as LBB on 42nd SMW whereas
population of jassid was found higher (14.99) in 41st SWM and its ended up to 46th SMW during
rainy season. The correlation coefficient between whitefly, jassid and LBB with population and
meteorological parameters viz. maximum temperature (r=0.786*,r=0.782*,r=0.4738) minimum
temperature (r=0.85*,r=0.852*, r=0.528*), wind speed (r=0.691*,r=0.451*) and Bright Sunshine
(BSS) (r=0.801*,r=0.801*,r=0.433*) were strongly significant positive impact except wind speed in
case of jassid whereas significant negative correlation with relative humidity (RH) in white fly and
jassid (r=-0.512*, r=-0.509*) . Regression analysis showed that the maximum and minimum
temperature, BSS, relative humidity and wind speed were significantly contributed 73.06%, 62.44%
26.25% and 13.13%, variation of whitefly population fluctuation. The abiotic factors viz. maximum
and minimum temperature, BSS and relative humidity were significantly contributed 61.27%,
72.60%, 64.21 and 25.94% in jassid population variability. The regression coefficient revealed that
the maximum temperature and minimum temperature, BSS and wind speed were contributed
27.88%, 22.33%, 18.77% and 12.55% significantly variation in LBB population fluctuation during
winter season. Correlation analysis between whitefly, jassid and LBB population and weather
parameters revealed that significant positive correlation with maximum temperature(r=0.569*,
r=0.540) except jassid (r=0.256) and significant negative correlation with minimum temperature(r=-
0.831*) only white fly however rainfall(r=-0.643*r=-0.569*), and BSS (r=-0.656*, r=-0.479*)
excluding jassid. The significant contribution of regression coefficient discovered that BSS (43.04%,
22.92%) ,rainfall (41.32%, 32.33%) and maximum temperature (32.42%, 29.08%) were variation in
whitefly and LBB population fluctuation, None of the abiotic factors showed significant variability
in jaasid population buildup during rainy season. So, this study would be helpful in developing in
efficient management strategies on brinjal crop to get good quality fruit to harvest.
Keywords: Brinjal, population dynamics, ecological constraints, correlation and regression analysis,
whitefly, jassid, LBB.
I-5
Alien invasive pests in relation to host range expansion of native parasitoids in India
Ankita Gupta
ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (NBAIR), Bengaluru, India
Corresponding author email: Ankita.Gupta@icar.gov.in; ankitagupta.nbaii@gmail.com
The host-parasitoid interaction between the invasive pests and their indigenous natural enemies is an
interesting evolutionary phenomenon. The present study discusses the scope and limitations of
native parasitoids of two invasive pests - Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
and Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The natural parasitism of S.
frugiperda by primary parasitoids viz., egg- Telenomus remus Nixon (Platygastridae), Trichogramma
chilonis Ishii (Trichogrammatidae); egg-larval braconid parasitoid Chelonus formosanus Sonan, Chelonus
spp.; braconid larval parasitoids Cotesia ruficrus (Haliday), Glyptapanteles creatonoti (Viereck);
ichneumonid larval parasitoid Campoletis chlorideae Uchida along with few occasional species namely
Coccygidium transcaspicum (Kokujev) (Braconidae), Aleiodes sp. (Braconidae), Phanerotoma sp.
(Braconidae) and Trichomalopsis sp. (Pteromalidae) were recorded from across the country. However it
is also noticed that the efficiency of the efficient predator Eocanthecona furcellata (Wolff)
(Pentatomidae) is severely reduced by three species of secondary parasitoids- Gryon sp., Telenomus sp.,
and Trissolcus sp. Similarly in the cassava mealybug high percentage of the encyrtid parasitoid
Homalotylus turkmenicus Myartseva parasitizing the predator Hyperaspis maindroni Sicard (Coleoptera:
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Coccinellidae) predating on the colonies of the cassava mealybug is observed. The studies reveal that
the adaptability and host range expansion of many native parasitoid species can impact the alien pest
population positively as well as negatively.
Keywords: Alien invasive, pests, host range, expansion, native parasitoids. India
I-6
Invasive rugose spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus rugioperculatus: An emerging pest on
coconut in Bastar, Chhattisgarh, India
Rajesh Kumar Patel*, Beena Singh*, P. K. Salam*, Vandana Chadar*, and H. P. Maheswarappa **
*AICRP on Palms, S. G. College of Agriculture and Research Station, Jagdalpur, India
**ICAR - AICRP on Palms, CPCRI, Kasaragod, Kerala, India
Corresponding author email: patelrk337@gmail.com
The rugose spiraling whitefly (RSW) was first time observed on coconut palm (Cocos
nucifera L.) from Bastar plateau of Chhattisgarh during month of September. During survey the
occurrence of this pest is not found in the farmer‘s field of Kondagaon and Dantewada districts.
Average population of RSW on different coconut cultivar reveals that varies from 14.2 to 30.6 RSW
/ cm2. Highest population was recorded in Gautami Ganga (30.6 / cm2) followed by Kera Bastar
(23.2 / cm2) while the minimum population was found in Kalpa Raksha (14.2 / cm2).This
investigation is first report of occurrence of RSW on coconut in Chhattisgarh.
Keywords: Invasive rugose spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus rugioperculatus, emerging pest, coconut
I-7
Occurrence of cerambycid borer,
Bandar pascoei
(Lansberge, 1884) on mango in Punjab, India
Sandeep Singh1, Kolla Sreedevi2 and Rajwinder Kaur Sandhu1
1ICAR-AICRP on Fruits, Department of Fruit Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab- 141004,
India
2Division of Germplasm Collection and Characterization, ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources,
Hebbal, Bellary Road, Bengaluru - 560 024, Karnataka, India
Corresponding author email: sandeep_pau.1974@pau.edu
Mango is the third most important fruit crop of Punjab after citrus and guava. In Punjab, mango
is being cultivated in whole of the sub-mountaneous belt comprising Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, Roop
Nagar, Fatehgarh Sahib, Mohali and Patiala districts. About 30 insect-pest species have been reported
infesting different plant parts of mango trees in Punjab. To record the diversity of emerging insect pests in
mango growing areas of the sub-mountainous zone of Indian Punjab (31° 31' 38.4780'' N and 75° 54'
49.2228'' E), surveys were conducted during June-July in 2017 and 2018. Light traps were also installed in
the vicinity of mango orchard Attraction source used for the insects was 160W Mercury light and a
collection chamber was fixed below the trap to collect the insect-pests. During these surveys, unidentified
cerambycid beetles were observed in light traps in District Hoshiarpur of Punjab. Specimens of adults of
cerambycid beetle collected from these light traps were sent to ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural
Insect Resources, Bengaluru, India for identification. The specimens were identified as Bandar pascoei
(Lansberge) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). Adults were stout, dark brown beetles which were observed
during June-July with the onset of monsoon. This is the first report on the occurrence of B. pascoei in the
vicinity of mango orchard in Punjab and till now this insect species has not been reported on any fruit
crop in Punjab. There is a need to gather information about its pestiferous nature on mango, the
damaging potential, host range, biology and distribution of this insect to develop a management strategy.
Cerambycid borers are phytophagus as both adults and grubs. Cultivation of high yielding varieties,
monocropping, changed agricultural practices have resulted in changing distribution and host range of
many insect species. Many cerambycid borers have become insect pests of fruit trees. The study revealed
that B. pascoei was known to occur in forest areas in many regions of the world but now, this insect is
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recorded from orchards of Punjab, India. Continuous surveillance and monitoring is essential to track the
shift of the insect pest species from forest area to agricultural and horticultural ecosystems.
Key words: Cerambycidae, Coleoptera, Bandar pascoei, mango, Punjab
I-8
Factors threatening the survival rate of whitefly,
Bemisia tabaci
on brinjal and cucumber
Swati Mehra and Krishna Rolania
Department of Entomology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University-Hisar
Corresponding author email: swatimehra@hau.ac.in
Brinjal (Hisar Shyamal) and Cucumber (Japanese Long Green) crops was sown on 20th
February, 2017 without any insecticidal spray with a plot size of 30 square meters at Research Farm,
Department of Entomology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. The observations were
drawn from the naturally established Bemisia tabaci nymphal population in the field and repeated three
times. Five settled first instar nymphs of whitefly were encircled by using a fine marker on tagged
leaves of each of the randomly selected twenty plants. All other nymphs on the tagged leaf were
gently removed by rubbing them off with the edge of soft paper. Each marked nymph was examined
using a 10x hand lens in morning hours. At alternate day, the state of each nymph was examined and
categorized as alive, dead, missing, predated and parasitized based on their appearance. Results based
on mortality factors revealed that on brinjal crop, mean rate of mortality in different developmental
stages of whitefly was highest for predation (16.0±1.9) followed by parasitism (12.3±1.4),
dislodgement (9.3±0.8) and unknown causes (7.0±0.7). The average survival rate of immature stages
of whitefly was 55.4 per cent. On cucumber, mean rate of mortality among different developmental
stages of whitefly was highest for parasitism (19.3±1.2) and predation (13.7±1.0) while, mean rate of
mortality was less for both dislodgement (9.2±0.6) and unknown causes (4.0±0.4). Average survival
rate of different developmental stages was 53.7 per cent .
Keywords: Brinjal, Bemisia tabaci, Encarsia spp., parasitization, predation, cucumber
I-9
Evaluation of different IPM modules against ber stone weevil,
Aubeus himalayanus
in hot
arid region of India
S. M. Haldhar1&3, A. K. Singh2, D. Singh31 and D. K. Sarolia1
1ICAR-Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Sri Ganganagar Highway, Beechwal Industrial Area, Bikaner
(Rajasthan) 334006
2Central Horticultural Experiment Station (ICAR-CIAH), Godhra-Vadodara Highway, Vejalpur (Gujarat) –
389340, India
3(Present Address: Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture (CAU), Iroisemba, Imphal, Manipur
795004)
Corresponding author email: haldhar80@gmail.com
The ber stone weevil, Aubeus himalayanus Voss (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) appeared to be an
emerging pest reported from various region of India. The stone weevil is an emerging threat for ber
production in India especially in Northern India. A significant difference in stone weevil population
was observed under different modules. The results showed that organic IPM module-II registered
significantly lower stone weevil population (11.93 % on retained fruits & 14.95% in dropped fruits)
followed by module-I (21.13 % on plant fruits & 26.05% in fallen fruits). The highest stone weevil
population was observed under control module (49.13 % on retained fruits & 54.73% in dropped
fruits). The marketable yield of ber fruits differed significantly under different modules. The fresh
fruit yield of ber was observed in the order of organic IPM module-II (82.50 kg/ plant)> module-I
(78.90 kg/ plant)> module-IV (73.43 kg/ plant)> module-III (64.13 kg/ plant) and least under
control module (56.55 kg/ plant) in year 2016-17. It can be inferred from the results that organic
IPM module-II (Moderately resistant genotype (Umran), deep summer ploughing after pruning of
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plants, neem oil spray @ 5 ml per litre of water in October month, hand picking of damaged fruit
and adult in November month and spray of spinosad 46 SC @ 0.4 ml per litre of water in December
month) was highly effective and gave higher yield of marketable ber fruits.
Keyword: Ber, stone weevil, Aubeus himalayanus, IPM modules, hot arid region of India
I-10
Biology and morphometry of new invasive pest fall armyworm [
Spodoptera frugiperda
(J.E.
Smith)] on Sorghum
Hemant Swami, Babu Lal, Lekha, Gaurang Chhangani and N.L. Regar
Department of Entomology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture
MPUAT, Udaipur (Rajasthan)-313001
Corresponding author email: hemantswamy@gmail.com
The present investigation on ―Biology and morphometry of Fall Armyworm [Spodoptera
frugiperda (J.E. Smith)] on Sorghum‖ was conducted at Department of Entomology and Agronomy
Farm, RCA, Udaipur during July-December, 2019. The study on biology and morphometry of fall
armyworm, S. frugiperda revealed that the incubation period 2-3 days. The first to sixth instar larval
periods were recorded to be ranging from 2-3, 2-3, 2-3, 2-3, 2-3 and 4-6 days, respectively. The total
larval (I to VI instar), pre-pupal, pupal, pre-oviposition, oviposition, post oviposition period were
recorded to be from 13-20, 1-2, 9-13, 3-4, 2-3 and 4-5 days, respectively. The male and female
longevity values were 7-10 and 10-12 days, respectively. The total life cycle of male and female was
recorded to be from 37-46 and 40-49 days, respectively. The mean fecundity of female was observed
to be 996 eggs. The mean egg hatching per cent was 94.07. The sex ratio was observed to be 1.30:1.
The mean larval length from first instar to sixth instar was 1.74, 3.45, 6.20, 9.64, 16.61 and 32.84 mm,
respectively. The pupal length was observed to be 15.59 mm. The mean body length, wing length and
wing span of male are 2-15.60, 13.51, 31.10 mm respectively and for the female adults are 15.12,
13.03, 30.57 mm, respectively.
Keywords: FAW, sorghum, fecundity, life cycle and morphology
I-11
On certain aspects of the mustard aphid,
Lipaphis erysimi
(Kalt.) (Homoptera: Aphididae)
Chitra Devi*, L., Th. D. Songomsing Chiru and R. Varatharajan
Centre of Advanced Study in Life Sciences, Manipur University
*Oriental College, Manipur
Corresponding author email: chitralangam1@gmail.com; rvrajanramya@gmail.com;
songomsing@manipuruniv.ac.in
The mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) (Homoptera: Aphididae) is categorised as a
―National Pest‖ invariably infest on cruciferous crops in general and mustard in particular. The
piercing and sucking mode of feeding results in curling and withering of leaf and tender twig. Being
an insect capable of breeding through parthenogenesis, L. erysimi could enhance its density quickly as
it is capable of producing 52± 1.4 young ones per female. In addition, the duration of development
from the newly laid viviparous form to adult takes a fortnight. The net reproductive rate per
generation was found to be 37.66 and mean duration of generation was 21.34 days. The populations
of the aphid multiplied 1.185 times per female per day and time required for doubling of population
was 4.077 days. Of the total population, the nymphs, apterous and alates occupied nearly 70, 25 and
5% respectively. In an attempt to control this aphid, aqueous extract of two plant products namely
Ageratum conyzoides and Azadiracta indica were evaluated against the mustard aphid and they gave 85
and 75% mortality at 1% and 0.05% respectively.
Keywords: Mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi, bioecology, duration of development, efficacy
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I-12
Correlation of different weather parameters with major insect-pest infesting tomato along
with their population dynamics
Soniya Dhanda, 1Surender Singh Yadav and 2Sunita Yadav
Department of Entomology,
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural university-12004, Hisar, Haryana
Corresponding author email: Soniyadhanda378@gmail.com
An experiment was conducted to study the population dynamics of insect-pest infesting tomato and
there relation with different abiotic factor on entomology research farm, Chaudhary Charan Singh
Harayana Agricultural University, Hisar during Rabi 2018-19. Results revealed that tomato was
attacked by tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera), aphid (Myzus persicae), aphid (Myzus persicae) and
leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii). Study suggested that infesation of H. armigera larvae continue in field
from 9th to 21st SMW and reached to peak level (5.05 larvae/ plant) during 17th SMW and aphid
population start appearing from 9th SMW (first week of March) and reached to maximum level (23.26
aphids per 3 leaves) during 12th SMW (4th week of March). While peak population of whitefly (6.28
whitefly adults/ 3 leaves) was observed during 3rd week of April (16th SMW). First incidence of leaf
miner was recorded during 9th SMW (first week of March) with 0.63 mines/ 3 leaves and maximum
population (5.95 mines/ 3 leaves) was recorded during 2nd week of April (15th SMW). Correlation
study showed that population of fruit borer larvae and whitefly have a significant positive correlation
with temperature i.e. maximum and minimum temperature (r= 0.741), (r= 0.667), (r=0.612) and
(r=0.533) respectively, whereas with relative humidity highly significant negative correlation was
found i.e. evening (r = -0.798), (r= -0.607) and morning relative humidity (r= -688), (r=-0.645)
respectively. Highly significant negative correlation exhibited by aphid population with temperature
(maximum, minimum) and with wind velocity r= -0.874, -0.924 and r= -0.735 respectively but aphid
population found to be highly significantly positively correlated with relative humidity i.e. morning
(r= 0.796) and evening (r= 0.736). Population of leaf miner had a significant negative correlation
with relative humidity i.e. morning (r=-0.562) and evening (r= -0.718) but non-significant negative
correlation with rainfall (r=-207) and sunshine(r=-0.290).
Keywords: Population dynamic, tomato, correlation, temperature, relative humidity
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National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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Theme-II
Priorities in biological control
of insect pests and diseases
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National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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LII-1
Priorities in application of microbials for biological control of insect pests
R. J. Rabindra
Former Dirctor, ICAR National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources and Dean, College of Post Graduate
Studies (CAU)
Presently Consultant Fall Army worm IPM project, TNAU, Coimbatore
Corresponding author email: rjrabindra@gmail.com
In view of the serious and damaging consequences of indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides, there
is an ever increasing demand for the development of eco friendly and safe pest management options.
Risk to human and animal health, decimation of useful fauna particularly the honey bees,
pollinators, parasitoids, predators and several useful non target species involved in nutrient recycling
and disruption of food chain are some of the serious concerns. Microbials like Bacillus thuringiensis,
baculoviruses particularly nuclear polyhedrosis viruses, entomo fungal pathogens as well as
entomopathogenic nematodes have shown promise in the management of some pests of both
agricultural and horticultural crops. These bio control agents have been found to be safe to
parasitoids, predators, honey bees and pollinators. Though some of these microbial biocontrol agents
have been registered in India for commercial production and sale, their uptake has not been very
encouraging due to their slow action on target pests, poor shelf life of the formulations, and short
persistence in the field necessitating more number of applications as well as high cost of production
resulting in high cost of applications to the farmers. The high cost of registration of microbial bio
control agents is another concern. Research in the recent past has shown that these drawbacks can be
solved to a certain extent. However, competition by the aggressive chemical pesticides providing
quick knock down of pests has been a serious impediment to large scale adoption of microbial bio
control agents.
In order to encourage and increase the uptake of microbial bio control agents, concerted research
efforts should be focused in the following areas.
1. Application of biotechnology and non recombinant DNA technology to enhance the virulence
and persistence of microbials. Development of UV tolerant strains of insect pathogens will be
helpful.
2. Development of efficient cost effective fermentation technology
3. Improve the shelf life and field persistence of formulations by addition of suitable adjuvants
Experience in the past has shown that microbial bio control agents in sub lethal doses can increase
the susceptibility of some lepidopteran pests like Helicoverpa armigera to chemical pesticides by
lowering the titre of carboxyl esterase and glutathione-S-transferase. Hence by proper integration of
biological control in IPM programmes, the benefit of microbial agents can be enhanced. India being
endowed with a very rich biodiversity of microbes, search should continue to identify more robust
entomopathogenic organisms that can be successfully deployed in IPM programmes. Some nuclear
polyhedrosis viruses are known to produce natural epizootics that result in long term suppression of
pests like Amsacta albistriga on groundnut and Dasychira mendosa on castor. Such epizootics can be
induced by inoculative application of the pathogens at proper time and pest control can be achieved
with no cost to the farmers. Several botanical principles are known to enhance the virulence of insect
pathogens and such plant products can be profitably integrated in IMP packages.
Keywords: Priorities, application, microbials, biological control, insect pests
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
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LII-2
Conservation of biological control agents- parasitoids and predators (PP) for pest
management services
Abraham Verghese *
Former Director, ICAR–National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, P.O. Box 2491, H.A. Farm Post,
Hebbal, Bengaluru 560 024, India.
Corresponding author email: abraham.avergis@gmail.com
*Editor-in-Chief, Insect Environment
Abstract
Biological control has a history of many decades of research in India and elsewhere. There
have been several successes, but in terms of wider application and commercialization, only
entomopathogenic microorganisms including nematodes and viruses have found favour with
production units and farmers; even these have not been able to go beyond 3% of the agricultural area
in India. Effective parasitoids and predators have not been able to get the due attention of farmers as
well as the market. In this context, only conservation of biological control agents like parasitoids and
predators (PP) seems to be a feasible approach to enhance the pest management services by ensuring
their availability in an agro-ecosystem. This paper deals with selected results from several Bengaluru-
based studies during 2012–2019 on conservation biological control in organic ecosystems and
discusses the importance of avoidance of pesticides and spray-drifts, manipulating landscapes and
crop stories and preserving floral components. These will enhance natural biotic pressure on insect
pests contributing to pest management services.
Introduction
Biological control is a multifaceted phenomenon involving one or more predators,
parasitoids, pathogens or nematodes. This method has been used as a tool in pest management for
centuries, and the history of its development is seamless. However, chemicals are dominating the
pest management scenario, and there is ample scientific evidence to show that many of these affect
natural enemies lethally.
Though IPM (integrated pest management) with limited and judicious use of pesticides and
strategic interventions with biocontrol agents is widely advocated, the latter is less evident in the
field. Therefore, if biological control has to be adopted, a viable approach would be conservation of
natural enemies especially predators and parasitoids (PP). Conservation in general sense implies
preserving the flora and fauna in a natural state without any anthropogenic interventions. Such areas
are only theoretical in agriculture. So we need to look into a viable approach interventional
conservation that leads to pest management.
Conservation biological control
Conservation biological control (CPC) is an approach wherein natural enemy efficacy is
enhanced through modification of the environment or by limiting pesticide pressure. Efficacy implies
enhancement of survival, fecundity, longevity and behaviour of PP to increase their effectiveness in
pest management. Thus, the conservation approach aims at improving the availability of natural
enemies in a sustainable way through actions that preserve or protect or promote them. The PP can
provide additional multiple ecosystem services, like being pollinators, food in an ecological web, in
soil amelioration, etc. The advantage is that it is a practice which individual growers can adopt, with
some changes to the cropping pattern, farm landscapes, refugia, etc.
Some agro-ecosystems in India, with less pesticide pressure, have had success with
conserving biocontrol agents for prolonged periods. For example, in papaya and mulberry (grown for
silkworm rearing), the exotic encyrtid parasitoid, Acerophagus papayae Noyes & Schauff, has been
sustainably used against the invasive mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams & de Willink. In
essence, the parasitoid is conserved, except where imidacloprid is sprayed in the hope of preventing
the aphid vectors of the papaya ring-spot virus. The natural enemy conserved in situ has been able to
control the mealybug and further spread to unreleased areas. In fact, when farmers report the
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occurrence of the mealybug, A. papayae is collected from established zones and released into new
areas. This is one example of biocontrol agents naturally conserved for longer periods in the absence
of pesticide pressure.
Habitat management or manipulation
One of the ways to achieve sustainable conservation biological control is through landscape
changes and habitat management, which involves manipulation of vegetation patterns and farming
practices. Habitat management essentially aims at creating suitable ecological niches in agro-
ecosystems to support resources like prey, nest/rest sites and food in terms of prey insects, nectar,
pollen, etc. These resources must be integrated both spatially and temporally, favourable to PP and
practical for farmers to implement.
For example, establishment of perennial flowering plants provides a stable resource platform
for an entire season or years. Floral nectar is taken by many adult parasitoids and can result in
increased rates of parasitisation. Thus, an agro-ecosystem, which is mono-cropped or even
intercropped, should have a range of flowers as nectar sources, on the borders or even as widely
spaced ‗inter-plants‘.
It has been found that flowering plants like dill (Anethum graveolens L.) and fennel (Foeniculum
vulgare L.) were most favourable to Edovum puttleri Grissell and Pediobius foveolatus (Crawford), the
parasitoids of the Colorado potato beetle [Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say)], and coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.) to P. fovealatus. In 1997, Reducing the soil temperature by inter-planting ryegrass, Lolium
multiflorum Lambert, facilitated the survival of Trichogramma brassicae Bezdenko in seed maize, Zea mays
L. Recently, Amala and Shivalingaswamy (2018) documented the diversity of parasitoids and
predators in guava Psidium guajava L. [sole crop or intercropped with cowpea (Vigna unguiculata
(L.) Walp.)], mulberry (Morus sp.) [sole crop or bordered with castor (Ricinus communis L.)] and sapota
[Manilkara zapota (L.) P.Royen] [sole crop or intercropped with cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
(L.) Taub.)] at two villages in the state of Karnataka, India. Interestingly, predators (members of
Coccinellidae, Carabidae, Chrysopidae, Syrphidae and Pentatomidae) and parasitoids (members of
Trichogrammatidae, Braconidae, Encyrtidae and Ichneumonidae) were found to be more abundant
in dual crops than in sole crops as indicated by Shannon–Wiener, Margalef and evenness indices,
thus confirming the utility of crop diversification in enhancing the functional biodiversity of PP in an
efficient biological control programme. It has been found that planting wind-break trees like
Casuarina spp. on borders facilitate bird insectivory in the field (Verghese, 1993).
Refugia
Another approach in conservation biological control is the use of refugia, especially in
perennial crops. For example, it was found that a few trees of guava (Psidium guajava L.), when left
unsprayed as refugia, hosted a range of coccinellid predators, such as Menochilus sexmaculatus
(Fabricius), Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, Scymnus castaneus Sicard and Pseudaspidimerus sp., which
emigrated to the main trees, to limit the pests, viz. Chloropulvinaria psidii Green, Ferrisia virgata
(Cockerell) and Aphis gossypii Glover (Verghese, 1995).
Diverse plants, including weeds, if allowed to naturally exist at field edges will support
breeding sites for natural enemies. ‗No-tillage‘ production systems that leave crop residue on the soil
surface increased the populations and impacts of predatory carabids. The most well-known type of
shelter habitats provided are the beetle banks. These banks provide suitable wintering sites for
predatory beetles in the families Carabidae and Staphylinidae and for spiders. In a study conducted in
Bengaluru, it was found that about eight milkweed (Calotropis sp.) plants on the edges of a 20-acre
farm were infested with Aphis nerii Boyer de Fonscolombe, which in turn, supported the predator
Menochilus sexmaculatus (Viyolla, 2016). The adult M. sexmaculatus did not restrict itself to the weed but
spread to the other areas where field beans and Dolichos lablab L. were grown on which Aphis craccivora
(Koch) existed (Figure 1). However, these legume plants were subjected to chemical interventions,
which affected the predators. But the population of M. sexmaculatus that existed on Calotropis sp.
survived, or in other words, were conserved. Therefore, Calotropis sp., in addition to its medicinal
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properties [in curing dysentery, diaphoretic, emetic intermittent fevers, cold, cough, asthma and
indigestion, if planted in agro-ecosystems, would be an ideal refugium to conserve M. sexmaculatus
(Viyolla, 2016).
In an unsprayed organic D. lablab field infested with the aphid, Aphis craccivora, on the
outskirts of Bengaluru, it was found that M. sexmaculatus was able to breed and suppress the aphids.
However, in addition to the coccinellid, two releases of Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi (Esben-Peterson)
were made to suppress the aphid. These predators however could not survive beyond the next
generation. Therefore, conservation of Chrysoperla invariably should be done in breeding cages and
augmentatively released in pesticide-limited fields. Cryptolaemus montrouzieri is known to congregate
and pupate on tree bark. Since they tend to overwinter or rest for long periods, avoiding sprays or
spray drifts on tree bark will help in conserving C. montrouzieri.
Conservation biological control through organic agriculture: case studies in mango
Reduviids
In a study conducted between 2012 and 2015 in an organic mango ecosystem in Bengaluru, it
was found that the reduviid predator, Isyndus heros (Fabricius), could be conserved in the orchards
except in summer (Figure 2) when temperature shot up above 32 °C (Mouly, 2018). The mean
population was around five per tree at the peak but could not put adequate pressure on the
leafhopper (Idioscopus nitidulus Walker), which was the predominant prey. However, it is indicative that
if inundative or one-time mass release is carried out after September, the population might survive in
high numbers to offset the leafhopper explosion in January/February during flowering (Mouly,
2018). This is worth exploring as part of interventional biological conservation.
Spiders
The spider Oxyopes kohaensis Bodkhe & Vankhede was found quite tolerant to higher
temperatures and was found to be more during summer months unlike the reduviids (Mouly, 2018).
However, it is doubtful if spiders could exert predatory pressure on any pest due to their low
numbers (Figure 2). Mass release of spiders is also not in the reckoning as they are not amenable to
mass rearing. Nonetheless, their presence is indicative of a non-chemical ecosystem, which is
amenable to releases of other biocontrol agents.
Braconids
In mango, when the new foliage appears during August/September, one of the pests that
attack the leaves is the leaf miner, Acrocercops syngramma (Meyrick), the infestation of which peaks by
October. An unidentified braconid parasitoid has been observed parasitising the leaf miner larvae,
thus bringing the pest population down by December (Abraham Verghese, personal observation).
Therefore, the best way to conserve this braconid between October and December is to avoid
insecticide sprays, which is practical as no major pests are a threat to mango during this phase. In
case an insecticidal spray is given when a leaf miner is at the peak, the parasitoids are not observed
and the infestation moves to the tender shoots as new leaves are not produced after December. This
can cause dieback of terminal shoots. This is based on a study from 2013 to 2015 for three years, and
data for 2014 is in Figure 3. Further, it was observed that the leaf miners would rarely attack all the
leaves on a terminal shoot in the initial phase (Soumya, 2019). Thus, even if two or three leaves are
attacked in the beginning, the rest of the leaves that remain uninfested contribute to the productivity
of the tree. This is a typical case where conservation biological control for about three months can
tide over the leaf miner infestation in mango.
Conservation of insectivorous birds
Studies conducted in north Bengaluru (Verghese, Pinto and Radhakrishnan, 2016) showed
that there were about 55 species of insectivorous birds in a developing horticultural ecosystem during
1985. Due to extensive agri-horticultural operations, there was a decline in the bird diversity and
perceptible increase in the insect pests between 1991 and 2016 as against the number of insects
before. It is interesting to note that four birds, viz. jungle crow [Corvus macrorhynchus (Wagl.)], cattle
egret (Bubulcus ibis Linnaeus), jungle myna (Acridotheres fuscus Wagler) and flower pecker (Dicaeum agile
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Tickell) were the ones that had adapted to the human/farmer interferences and pressures due to
availability of suitable breeding, feeding and roosting niches. In order to conserve the birds, their
roosting, feeding and breeding niches need to be sustained.
It was found that both cattle egret and jungle crow increased in agri-horti ecosystem, as they
were able to find suitable roosting niches in the tall mango orchards as well as on several ornamental
trees like Ficus religosa L., Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf. and Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) Schult. These also
followed the tractor regularly to get the exposed grubs and other soil-dwelling insects. In the case of
jungle myna, the orchards and trees served as roosting and nesting sites, and the meadow and
grasslands gave acaridids as non-crop food.
Conservation with respect to microorganisms
Despite that fact that microorganisms form the bulk of the biomass and biodiversity of life,
they are rarely considered by conservation biologists. Microorganisms take part in a range of
processes, including controlling of arthropod pests and plant pathogens. Entomopathogenic bacteria,
fungi, viruses and nematodes work against insect pests and nematodes. These are amenable to
conservation in integrated and organic farming systems by a modification of habitats or of crop
management techniques. The successful use of this approach relies on a thorough understanding of
the biology and ecology of the pest and the natural enemy complex and, in the case of fungi,
conditions that promote the development of epizootics. Although conservation biocontrol may be
considered to be in its infancy for entomopathogens, this tactic has been successfully used on a
limited scale. Conserving soil-related entomopathogens implies working with soil conservation. For
example soil cover (mulch/ green manure) conserves moisture and reduces temperature making the
environment for organisms in the soil food. Since living roots provide the easiest source of food for
soil microbes, growing long-season crops or a cover crop following a main-season crop, helps sustain
useful microbes that will be available in the next cropping cycle.
Conclusions and suggestions
Conservation biological control seems to have a positive future, as concern for pesticide
pollution and interest in organic farming are gaining momentum. Allowing natural enemies of pests
and augmenting them behoves well for their conservation in an agro-ecosystem. Elements like
habitat manipulation, refugia and minimising chemical pesticides augur well to promote biocontrol
agents. Lastly, there is a greater need to artificially breed natural enemies, especially insects, for
release in the crop field as part of interventional conservation irrespective of pest occurrence.
References
Amala, U. and Shivalingaswamy, T. M. 2018. ―Effect of intercrops and border crops on the diversity
of parasitoids and predators in agroecosystem‖. Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control, 28:11
(DOI 10.1186/s41938-017-0015-y)
Mouly, R. 2018. ―Developing organic integrated management OIM for major insect pests of mango
Mangifera indica L.‖ PhD thesis submitted to Jain University, Bengaluru, India.
Soumya B.R. 2019. ―Biodiversity and seasonal incidence of lepidopteran pest complex of mango with
special reference to mango leaf webber Orthaga exvinacea Hampson in Karnataka‖ PhD thesis
submitted to Jain University, Bengaluru, India.
Verghese, A. 1993. ―Foraging ecology of pestilent parakeets‖. Newsletter for Birdwatchers, 33(4), 224–
227.
Verghese, A. 1995. ―Aggregation and sampling plan in three aphidophagous predators in a guava
ecosystem‖. Journal of Biological Control, 9(1), 16–20.
Verghese, A., Pinto, V. and Radhakrishnan, S. K. 2016. ―Birds and insectivory: agrobiodiversity
implications in sustainable agriculture‖. Indian Journal of Plant Genetic Resources, 29(3), 330–333.
Viyolla, P. 2016. ―Biodiversity of ants on selected horticultural plants, their interspecific relationships
and abiotic impacts‖ PhD thesis submitted to Bangalore University, Bengaluru, India.
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LII-3
Priorities in application of macrobials for biological control of insect pests
Chandish R Ballal
Former Director, ICAR-NBAIR
Former Project Coordinator, AICRP on Biological Control
Corresponding author email: ballalchandish@gmail.com
Abstract
The major focus in practical biocontrol programmes should be to conserve the indigenous
natural enemies. Emphasis should thus be on minimizing intensive agricultural practices and to
produce food in a sustainable manner. Though majority of the studies point out that natural enemy
richness enhances prey suppression, some of the studies do indicate that natural enemy diversity can
even lead to weakened prey suppression due to factors like intraguild predation, behavioral
interference and negative selection effects. A classic example of conservation biological control is
that of the suppression of the sugarcane woolly aphid Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehntner through
conservation of the indigenous predators Dipha aphidovora (Meyrick) and Micromus igorotus Banks and
the parasitoid Encarsia flavoscutellum Zehntner. A major step in the management of the Rugose
Spiraling whitefly was also through conservation of the parasitoid Encarsia guadeloupae Viggiani. In
both the cases, the management through conservation biocontrol was enabled through a
recommendation to refrain from applying chemical insecticides. When the indigenous natural
enemies are not in adequate numbers to manage the pest, we resort to augmentative biological
control, where natural enemies are periodically introduced. Worldwide, this strategy is commercially
applied over large areas in various cropping systems, especially by professional and progressive
farmers. When we have to tackle invasive pests, the first option is to import exotic natural enemies
from the country of origin of the invasive pest, as was done in the case of the papaya mealybug,
which was successfully managed by field releasing the exotic parasitoid Acerophagus papayae. However,
indigenous parasitoids and predators along with indigenous microbials were found to be potential
biocontrol agents, when the invasive Fall Army worm entered our country. Thus, to ensure
conservation and optimum utilization of an array of effective natural enemies, we advocate advanced
research on understanding and documenting biodiversity of pests and natural enemies, measuring the
role played by specific or combinations of natural enemies on specific target pests and participatory
research based on interactions between farmers, researchers and crop advisors.
Keywords: augmentation, biodiversity, biological control, classical biocontrol, conservation,
macrobials, natural enemies, parasitoids, predators
Introduction
The major focus in applied biological control should be to select an appropriate species or
combination of species from a pool of parasitoids and predators and to work on a strategy to bring
about the desired level of pest suppression with minimal impact on non-target species. Biological
control attempts have been either through conservation or augmentation of the potential indigenous
biological control agents. Of more than one-and-half million insect species which occur in this world,
only about 1.0% have attained the status of pests. Many species which have pestilent potential remain
at low levels because of the perpetual regulatory action exerted on them by their natural enemies.
Hence, for management of some of our major pests, it is important to restore the natural balance
through purposeful human intervention. For tackling outbreaks of indigenous pests, the management
approach could be through augmentation or conservation of indigenous natural enemies. However,
when we are targeting invasive species, it is termed classical biological control. Biological control
which focuses on either conserving or utilizing the diversity of natural enemies has proven to be one
of the most effective, environmentally sound, and cost-effective pest management approaches as it is
expected to drastically cut down the use of broad-spectrum pesticides and is considered to be a
cornerstone of organic farming. The fundamental challenge in applied biological control is to select
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an appropriate species or combination of species from the pool that will bring about the desired level
of pest suppression with minimal impact on nontarget species.
Conservation biological control
Conservation of natural enemies is probably the most important, readily available, generally
simple and cost-effective. Natural enemies occur in all production systems, from the backyard garden
to the commercial field. They are adapted to the local environment and to the target pest, and their
conservation is generally simple and cost-effective. With relatively little effort the activity of these
natural enemies can be observed. For example, parasitized aphid mummies are almost always present
in aphid colonies. These natural controls are important and need to be conserved and considered
when making pest management decisions.
In many instances the importance of natural enemies has not been adequately studied or
does not become apparent until insecticide use is stopped or reduced. Often the best we can do is to
recognize that these factors are present and minimize negative impacts on them. Natural enemies
may be conserved by using insecticides or formulations which are least harmful and by timing
applications to reduce the impact on beneficial arthropods. Ballal and Singh (2001) reported that
non-intervention and thus conservation of natural enemies to be the best strategy for Helicoverpa
armigera management in the sunflower ecosystem. Studies have indicated that chemical inputs
strongly affect beneficial insects and hence compared to conventional farms, organic farms had a
higher species richness and abundance of predators and parasitoids (Bengtsson et al 2005). Effect of
insecticide inputs can go beyond farm level. In Midwestern USA, it was reported that crop pest
abundance increased with the proportion of harvested cropland treated with insecticides (Meehan et
al., 2011).
Besides biodiversity conservation, promoting biodiversity through local and landscape
practices is extremely important. Thus focus should be on ecological management of farms through
measures like increasing on farm plant diversity, perennial plant cover, etc. Conservation biological
control practices such as refuges for natural bio-agents, conserving weed plants harbouring predators
and egg parasitoids, use of safer pesticides, judicious and selective use of non-persistent pesticides,
strip treatment, spot treatment, etc. have been found to be effective conservation techniques in
several crop ecosystems (Singh, 2002). Conservation tillage or no till practices can lead to increase in
the populations of predators and parasitoids. Diversity can be increased by planting non-crop
vegetation like hedgerows which enhance natural enemy abundance (Nicholls and Altieri, 2013). Use
of kairomones, synomones, pheromones, adjuvants, etc. to increase the searching ability and
retention of parasitoids, build up population of biocontrol agents by providing artificial structures,
food, alternate host, suppression of ants, etc., provision of grain sorghum in cotton plot, which
serves as a source for natural enemies, etc are some conservation techniques.
Habitat manipulation also involves altering the cropping system to augment or enhance the
effectiveness of a natural enemy. Many adult parasitoids benefit from sources of nectar and the
protection provided by refuges such as hedgerows, cover crops and weedy borders. Mixed plantings
and the provision of flowering borders can increase the diversity of habitats and provide shelter and
alternative food sources. They are easily incorporated into home gardens and even small-scale
commercial plantings, but are more difficult to accommodate in large-scale crop production. For leaf
and plant hoppers, colonization of mirid predator Cyrtorhinus lividipennis has proved to be effective
and weeds like Cyperus sp. help in off-season survival of mirid bug through harbouring plant hoppers.
The presence of spiders viz. Lycosa preudoannulata, Oxyopus javanus and Tetragnatha sp. checked the
population of BPH and WBPH. Natural enemy populations may be enhanced by increasing the
diversity of plant species in the vicinity of the crop, changing cultural practices to ensure continuous
availability of hosts and by providing alternative food sources (Pawar, 1986). Landscape
heterogeneity and complexity generally benefit natural enemies. Marino and Landis (1996) observed
parasitism rates to be positively correlated with landscape complexity and Gardiner et al (2009)
reported higher predation rates of soybean aphids by coccinellids in soybean fields where landscape
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heterogeneity was maintained. Tylianakis et al (2007) reported higher parasitism rates across pasture,
rice and coffee systems where parasitoid diversity was higher. However, according to Schmitz (2007)
in 40.3% cases, predator diversity negatively influences predation, which could be due to
interspectific inference or competition. Thus, there is a clear need for a dialogue and networking
between biocontrol researchers, extension workers, landscape ecologists and farmers. Growers can
be encouraged to conserve biodiversity through ecological engineering, diversified crop rotations and
to abstain from excessive use of chemical pesticides.
In nature, several parasitoids been observed to be potential bio-agents of serious crop pests.
The emphasis should be on documenting the important natural enemies which play a major role in
pest suppression and conserve them. Here we are citing a few examples. Anagyrus dactylopii was
recorded as a dominant parasitoid parasitising up to 90 per cent of citrus mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis
(Ali, 1957; Subba Rao et al., 1965). On cabbage, cauliflower and other cole crops, diamondback moth
(DBM), Plutella xylostella is a major pest and Cotesia plutellae is an important parasitoid in Gujarat,
Karnataka and Tamilnadu (Yadav et al. 1975; Jayarathnam, 1977; Nagarkatti and Jayanth, 1982),
while Diadegma semiclausum in the Nilgiris (Chandramohan, 1994). Campoletis chlorideae and Eriborus
argenteopilosus are important early larval parasitoids of Helicoverpa armigera in the pigeonpea and
chickpea ecosystems (Bilapate et al., 1988). On citrus butterfly Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, egg parasitoid
Trichogramma chilonis Ishii parasitised up to 76 per cent and Telenomus sp. nr. incommodus 78 per cent in
February (Krishnamoorthy and Singh, 1988; Jalali and Singh, 1990). The two indigenous early larval
parasitoids of H. armigera – Campoletis chlorideae and Eriborus argenteopilosus are important mortality
factors, especially in the pulses ecosystem.
In India, several predators have been identified as potential bio-control agents. For instance,
more than 60 arthropod species have been recorded as predators of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner).
The important predators found feeding on H. armigera in India are chrysopids, anthocorids, ants,
coccinellids and spiders (Manjunath et al., 1989; Duffield, 1994, Duffield and Reddy, 1997). The
important indigenous coccinellids include Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus, Scymnus coccivora Ayyar,
Chilocorus nigrita Fabricius, Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fabricius) and Brumoides suturalis (Fabricius).
Amongst syrphids, the important ones include Ischiodon scutellaris (Fabricius), Paragus serratus
(Fabricius) and Paragus yerburiensis Stuckenberg. Aphidophagous coccinellid, C. septempunctata is more
abundant in areas with low average temperature viz., northern parts of India. It plays important role
in natural suppression of aphids like Myzus persicae (Sulzer), Brevicoryne brassicae (Linnaeus) and Lipaphis
erysimi (Kaltenbach) infesting rabi oilseeds and cole crops. Similarly, syrphids like I. scutellaris and
Paragus spp. are also found in very high numbers feeding on these aphids. Cheilomenes sexmaculata, is
more abundant in warmer areas of southern India and keeps Aphis craccivora Koch, infesting
groundnut and pulses under check during summer and kharif season. Sixty five species of Chrysopids
belonging to 21 genera have been recorded from various crop ecosystems in India. Some species are
distributed widely and are important natural enemies for aphids and other soft bodied insects.
Amongst them, Chrysoperla carnea, Mallada boninensis, Apertochrysa crassinervis and Mallada astur are the
most common. C. z. sillemi has been recorded on cotton, green gram, sorghum, maize, safflower,
sunflower and pigeonpea, predating on the pest like safflower aphid, maggots of safflower fruit fly,
eggs of pentatomid bugs on green gram, sorghum aphid, eggs of Pyrilla, cotton aphid and leaf
hoppers. In Himachal Pradesh, C. zastrowi sillemi feeds on woolly aphid Eriosoma lanigerum colonies.
Anthocorids have been recorded as potential bio-agents of different species of thrips in various
ecosystems. Orius spp. are the most common anthocorids which have been collected from different
crop ecosystems. Orius tantillus and O. maxidentex are the most common species collected.
Augmentation biocontrol
Augmentation biological control involves the supplemental release of natural enemies, which
could be inoculative (relatively few natural enemies released at a critical time of the season) or
inundative (millions may be released). In India, innumerable attempts have been made to augment
the populations of promising indigenous natural enemies like trichogrammatids, bethylids,
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chrysopids, ladybird beetles, anthocorids, etc. to control pests of various crops. To support such
augmentative programmes, mass-production of natural enemies is a necessity.
Trichogramma spp. and Trichogrammatoidea spp. are egg parasitoids widely used against the lepidopteran
pests infesting sugarcane, paddy and vegetables. Notable success has been achieved in the bio-
suppression of sugarcane and paddy borers using Tricho cards. The hopper Pyrilla perpusilla has been
managed in some states by the colonization / redistribution of the lepidopteran parasitoid, Epiricania
melanoleuca. Misra and Pawar (1984) reported that this parasitoid when released @ 400,000 – 500,000
eggs or 2000 – 3000 cocoons / ha in eastern UP, West Bengal, Orissa, Karnataka, Kerala,
Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh gave complete control of the pest.
Field releases of the three stage specific parasitoids of Opisina arenosella viz Goniozus nephantidis, Elasmus
nephantidis and Brachymeria nosatoi at fixed norms and intervals in a heavily infested coconut garden for
a period of five years resulted in highly significant reduction in Opisina population (Sathiamma et al.,
2000). The anthocorid predator Cardiastethus exiguus and G. nephantidis have been observed to be
highly amenable to mass production and they have also proved to be highly effective against the egg
and larval stages of O. arenosella as indicated in the recent field trials conducted at Kerala and
Karnataka (Venkatesan et al., 2008).
Amongst indigenous coccidophagous coccinellids, Chilocorus nigrita has been utilised through
inundative release, not only against Melanaspis glomerata (Green) but also on several other diaspine
scales including red scale of citrus (Singh, 1994). Pharoscymnus horni (Weise) is an important coccinellid
predator used against sugarcane scale and Chrysomphalus aonidum scale insect on tea. Scymnus coccivora is
a very important biological control agent of mealybugs infesting different crops. By virtue of their
small size, they are able to enter leaf sheath and crevices of bark, where crawlers of coccids generally
reside, and feed on them at early stage of crop infestation. The chrysopid predators Chrysoperla
zastrowi sillemi and Mallada boninensis have been used in cotton ecosystem for protection from aphids
and other soft bodied insects. Amongst the different anthocorid predators recorded as promising
bioagents in other countries, Orius spp. And Anthocoris spp. have been widely used in the US, Europe
and Australia against sucking pests infesting polyhouse crops.
Production and utilisation of biocontrol agents
Success with field releases of natural enemies requires appropriate timing, release of the
correct number of natural enemies per unit area or depending on pest density and release of quality
bio-agents. In many cases, the most effective release rate has not been identified as it will vary
depending on crop type and target host density.
Trichogramma spp. are mass reared on factitious hosts viz. Corcyra cephalonica Stainton, Sitotroga
cerealella (Olivier) and Ephestia kuehniella Zeller. Recent studies indicate that the production of T.
chilonis on eri silkworm Samia cynthia ricini eggs is a farmer friendly system (Lalitha et al., 2013) and it
could potentially yield trichogrammatids with superior biological attributes. Biological control
through augmentation has gained maximum acceptance among sugarcane farmers of India. Use of T.
chilonis has been effectively utilized for the management of sugarcane borers. Sugar mills have their
own co-operative parasitoid production units and have contributed in a big way in adoption of bio-
control. Inundative releases of Isotima javensis gave good results in the control of top borer, Scirpophaga
excerptalis in north India.
In rice ecosystem, besides conservation, inundative release of the egg parasitoid T. japonicum
and T. chilonis along with the predator Cyrtorhinus lividipennis have given promising results. Weekly
releases of T. japonicum and T. chilonis @ 100,000 / ha starting after a month of transplanting is
recommended for the control of stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas and leaf roller, Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis. The trials conducted at Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Punjab, Assam and Kerala proved that
Biocontrol Based Integrated Pest Management (BIPM) was either at par or better than farmers‘
practice in all the places. The BIPM schedule for pest management includes releases of Chrysoperla
carnea for sucking pests. This schedule was successful in Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
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Besides Trichogrammatids, production techniques are available for some potential parasitoids like
Goniozuz nephantidis, Chelonus blackburnii, Leptomastix dactylopii, Copidosoma koehleri, Telenomus remus, etc.
and predators like Chrysoperla carnea, Scymnus coccivora, Pharoscymnus horni, Curinus coeruleus, Coccinella
septempunctata, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Chilocorus nigrita, Brumoides surturalis, Ischiodon scutellaris,
Cardiastethus exiguus, Blaptostethus pallescens, etc. (Joshi et al., 1998; Singh et al., 2001; Ballal et al., 2003a;
Joshi et al., 2003).
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri was introduced from Australia into India in June, 1898 for the
control of soft green scale Coccus viridis. It could not establish on soft green scale. Later, it was
reported as an effective predator on many species of mealy bugs and to some extent on scale insects
in Karnataka (Rao et al., 1971). In 1977 an insectory was established at Central Horticultural
Experiment Station, Chethalli, Kodagu, Karnataka for its multiplication. This coccinellid can now be
successfully mass produced and field released (Joshi et al., 2003). Now commercial insectaries are
also procuring and supplying C. montrouzieri to the growers. In fruit and plantation crops, the beetles
are released @ 5-50 per plant, depending upon the severity of infestation and crop canopy. On each
mealy bug infested plant of coorg mandarin, robusta coffee, arabica coffee and san- ramon coffee
release of 10,5,3 and 2 beetles per plant resulted in reduction of mealy bug population and by 5th
week the pest population reduced to negligible level. Beetles were released in 13 mixed planted
orchards (citrus & coffee) and satisfactory results obtained. Field releases of C. montrouzieri @ 20
adults per tree gave excellent control of Ferrisia virgata, Maconellicoccus hirsutus and Planococcus lilacinus
on guava within 50 days in the presence of other local natural enemies. It was also found to be
highly effective in suppressing the populations of M. hirsutus in grapes within 75 days. The predator
was found effective in suppressing the mealy bugs on citrus, guava, grapes, mulberry, coffee, mango,
pomegranate, custard apple, ber etc. and green shield scale on sapota, mango, guava, brinjal and
crotons in Karnataka. It did not seriously impair the efficiency of local biocontrol agents.
Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi can be multiplied on the eggs of C. cephalonica by adopting a two-
step rearing procedure: an initial group rearing procedure followed by individual rearing to avoid
cannibalism. A monocrotophos tolerant strain of C. z. sillemi has been selected by Gujarat
Agricultural University, Anand. Attempts have also been made to rear the larvae of C. z. sillemi on
semi synthetic diet, which includes the utilization of wastes from other insect production units.
Normally, chrysopids are recommended for use against different crop pests @ 50,000 or 1,00,000 1st
instar larvae /hectare, 4-6 larvae/plant or 10-20 larvae /fruit plant are released. Depending on the
situation, two releases are recommended. The cost of production and application of C. z. sillemi @
1,00,000/ ha is high and hence the focus is on reducing the cost involved in field use through either
manipulation of the dosages or reduction in production cost.
Globally anthocorid predators are mass reared in commercial insectaries and supplied to
polyhouse growers. In India very few attempts have been made to rear the anthocorid predators.
Mukherjee et al., (1971) tried a synthetic diet for the rearing of X. flavipes (Reut.). Mass rearing
methods have been standardised for more than ten anthocorid predators, which include Cardiastethus
exiguus Poppius (Ballal et al. 2003a), Blaptostethus pallescens Poppius (Ballal et al., 2003b) and Xylocoris
flavipes (Reuter) (Ballal et al., 2013) and Orius tantillus Motshulsky (Gupta and Ballal, 2006). The
anthocorid species which are now being commercially produced and field utilized in other countries
are Anthocoris nemoralis (Fabricius) and Orius spp. In India, C. exiguus has been field evaluated against
O. arenosella and B. pallescens against onion thrips. Both the anthocorids have proved to be potential
predators for field use (Lyla et al., 2006; Ballal et al., 2009).
Now potential parasitoids and predators which are amenable to mass production are being
reared and marketed by some insectaries, both Government and Private. These are being released
against several crop pests. However, more commercial units should take up the production and
supply of macrobials so that these bioagents become available to farmers at local level.
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Classical biological control
To tackle exotic pests, we generally resort to classical biological control. A worldwide review
reveals that there have been altogether 120 successful cases of classical biological control of insect
pests of which 42 have been completely controlled, 40 substantially controlled and 30 partially
controlled. These include pests, diseases and weeds. India is rated as one of the top 10 countries in
the world in the area of biological control. Exotic parasitoids that have successfully established in our
country include the encyrtids Encarsia perniciosi and Aphytis diaspidis for control of San Jose scale,
Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, Leptomastix dactylopii against citrus mealybugs, Acerophagus papayae against
papaya mealybug, etc. Recently Telenomus remus (which was originally released against Spodoptera litura)
was recorded from the eggs of the invasive pest Spodoptera frugiperda.
Leptomastix dactylopii introduced from the West Indies in 1983 is a fairly specific parasitoid of
Planococcus citri, possessing excellent host searching ability. Field release of Leptomastix resulted in its
establishment in mixed plantations of citrus and coffee, and also in citrus orchards in several parts of
Karnataka, resulting in control of P. citri within 3-4 months. No insecticidal sprays were required
subsequently for the control of P. citri in the following season (Manjunath, 1985; Krishnamoorthy
and Singh, 1987; Nagarkatti et al., 1992).
Three strains of E. perniciosi viz., Californian, Russian and Chinese, were introduced for the
control of Q. perniciosus. In addition, A. diaspidis (origin: Japan) was introduced from California. All
the strains could establish and the Russian strain of the parasitoid gave 89 per cent parasitism in
Himachal Pradesh. A. diaspidis in combination with E. perniciosi gave 86.5 per cent parasitism. In
Kashmir, the Russian and Chinese strains appeared to be superior. American and Chinese strains of
E. perniciosi were also released in the Kumaon hills of Uttar Pradesh; the population of the pest was
reduced by about 95 per cent. In Kashmir, releases of E. perniciosi and Aphytis proclia resulted in an
increase of parasitism from 8.9 to 64.3 per cent. In apple, release of E. perniciosi or A. proclia @ 2000
/ infested tree gave effective control of San Jose scale (Rao et al., 1971; Singh, 1989).
The spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus disperses, a native of the Caribbean region and Central
America, probably came to India from Sri Lanka or the Maldives. It was first reported in 1993 from
Kerala and later from other parts of peninsular India and the Lakshadweep islands. The pest is highly
polyphagous and has been recorded on 253 host plants in India. Two aphelinid parasitoids, Encarsia
guadeloupae and E. sp. nr. meritoria, have been fortuitously introduced together with the host into
India. With the accidental introduction of both species of Encarsia into India, there has been a
perceptible reduction in the population of A. disperses (Ramani et al., 2002).
The invasive papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus, an alien mealybug native to Mexico, was
first reported on papaya in Coimbatore, and soon it spread to neighboring districts infesting cassava
(tapioca), mulberry, teak and more than 100 other plant species. Papain, sago and silk industries were
significantly affected by this pest. ICAR–NBAIR with help from the United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) imported three natural enemies of the papaya mealybug, namely, Acerophagus
papayae, Anagyrus loecki and Pseudleptomastix mexicana, from the laboratory of Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Services (APHIS) at Puerto Rico. A large-scale production technology was developed and
one of the parasitoids A. papaya was distributed to all the states which reported infestation by the
papaya mealybug. Within a period of six months, the papaya mealybug was controlled successfully.
The total economic benefit over five years was estimated to be $ 1,340 million. It is estimated that
an annual saving of Rs 1,623 crores has accrued to the farmers in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Maharashtra.
Management of invasives through conservation or augmentation biocontrol strategies
The sugarcane woolly aphid, Ceratovacuna lanigera, was observed as a serious pest of sugarcane
and reported in outbreak proportions from western and southern India (Rabindra et al., 2002; Joshi
and Viraktamath, 2004). The parasitoids which were recorded on this pest in Nagaland included
Aphelinus desantisi, Encarsia falvoscutellum, Diaeretiella rapae, Anagyrus sp. and Antocephalus sp. (Tripathi,
1995). In Assam, Jorhat Encarsia flavoscutellum was observed in abundant numbers parasitising woolly
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aphids. The heavy incidence of this parasitoid could prevent the further spread of the woolly aphid
population. Dipha and Micromus were recorded as potential predators of SWA in nature. Since natural
enemies were found to control the woolly aphid effectively, farmers were advised not to apply
chemical pesticides. In areas where chemicals were not applied, the natural enemies multiplied rapidly
and devoured the woolly aphid, thus preventing outbreaks.
Invasive rugose spiraling whitefly (RSW) Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin
(Hemiptera:Aleyrodidae) was reported to infest coconut, banana, coconut, banana, custard apple and
several ornamental plants in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. Several natural enemies were
recorded on this pest and maximum parasitism was recorded by Encarsia guadeloupae Viggiani.
Through recommendations on a non-chemical pesticidal approach, the pest population has
drastically reduced in most of the areas (Selvaraj et al. 2017). The invasive Fall Army Worm Spodoptera
frugiperda could be managed through the use of nano based pheromones (slow release dispensers) to
mass trap the adult males, conservation of the indigenous parasitoids and predators, the
augmentative releases of egg parasitoids viz. T. chilonis / T. pretiosum / Telenomus remus to target the egg
stage and microbial bioagents viz. Metarhizium anisopliae/ Bt / Spodoptera frugiperda NPV /
entomopathoegenic nematodes to target the larval stage.
Superior strains of natural enemies
In a successful attempt to bridge the gap between research and commerce, a strain of T.
chilonis ‗endogram‖ with physiological tolerance to 0.07% of endosulfan was developed for control of
cotton bollworm (Jalali et al., 2006; Ballal et al., 2009). This strain was commercialized and in three
years, 29700 hectares of cotton and vegetables crops were treated with endogram in 6 different
states. This strain was further developed for multiple tolerances to the recommended dosages of
monocrotophos and fenvalerate. A strain of T. chilonis which can tolerate a temperature of 36º C was
also developed, which could be utilized during the period of very high temperature. High host
searching strains of T. chilonis, T. japonicum, T. achaeae and T. bactrae were also developed which were
more efficient in field situations.
Commercial production of parasitoids and predators
Standard techniques are now available for the successful production of several parasitoids
and predators, which could be followed by commercial insectaries. India‘s first private insectary,
Biocontrol Research Laboratory was established at Bangalore in 1981. Since then numerous
companies have come up country-wide, which produce parasitoids, predators, entomopathogens,
plant disease antagonists, weed killers, etc. As per official records, there are 128 organisations
producing bio-agents in India. However, many of them did not survive. Though microbial
biopesticides are available commercially in India, very few companies are producing macrobials due
to the problems faced in rearing, storage and planning supplies for timely field releases.
Biological control workers have to face several major technical constraints in the process of
production of macrobials. These problems get further compounded by artificial selection forces and
the conflicting requirements for natural enemies in a mass production programme. These technical
obstacles include lack of: a) long term storage techniques for the alternate laboratory host insect
Corcyra cephalonica and also for Tricho cards, b) mechanized production and application technology of
parasitoids and predators, c) effective in-vitro mass production techniques for natural enemies on
artificial diets, d) techniques that prevent selection pressures and behavioural changes leading to
genetic deterioration of the mass-produced natural enemies, and loss of vigour /effectiveness and f)
good standards to measure the quality of the bioagents and their performance. The hurdles faced
during rearing also include problems faced in: a) male-biased sex-ratio in the laboratory cultures, b)
maintenance of cultures during summer and winter due to unfavourable temperature and humidity
conditions, c) cannibalism in chrysopids and in some coccinellid larvae which necessitates individual
rearing d) in vivo rearing of predators as it necessitates continuous production of host insects and host
plants, e) Bracon and mites in Corcyra culture, f) microbial contaminants in laboratory host insect
cultures g) higher costs involved in preparing semi-synthetic diets
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Some of the above issues have been addressed through research at NBAIR. Long term
storage techniques for host insects and biocontrol agents are of great relevance for commercial
acceptance of biocontrol technologies. Eggs of C. cephalonica stored for 20 days (10 days prior to UV
and 10 days post UV) were effectively parasitized by T. chilonis with upto 88.4% parasitism and and
when stored for 30 days, parasitism ranged 70-80% (Ghosh and Ballal, 2017a). Jalali et al. (2007)
devised a method of vacuum packing UV irradiated C. cephalonica eggs. Successful long term storage
(up to 95 days) of T. chilonis strains was enabled through diapause induction (Ghosh and Ballal,
2017b). Rearing structures and units have been devised and protocols have been standardized to a)
maintain optimum temperature, humidity and hygienic conditions, b) prevent cannibalism and entry
of hypers, disease and contaminants into the rearing facilities, c) mechanical collection of moths and
simulate field conditions. For rearing some of the parasitoids like Encarsia spp. and predatory mites,
rearing of host insects / phytophagous mites on host plants is essential. Methods have been devised
to either re-distribute the bioagents from areas of occurrence to new areas and rearing of predatory
mites on astigmatid mites, thus trying to minimize the cost involved in maintaining host plants
continuously in polyhouses. Though in-vitro mass production techniques have been attempted, they
may not be feasible in Indian conditions considering the cost involved. In order to prevent
biodeterioration of cultures due to continuous laboratory rearing, the stage at which rejuvenation has
to be done with wild cultures has been identified. Studies have also clearly indicated the importance
of maintaining quality parameters in mass reared insects (Ballal et al., 2001a, b; 2005).
Concerns, constraints and future thrusts
After more than 100 years of effort, we still do not fully understand the mechanisms by
which a successful natural enemy operates in nature, or why a particular organism is successful in one
situation and unsuccessful in another. In augmentation, we urgently need a coherent theory of
inundative/inoculative release as well as basic efficacy data in order to more readily incorporate
commercially available predators and parasitoids of arthropod pests into IPM systems. Global
warming has now been accepted as a serious threat to our natural and agroecosytems. It will be
imperative that biological control scientists watch for the effects of climate change on arthropod
pests that have been kept in check by natural enemies and on the natural enemies themselves.
Interactions between transgenic crops and biological control species have also to be considered.
In classical biocontrol, there is a concern whether the chosen exotic bioagent would be able to
provide sufficient control. A long debated issue is also whether one, a few or many species of natural
enemies should be released against invasive pests (Ehler, 1990). Some evidences were brought forth
on the competitive exclusion of introduced bioagents by the indigenous bioagents (Ehler and Hall,
1982). Classical biological control is ideally expected to predict (1) the appropriate species (or
biotype) or combination of species (and/or biotypes) to release for control of a target pest in a given
situation; and (2) the environmental impact resulting from the introduction of an exotic enemy.
Nontarget impacts to plants or insects from biocontrol agents are of great concern to conservation
biologists, environmentalists, and federal agencies. Biological control agents that are not host specific
may pose threats to at-risk species and constraints have been applied to the types of organisms that
may be used. The requirement for increased host specificity means exotic polyphagous predators are
less appropriate for introduction and thus more research emphasis has been placed on parasitoid
species (Goldson et al., 1994).
Evans (2016) states that biodiversity affects ecosystem functioning in general and classical
biological control in particular. In classical biological control, the question is whether we should build
a move diverse or a less diverse natural enemy community to attack the invasive pest in its new
geographic range. Some studies indicate that successful suppression of target pest occurs through
integrated contributions of multiple introduced species termed as ―cumulative stress.‖(Denoth et al,
2002). Alternately, in several cases, a single introduced species of natural enemy has succeeded in
managing the pest (Myers et al. 1989). Still another approach termed as the ―lottery approach‖ is to
release multiple species hoping that the ―best‖ species or the combination of species would be sorted
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out in the field (Ehler and Hall, 1982). However, this approach has come under scrutiny due to
concerns regarding non-target effect and negative interactions among competing natural enemies.
The complementarity of natural enemies was observed in the case of two seed feeding insects – a fly
Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen) and a weevil Larinus minutus Gyllenhal which together inflicted
greater seed destruction of the invasive squarrose knapweed is Utah desert (Evans, 2016).
Complementarity between natural enemies becomes clear and consistent when temporal and spatial
scales are expanded.
The general inferences on the factors affecting the relationship between biodiversity and
biocontrol can vary depending on the context. A high diversity in the microhabitat use of the natural
enemies can be advantageous only if the pest also uses a diversity of microhabitats (Schmitz and
Barton, 2014). Environment variables can also influence the relationship. The differences in body
size of the natural enemies, generally considered as a disadvantage can prove to be advantageous for
biological control of holometabolous pests who have size variations during development or while
tackling multiple pests of varying sizes (Wilby et al., 2005).
Though biological control has enjoyed several successes, there have been clear constraints
and hiccups in the acceptance of this strategy. The unwieldy regulatory processes are one of the main
hurdles to the acceptance and adoption of biological control, especially when it involves import /
export / exchange of bioagents between different countries for biological control. Improved
communication regarding the economic, environmental and social successes and benefits of
biological control of the biological control strategies to the stake-holders in the political and
regulatory spheres and to growers, land manager and even common public can be a solution to cross
this barrier. Emphasis should also be laid on formulation of general universally accepted
methodologies for release and evaluation of natural enemies, and development of sound ecological
theory concerning pest population dynamics, predator-prey interactions, and the genetics of
colonization in biological control. Biological control scientists, besides evaluating the performance of
bioagents, should focus on convincing the farmers on the effectiveness of this strategy by conducting
farmer-participatory demonstration trials. Biological control, which is a sustainable and effective tool
to manage the relentless pressure of invasive species and indigenous pest outbreaks, can be
popularized and adopted country-wide only through perfect net-working between researchers,
extension workers, state department officials and farmers.
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diversity depend on prey identity. Ecological Entomology. 30:497-501.
Yadav DN, Patel RC, Manjunath TM. 1975. Seasonal activity of Apanteles plutellae (Kurdj.), a larval parasite
of Plutella xylostella (L.) at Anand (Gujarat, India). Indian Journal of Plant Protection. 3: 111-115.
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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LII-4
Biological control of insect pests and diseases of crop plants through microorganisms
Gopalasamy Sivakumar, Bonam Ramanujam, Pandi Ram Kumar and Onkarappa Dhanyakumar
National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects,
HA Farm post, P.B. No. 2491, Bellary Road, Bangalore 560024
Corresponding author email: sivakumarg.nbaii@gmail.com
Abstract
Biological control using microorganisms has become an attractive alternative strategy for the
control of plant insect pests and diseases to reduce the excessive use of agrochemicals and its health
hazards. There are enormous and largely untapped various naturally occurring microbes that
aggressively attack insects pests and plant pathogens and benefit plants by suppressing pests and
diseases. Microbial biocontrol agents have offered some realistic alternatives to chemical pesticides
when used as part of an integrated pest management strategy. The rapid success of microbial
biocontrol agents is due to its effectiveness and safety as compared to chemical pesticides.
Antagonistic microbes have multiple beneficial characters such as rhizosphere competence,
antagonistic potential, and ability to produce antibiotics, lytic enzymes and toxins which help the
microbes to fight against plant pathogens. The list of microbial biocontrol agents included in CIB for
registration are Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Gliocladium spp., Trichoderma spp., Beauvaria
bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopliae, Verticillum lecanii, granulosis viruses, nuclear polyhedrosis viruses
(NPV), Nomurea rileyi, Isaria fumosorosea, Hirsutella species, Verticillium chlamydosporium, Streptomyces
griseoviridi, Streptomyces lydicus, Ampelomyces quisqualis, Candida oleophila, Fusarium oxysporum (non pathogenic),
Burkholderia cepacia, Coniotyrium minitans, Agrobactarium radiobacter strain 84, Agrobactarium tumefaciens,
Pythium oligandrum, Erwinia amylovora (hairpin protein), Phlebia gigantean, Paecilomyces lilacinus, Penicilliuim
islanidicum (for groundnut), Alcaligenes spp., Chaetomium globosum, Aspergillus niger – strain AN27, VAM
fungi, Myrothecium verrucaria, Photorhabdus luminescences akhurustii strain K-1, Serratia marcescens GPS 5,
Piriformospora indica. Nearly 200 products based on entomopathogenic fungi and nematicidal fungi are
registered for use against various arthropods and plant parasitic nematodes. Regarding bacteria 45
products based on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are registered against bollworms, loopers, other
lepidopterans and mosquitoes. Four entomopathogenic nematode species are available in Indian
market. The present article focuses on an overview of biological control including modes of actions,
enhancement of biocontrol potential and application under field conditions to manage pests and
diseases of crops.
Keywords: Biological control, insect pests, plant diseases, microorganisms
Introduction
Crops are vulnerable to attack number of insects pests and microbial pathogens leading to
reduction in yield reduction and quality. Synthetic pesticides are highly effective in pest control but
they harm the environment and including living beings. and the overall sustainability of the farming
systems. Microbial biopesticides are the best alternative to synthetic pesticides and find suitable to
sustainable production system. Research on microbial biopesticides is increasing considerably in
recent times to find out environmental friendly alternatives to hazardous chemical pesticides. In
India, some of the microbial biopesticides like Bt, NPV, Trichoderma, Pseudomonas fluorescens, etc. have
already been registered and are being practiced by farmers. The main advantages of these biocontrol
agents is their specificity to target pests, safe to the non target organism, do not cause ill effects on
environment and human health and can be used against pests which develop resistance to the
conventional insecticides, fit as ideal components in integrated pest management (IPM) and also in
organic farming systems. However, these biocontrol agents are reported to be slow in action or kill
rate and environmental sensitive which lead to the inconsistent and poor success rate in the field. To
overcome these problems, attempts are made to identify highly efficient and aggressive strains to
improve the field efficacy and to develop suitable formulation technologies for increased field
persistence and to withstand harsh environmental factors of radiations and dry weather conditions.
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In this paper a review is made on the prospects of utilization of insect pathogens in the pest
management in the world and India.
Bacteria as insect pathogens
Only two species of bacteria viz, B. thuringiensis and B. sphaericus have been developed for the
control of insect pests (Butt et al., 1999). The most widely used insecticidal bacterium, B. thuringiensis
is a gram positive soil bacterium which forms crystalline protein inclusion (Cry toxins) during
sporulations that binds to specific receptors in the larval mid-gut epithelium causing formation of
large cation selective pores resulting in increased water permeability of cell membrane. This leads to
the large uptake of water by the mid-gut epithelial cells causing cell swelling and eventual rupture,
starvation and death. Nine different toxins have been described in the Bt strains. These toxins bind
to different receptors in different insect species with varying intensities according to their specificity
(Bravo et al, 2011). Different Bt products have been developed for insect control in agriculture and
also against mosquitoes based on spore crystal formation derived from a few wild type strains such
as, B. thuringiensis var. kurstaki (HD-1 & HD-73), B. thuringiensis var. aizawai (HD-137), B. thuringiensis
var. san diego and B. thuringiensis var. tenebrionis and B. thuringiensis var. israelensis. Bt products are
effective in controlling many leaf eating lepidopteran crop pest in vegetables, tomato, fruit crops,
olives or forest pest defoliators. Bt aizawai based products are particularly active against lepidopteran
larvae that feed on storage grains. Bt san diego and Bt tenebrionis based products are suitable for
management of coleopteran beetle pests in agriculture. Bt israelensis based products are used for
mosquito control (Gloria Rosell et al., 2008).
Bt based sprayable products have certain limitations in the usage in agriculture since Cry
toxins are very specific to young larval stages, sensitive to solar radiation and have limited activity
against borer insects. To overcome this problem, genes coding for Cry proteins in Bt have been
identified and transferred to the desired crops to protect them against pests and this has
revolutionised in the development of Bt transgenic crops in cotton, potato and corn. In transgenic
plants, the Cry proteins are produced continuously protecting the insecticidal toxin from UV
degradation. These transgenic crops express one or more Cry proteins and specifically targets
chewing and boring insects like, Colorado potato beetle, tobacco budworm, cotton bollworm, pink
bollworm, European corn borer, south western corn borer, corn ear worm etc. Bt protected crops of
cotton, corn, soya, and canola have been commercialised in several countries like USA, Argentina,
Mexico, China, Canada, South Africa, France, Australia, Spain, Ukraine and Portugal. In 2009 more
than 40 million ha of Bt crops were grown worldwide resulting in significant reduction in the use of
the chemical insecticides (James, 2009). In India, the cultivation of Bt cotton is expanding rapidly and
offering great scope to minimize the pesticide usage
In India, mostly imported Bt based products based on Bt kurstaki (Delfin, Dipel, Thuricide,
Halt, Biobit, Bactospeine, Agree etc) have been successfully tested against lepidopteran pests like, H.
armigera, Epilachna ocellata, Athalia lugens proxima, Euproctis lunata, Schistocerca gregaria, C. cephalonica,
Spilosoma obliqua, Bissetia steniella and Achaea janata. Cry gene profiling of indigenous Bt isolates is being
carried out at various institutes like IARI, NBAII, IIHR etc. to identify suitable indigenous strains
and genes for management of various lepidopteran pests. Varying susceptibility to Cry genes have
been observed in the different populations of H. armigera collected from different insect hosts and
geographical regions. At IIHR, Bangalore coleopteran active genes like cry9Da1, cry22A, cry23A,
cry43 and cry43B and nematode active cry genes cry5, cry12, cry13, cry14 and cry 21 have been
identified and cloned successfully. At DOR, Hyderabad, solid state fermentation technology for
indigenous Bt isolate (DORBT-5) has been developed and commercialized for the management of
lepidopteran pests. At NBAII, Bangalore, liquid formulation technology was developed for
indigenous Bt isolates (PDBCBT1 and NBAIIBTG4) effective against pigeon pea pod borer. At
NRC for Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi, Commercial Bt cotton expressing the Cry1Ac protein for
the control of lepidopteran pests has been developed. A second generation Bt-cotton expressing
Cry2Ab besides Cry1Ac as a resistance managing mechanism has also been developed. Since most of
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the Bt products used in India are imported and expensive, there is an urgent need to develop
aggressive indigenous Bt strains against various pests and suitable formulation technology for large-
scale production and supply to the Indian farming community.
Viruses as insect pathogens
Insects are attacked by many different viruses, baculovirus being the most promising in the
insect control. Baculoviruses comprising Nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) and Granulosis virus
(GV) have been successfully used as insect pathogens because of their high virulence and specificity.
A major success of insect control with viruses has been reported in the forestry, particularly for
control of sawflies, Gilpinia hercyniae in Europe and North America through classical biological
control by NPV (Lord, 2005). Another baculovirus, the non occluded baculovirus of coconut
rhinoceros beetle has been successfully used for control of rhinoceros beetle by both classical
biological control and inundative control methods. NPVs are most commonly considered for
development of microbial insecticides because of the inexpensive formulation technologies and
relatively simple and standard pesticide application methods (Narayanan, 2002). A number of NPVs
are currently manufactured in a commercial scale and applied in large areas of different crops. NPV
formulations are used extensively for management of lepidopteran pest like H. armigera (HaNPV) and
Spodoptera litura (SlNPV) in India, NPVs of S. littoralis and S. exempta in Egypt and Kenya and
Anticarsia gemmatalis NPV in Brazil, Lymanttria disper NPV and Orgyia pseudotsugata NPV in USA. A few
of the granulosis viruses like, GV of Cydia pomonella for the control of codling moth of apple and
pears in Europe and GV of Pieris rapae for the control of Pieris rapae in China and GV of Erinnyis ello
for the control of cassava horn worm in Brazil have been successfully used as biocontrol agents
(Narayanan, 2002; Sivakumar et al., 2020).
Fungi as insect pathogens
Entomopathogenic fungi are gaining importance in the crop pest control in recent years,
although Bacillus thuringensis (Bt) and Nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPVs) are the most widely used
microbial agents at present. Entomopathogenic fungi play an important role in the natural pest
control in various crops through epizootics. Fungal pathogens have certain advantages in pest
control programmes over other insect pathogens like bacteria and viruses. Species that have been
most intensively investigated for mycoinsecticides in the crop pest control include Beauveria bassiana,
B. brongniartii, Metarhizium anisopliae, M. anisopliae var. acridium , Lecanicillium spp., (previously Verticillium
lecanii), Hirsutella thompsonii, Nomuraea rileyi, Isaria fumosorosea (previously Paecilomyces fumosoroseus) etc
(Table-1). Fungi infect insects of almost all orders, most common on Hemiptera, Diptera,
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera and Hymenoptera. In some insect orders nymphal or larval
stages are more often infected than the adult stages, in others the reverse may be the case. Some
fungi have restricted host ranges, e.g., Aschersonia aleyrodis infects only whiteflies and N. rileyi infects
only lepidopteran larvae, while others like B. bassiana and M. anisopliae infect more than 700 species in
several insect orders and they have several pathotypes, which have high degree of host specificity.
Table 1. Common Entomogenous Fungi and their Hosts
Entomogenouse fungus
Host
Entomopthorales
Entomophthora muscae
Dipteran insects
E. thripidium
Thrips
Entomophaga aulicae
Lepidopteran insects
E. grylli
Orthopteran insects
Erynia neoaphidis
Aphids
Massospora cicadina
Cicada
Neozygites fresenii
Aphids
Zoophthora radicans
Certain Hemiptera and Lepidoptera
Conidiobolus obscurus
Aphids
Hyphomycetes
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Aschersonia aleyrodis
Whiteflies, Scales
Beauveria bassiana
Wide host range
B.brongniartii
Cockchafers and sugarcane borer
Hirsutella thompsonii
Spider mite, citrus red mite, coconut eriophyid mite
Metarhizium anisopliae
Wide host range
M. flavoviride
Orthopteran insects
Nomuraea rileyi
Lepidoptera
I. fumosorosea
Wide host range
I. farinosus
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera
Lecanicillium spp.
Wide host range (Aphids, Whiteflies, Scales)
Products based on B. bassiana (33.9%), M. anisopliae (33.9%), I. fumosorosea (5.8%), and B.
brongniartii (4.1%) are the most common among the 171 products of entomopathogenic fungi.
Environmental conditions particularly humidity and temperature plays an important role in the
infection and sporulation of entomopathogenic fungi. Very high humidity (> 90%RH) is required for
spore germination and sporulation outside the host. Most of the entomopathogenic fungi in tropical
and subtropical areas require an optimum temperature of 25-30o C for successful control of insect
pests.
Recently some of the entomopathogenic fungi like B. bassiana and Lecanicillium spp. have been
reported to be occurring as endophytes in several plants. B. bassiana has been reported as an
endophyte in maize (Cherry et al., 2004), potato, cotton, cocklebur and jimson weed (Jones, 1994),
tomato, date palm (Gomoz-Vidal et al., 2006), bananas (Akello et al., 2007), and in coffee (Posada et
al., 2007), cocoa relative Theobroma gileri (Evans et al., 2003), seeds and needles of Pinus monticola
(Ganley and Newconve, 2005) and opium poppy (Quesada-Moraga et al., 2006). Other
entomopathogenic fungi reported as endophytes include Lecanicillium lecanii (=Verticillium lecanii) in an
Araceae, L .lecanii and Paecilomyces farinosus in the bark of Carpinus caroliniana (Bills and Polishook,
1991), Paecilomyces sp. in Musa acuminata (Cao et al., 2002) and rice ( Tian et al. 2004) and Paecilomyces
varioti in mangroves (Ananda and Sridar, 2002).
Research on entomofungal pathogens in India is confined to a few institutes like, NBAII
(erstwhile PDBC), Bangalore, Directorate of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad, Central Plantation Crop
Research Institute, Kayangulam, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Dharwad. At NBAII, Bangalore, an excellent culture collection of entomofungal
pathogens like, B. bassiana (70 isolates), B. brongniartii (3 isolates), M.anisopliae (39 isolates), Lecanicillium
spp. (31 isolates), N. rileyi (37 isolates), I. fumosorosea (3 isolates) and I. farinosa (3 isolates) have been
made from various insect hosts and different geographical regions of the country. All these isolates
were characterized with regard to morphology, ITS sequencing, cuticle degrading enzymes
production capability and virulence to several lepidopteran and sucking pests. Based on ITS-1 and
ITS-2 sequence analysis, the indigenous isolates of V. lecanii are now placed under Lecanicillium genus
and grouped into four species, viz. L. lecanii, L. attenuatum, L. longisporum and L. muscarium. Promising
strains of B. bassiana, M. anisopliae, Lecanicillium spp. and N. rileyi were identified against Helicoverpa
armigera, Spodoptera litura, Brevocoryne brassicae, Lipaphis erysime, Plutella xylostella, Aphis craccivora, A.
gossypii, Rhopalosiphum maidis, Myzus persicae and Bemisia tabaci are being tested in the field level in
different AICRP-BC centres. Solid and liquid state fermentation technology for mass production of
promising strains of B. bassiana, M. anisopliae and Lecanicillium spp. has been standardized. At DOR
Hyderabad, mass production technology for N. rileyi and oil formulation of B. bassiana for
management of pests of oilseed crops have been developed. Promising strains of N. rileyi, B. bassiana
and M. anisopliae have been identified against pests of soybean, groundnut and sugarcane at UAS
Dharwad, B. bassiana based mycoinecticide for rice hispa at AAU, Guwahati and M.anisopliae based
formulation for coconut rhinoceros beetle CPCRI, Kayangulam were developed. Most of the
entomopathogenic fungi can be grown on a variety of solid substrates or in liquid media. Sorghum
grain, rice, rice flakes, puffed rice, wheat, wheat flakes, maize, cowpea grains, millets, rice bran, wheat
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bran, groundnut hull meal, bengal gram husk, coffee husk, potato, carrot etc. are some of the solid
substrates used for mass production of B. bassiana, M. anisopliae, V.lecanii, P.farinosus and N.rileyi.
These solid substrates are moistened, sterilized and inoculated with the fungus in
bottles/polypropylene bags and incubated at optimum temperature and humidity for a period of 10-
20 days. Then the viable propagules are harvested directly in water containing wetting agent and
vegetable oil by repeated washing or centrifugation and used as foliar sprays. Alternatively, talc based
formulations can be prepared by homogenizing the substrate along with fungal growth into a fine
powder and mixing with inert materials like, talc (1:1 to 1:2 proportion) and used for foliar sprays
The spore concentration in the formulation should be more than 1x 108spores/g/ml. In liquid
cultures, these fungi can be grown in static liquid cultures or shake cultures or in fermentors using
cheap and inexpensive liquid media like molasses, potato extract or synthetic media. The fungal
biomass from the liquid culture is mixed with talc powder in the ratio of 1:1 and dried to 8%
moisture under shade. These talc formulations have shelf life of 3-4 months. In India, talc based
formulations of entomofungal pathogens are extensively marketed for pest management programs.
Diphasic fermentation technique is also used for maximum production of aerial conidia in which the
fungus is allowed to grow in fermentor up to the end up the log phase for maximum production of
mycelial biomass, then it is subsequently transferred to nutritious (grains) or inert substrates (talc, clay
granules) for production of aerial conidia in the form of natural inoculums.
At NBAII, Bangalore, quality analysis of the products of microbial pesticides produced in the
country is being done regularly and it is observed that 50-70 % samples do not confirm the CIB
standards (Table-5). The main drawbacks in the quality of the formulations are lesser cfu counts of
the biocontrol agent than the prescribed, more contamination levels than the prescribed and
moisture level in solid formulations is more or less than the prescribed. Since majority of the
products produced are of inferior quality, the government agencies should interfere and enforce strict
quality parameters.
Microorganisms for Plant disease management
Plant diseases are responsible for the loss of at least 10% of global food production,
representing a threat to food security. The prevention of diseases mainly dependent on
agro‐chemicals especially from the past few decades. Despite the great effectiveness and easeof
utilization of chemicals products, their use or misuse has led to hazardous effects to environment.
Some microorganisms, the bio-control agents are able to colonize the soil surrounding plant roots,
the rhizosphere, making them come under the influence of plant roots. Plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR) generally refers to a group of soil and rhizosphere free‐living bacteria and fungi
colonizing roots in a competitive environment and exerting a beneficial effect on plant growth as
well as disease management. PGPR play key role not only in transforming nutrients in the soil but
also giving protection against plant diseases. The beneficial effect of PGPR on plant growth involves
the ability to act as phyto‐stimulators or biofertilizers. PGPR could enhance crop yield through
nutrient uptake and plant growth regulators. PGPR could also act as bio-control agents by the
production of antibiotics and triggering induced local or systemic resistance. The exact mechanism
by which PGPR stimulate plant growth is not clearly established, although several hypothesis such as
production of phytohormones, suppression of deleterious organisms, HCN and siderophore
production, activation of phosphate solubilization, volatile compound production and promotion of
the mineral nutrient uptake and plant growth promotion are usually believed to be involved.
Sustainable agriculture, based on environmentally‐friendly methods, tends to use PGPR as tool that
could as a by‐product reduce the use of chemicals. There is a great need for eco-friendly
management of plant diseases through
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Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
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LII-5
Biological control potential of entomopathogenic nematodes for management of insect pests
Jagadeesh Patil1, V Linga1, Rangasamy Vijayakumar1 and Nagesh M1
ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru 560024, India
Corresponding author email: patiljaggi@gmail.com
With the rapid development and advancement of synthetic chemistry in the 1930s and by the
early 40s, a range of new pesticides had been developed. These potential compounds were used as
insecticides to control insect pests. Use of chemical insecticides has been necessary to enhance
economic potential in terms of increased production of food, fibre and scaling down of vector-borne
diseases in crops. However, indiscriminate use of chemical insecticides can destroy the beneficial
natural enemies; induce resistance in pest populations, pesticidal residues in food chain and serious
health implications to man and his environment. Therefore, any attempt to scale down the use of
chemical insecticides is welcome considering and the safety to flora and fauna of the environment.
Due to environmental and regulatory pressures, use of potential biocontrol agents as safer and
alternative tool for pest management.
Keywords: entomopathogenic nematodes, life stages of insect hosts, biocontrol potential,
formulations and EPNs application.
Biological control exploits insects, bacteria, viruses, fungi and nematodes as biological
insecticides. Among them, Nematodes are the most numerous multicellular animals on earth. They
are microscopic, non-segmented, elongated round worms with lacking appendages. Nematodes can
be found in marine, fresh water, and terrestrial environments. They do exist in the environment, as
free-living as well as parasitic to plants and animals including human beings. Among the various
parasitic nematodes, around 30 nematode families were known to parasitize or associated with
insects (Stock and Hunt, 2005). However, considering biocontrol potential, research has been
concentrated only on seven families viz., Allantonematidae, Neotylenchidae, Mermithidae,
Sphaerularidae Rhabditidae, Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae, the last two receiving the most
attention as bio control agents of insect pests (Lacey et al., 2001). Because of the failure of attempts
to develop nematode belonging to other families as insect biocontrol agents, most of the subsequent
research during the 1980s and 1990s has been focused on nematode species those are amenabale rear
and utilise for the management of insect pests. Nematodes have a symbiotic association with insect
pathogenic bacteria and ability to kill insect pests. Such nematodes are generally called as
―entomopathogenic nematodes‖ (EPNs). Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) belonging to
families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae are lethal obligatory parasites of insects.
Infective stage of these nematodes is third-stage infective juveniles (IJs) are the only life stage
typically found outside the host cadaver, which are non-feeding, resistant to environmental stress and
they normally called as ―dauer‖ larvae. These non-feeding IJs of Steinernema locates host and enters
into the haemocoel through natural openings like mouth, anus and respiratory spiracles. However,
Heterorhabditis enters into the haemocoel through both natural openings and cuticle. Heterorhabditis
have a tooth like structure in mouth region, used for direct penetration of cuticle. Infective juveniles
of Steinernema carry the symbiotic bacteria in specialised vesicle whereas Heterorhabditis carry in
midgut of intestine. Infective juveniles after reaching upon the haemocoel, ultimately releases
symbiotic bacteria into the insect haemocoel. This symbiotic bacterium releases insect toxins,
exoenzymes and other metabolites to kill the insect host by septicaemia within 24 to 48 h after
infection. Released bacterial symbionts digest the host tissues and provide suitable nutrient and
environment for nematode growth and development. The nematodes then moult to feeding third
stage juveniles feed on the bacteria and moult in succession to the fourth stage and they become
adult males and females of the first generation by Steinernematid, while in heterorhabditids, juveniles
become self-fertilizing hermaphrodites in first generation and both adult males and females
developed in subsequent generations. Nematode reproduction continues until depletion of resources.
Upon depletion of resources in the cadaver, late second stage juveniles cease to feed and pellet of
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bacterial colonies incorporate in their vesicles. Then they moult into infective stages by retaining their
second stage cuticle as a sheath. These IJs typically leave their host cadaver in search of new insect
host. This stage is generally non-feeding, resistant to environmental stresses and can survive in soil
for several months. Nematodes complete 2 to 3 generations inside the insect host.
Two bacterial genera, Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus were mutualistically associated with EPNs
Steinernema and Heterorhabditis, respectively. The symbiotic bacterium Achromobacter nematophilus (now
Xenorhabdus nematophilus) associated with Steinernema carpocapsae. The symbiotic bacterium of
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora described as Xenorhabdus luminescence. The symbiotic bacteria exhibit
distinctive character like ability to fluorescence, so much so that the entire infected insect cadaver
glowed in the dark. Later this bacterial species transferred to the genus Photorhabdus. The third stage
IJs of genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis carries cells of symbiotic bacterium in a specialized
intestinal vesicle (anterior part of intestine) and in the midgut region of the intestine, respectively
between specific receptors on the intestinal epithelium of the respective nematodes and cell surface
molecules of the bacteria facilitate species – specific and tissue specific colonization.
Table 1. Entomopathogenic nematode species and their bacterial symbionts Steinernematidae
(Steinernema Travassos, 1927)
Entomopathogenic Nematode Species
Bacterial Symbiont
S. abbasi Elawad, Ahmad and Reid, 1997
X. indica
S. aciari Qui, Yan, Zhou, Nguyen and Pang, 2005
Unknown
S. affine (Bovien, 1937) Wouts, Mracek, Gerdin and Bedding, 1982
X. bovienii
S. akhursti Qui, Hu, Zhou, Mei, Nguyen and Pang, 2005
Unknown
S. anatoliense Hazir, Stock and Keskin, 2003
X. bovienii
S. apuliae Triggiani, Mracek and Reid, 2004
Unknown
S. arenarium (Artyukhovsky, 1967) Wouts, Mracek, Gerdin and Bedding, 1982
X. kozodoii
S. ashiunense Phan, Takemoto and Futai, 2006
Unknown
S. asiaticum Anis, Shahina, Reid and Rowe, 2002
Unknown
S. bedding Qui, Hu, Zhou, Pang and Nguyen, 2005
Unknown
S. bicornutum Tallosi, Peters and Ehlers, 1995
X. budapestensis
S. carpocapsae (Weiser, 1955) Wouts, Mrácek, Gerdin and Bedding, 1982
X. nematophila
S. ceratophorum Jian, Reid and Hunt, 1997
S. costaricense Stock, Uribe-Lorio and Mora, 2007
X. szentirmaii
S. cubanum Mracek, Hernandez and Boemare, 1994
X. poinarii
S. diaprepesi Nguyen and Duncan, 2002
X. doucetiae
S. feltiae (Filipjev, 1934) Wouts, Mracek, Gerdin and Bedding, 1982
X. bovienii
S. glaseri (Steiner, 1929) Wouts, Mracek, Gerdin and Bedding, 1982
X. poinarii
S. hermaphroditum Stock, Griffin and Chaenari, 2004
X. griffiniae
S. intermedium (Poinar, 1985) Mamiya, 1988
X. bovienii
S. jollieti Spriridonov, Krasomil-Osterfeld and Moens, 2004
X. bovienii
S. karii Waturu, Hunt and Reid, 1997
X. hominickii
S. kraussei (Steiner, 1923) Travassos, 1927
X. bovienii
S. kushidai Mamiya, 1988
X. japonica
S. leizhouense Nguyen, Qui, Zhou and Pang, 2006
Unknown
S. litorale Yoshida, 2004
X. bovienii
S. loci Phan, Nguyen and Moens, 2001
Unknown
S. longicaudum Shen and Wang, 1992
Unknown
S. monticolum Stock, Choo and Kaya, 1997
X. hominickii
S. neocurtillae Nguyen and Smart, 1992
Unknown
S. oregonense Liu and Berry, 1996
X. bovienii
S. pakistanense Shahina, Anis, Reid, Rowe and Maqbool, 2001
Unknown
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Heterorhabditidae(Heterorhabditis Poinar, 1976)
Entomopathogenic Nematode Species
Bacterial Symbiont
H. bacteriophora Poinar, 1976
P. luminescens subsp. luminescens (for
Brecon isolate)
P. luminescens subsp. laumondii(for
HP88 strain)
P. temperata (for NC1 strain)
H. baujardi Phan, Subbotin, Nguyen and Moens, 2003
Unknown
H. brevicaudis Liu, 1994**
Unknown
H. downesi Stock, Burnell and Griffin, 2002
P. temperata
H. amazonensis Andalo Nguyen and Moino, 2006
Unknown
H. floridensis Nguyen, Gozel, Koppenhofer and Adams, 2006
Unknown
H. indica Poinar, Karunakar and David, 1992
P. luminescens subsp. akhurstii
H. marelata Liu and Berry, 1996
Unknown
H. megidis Poinar, Jackson and Klein, 1987
P. temperata
H. mexicana Nguyen, Shapiro-Ilan, Stuart, McCoy, James and
Adams, 2004
Unknown
H. poinari Kakulia and Mikaia, 1997**
Unknown
H. taysearae Shamseldean, Abou El-Sooud, Abd-Elgawad and
Saleh, 1996
Unknown
H. zealandica Poinar, 1990
P. temperata
** Nomina dubia: a proposed taxonomic name invalid, because it is not accompanied by a definition
or description of the taxon to which it applies.
Source: S. P. Stock and H. Goodrich-blair (2008). Symbiosis 46: 65–75.
These EPNs can readily mass produced, harmless to predators, parasitoids, economically
productive insects, vertebrate animals, and plants, and compatible with many pesticides and even
some extent with other entomopathogenic fungus and bacteria. These nematodes have been widely
S. puertoricense Román and Figueroa, 1994
X. romanii
S. puntauvense Stock, Uribe-Lorio and Mora, 2007
X. bovienii
S. rarum (de Doucet, 1986) Mamiya, 1988
X. szentirmaii
S. riobrave Cabanillas, Poinar and Raulston, 1994
X. cabanillasii
S. ritteride Doucet and Doucet, 1990
Unknown
S. robustispiculum Phan, Subbotin, Waeyenberge and Moens, 2004
Unknown
S. sangi Phan, Nguyen and Moens, 2001
Unknown
S. sasonense Phan, Spiridonov, Subbotin and Moens, 2006
Unknown
S. serratum Li, 1992**
X. ehlersii
S. scapterisci Nguyen and Smart, 1990
X. innexi
S. siamkayai Stock, Somsook and Kaya, 1998
X. stockiae
S. scarabaeid Stock and Koppenhöfer, 2003
X. koppenhoeferii
S. sichuanense Mracek, Nguyen, Tailliez, Boemare and Chen, 2006
unknown
S. silvaticum Sturhan, Spiridonov and Mrácek, 2005
X. bovienii
S. tami Luc, Nguyen, Spiridonov and Reid, 2000
Unknown
S. thanhi Phan, Nguyen and Moens, 2001
Unknown
S. websteri Cutler and Stock, 2003
X. nematophila
S. weiseri Mracek, Sturhan and Reid, 2003
X. bovienii
S. thermophilum Ganguly and Singh, 2000
X. indica
S. yirgalemense Nguyen, Tesfamariam, Gozel, Gaugler and Adams, 2004
Unknown
Neosteinernema Nguyen and Smart, 1994
Neosteinernema longicurvicauda Nguyen and Smart, 1994
Unknown
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studied as a vital biological control agent for various agricultural insect pests belonging to the order
Lepidoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera. They have been recovered from the soils of hot, temperate and
cold climatic regions and several studies have been conducted to isolate new strains and species for
biological control programs or to determine their biodiversity. A significant amount of research has
been conducted to elucidate the biology of these nematodes including systematics, ecology, and
biological control potential and increasingly becoming accepted as alternatives to chemical
insecticides.
Entomopathogenic nematodes are currently mass-produced by different methods either in
vivo or in vitro (solid and liquid culture). In vivo production is also arguably the most appropriate
technology for grower cooperatives and for developing countries where labour is less expensive. In
vivo production is a simple process of culturing specific EPNs in live insect hosts which requires less
capital and technical expertise. In vivo production system based on the White‘s trap, which take
advantage of the IJs natural migration away from host cadaver upon emergence. For in vivo
production, the most common insect host used is the last instar of the greater wax moth, Galleria
mellonella, because of its high susceptibility to nematodes, wide availability, ease in rearing and ability
to produce high yields. Insect hosts are inoculated on a dish or tray lined with absorbent paper.
Approximately After 2-5 days, cadavers was transferred to the White traps.
Pure culture of symbiotic bacteria containing nutritive medium are necessary for in vitro
culturing of EPNs. A liquid medium is mixed with foam and autoclaved. Further, this media were
inoculated with bacteria followed by the nematodes. Nematodes were harvested from the infected
larvae within 2-5 weeks by placing the foam onto sieves immersed in water. Media include various
ingredients including peptone, soy flour, eggs, yeast extract, and lard. Nematodes can be stored and
formulated in different ways including water-dispersible granules, vermiculite, polyurethane sponge,
alginate gels and baits. The nematode viability and virulence assays, age and the ratio of viable to
non-viable nematodes are critical parameters for determining the quality of the nematode product.
EPNs have been formulated commercially in various carriers such as sponges, wettable
powder formulation, vermiculite, alginate gels, polyacrylamide gels, nematode-infected cadavers, baits
and water-dispersible granules. Formulations can extend shelf life through reduction of nematode
immobilization and metabolism, which may be accomplished through partial desiccation,
refrigeration or both. In some of the formulations, for example baits have the potential to increase
the cost efficiency and also extend nematode activity in soil after its application by protecting the
nematodes from detrimental environmental conditions. A successful wettable powder formulation of
entomopathogenic nematode, Heterorhabditis indica (strain NBAII Hi01) was developed by ICAR-
National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources for the biological control of white grubs and other
soil insect pests. The wettable powder formulation of EPNs is effective for controlling a variety of
insect pests.
Several workers were studied the EPNs efficacy, potentiality and their pathogenicity against
economically important insect pests. But the technical aspects of biopesticide application in the field
are often neglected. Application technique has a major drawback in managing various cryptic pests.
Application methods and their delivery system are extremely crucial for EPNs to access and infection
to the target host. Entomopathogenic nematodes can be applied with nearly all commercially
available aerial or ground spray equipment, including mist blowers, electrostatic sprayers and
pressurized sprayers. The selection of application equipment‘s were depends on the cropping system,
and in each case there are a variety of handling considerations including pressure, agitation, volume
and recycling time, system environmental conditions, and spray distribution pattern.
Soil is the natural habitat for EPNs and thus use of these organisms offers great potential of
successful biocontrol against subterranean insect pests. A series of technology is available for
application of EPNs to soil from simple watering cans or hose end sprayers for small plot or home
garden and for large fields or orchards through aerial applications. Other methods used in soil
application includes various irrigation systems such as microjet, overhead, center pivot, irrigation
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channels and trickle as well as injection equipment or diverse spray. Many formulations of EPNs may
be used in soil application including activated charcoal, alginate and polyacrylamide gels, baits, clay,
vermiculite, peat, polyurethane sponge, and water dispersible granules (WDG).
The wettable powder formulation of EPN developed by ICAR-NBAIR is especially true for
the soil insect pests and in particular white grubs belonging to scarabaeidae on a number of crops,
no-exclusively including coconut, arecanut, sugarcane, banana, potato, corn and onion etc. This
novel wettable powder formulation of H. indica having self-life of eight to twelve months of storage
at 25 and 37°C. This wettable powder formulation containing EPNs can be applied to soil by using
standard irrigation systems. Nematodes require a thin film of water around soil particles to move
through the soil profile in search of a host. Therefore, it is important to make sure adequate agitation
during application. First mix 2-4 kg WP formulation in 100 kg of any organic manure or compost or
vermiculite or coir pith or moist sand then apply this mixture to one acre as spot application or
broad cast followed by a light irrigation in case soil is dry.
Environmental factors such as ultraviolet light and desiccation are the key factor in
influencing nematode efficacy on foliage. Due to these abiotic factors, EPNs survival and efficacy on
a foliar target, commercialization of EPNs for insect pests those occurring in plat foliar has been rare
and largely unsuccessful. However, in recent times several research advances have made the use of
nematodes against foliar pests and also several researchers revealed that aboveground nematode
applications have also been directed towards control of insect pests located on or in plant stems or
trunks. Cryptic habitats are attractive for nematode application since, they may give protection from
harmful environmental conditions (ultraviolet radiation). Though various studies have reported
success in suppressing insect pests in or on the trunk or plant stem through injection or direct spray
applications. The invasion of fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) threatens the maize production and consequently the livelihood of maize growing
framers in India. Since these nematodes can be used for the management of insect pests in different
environments we tried these nematodes against S. frugiperda. We found that leaf damage inflicted by
FAW larvae was significantly reduced when used H. indica NBAIIH38 at 5.0 × 108 IJs ha−1 and
increased the yield than untreated control plots. Thus, H. indica NBAIIH38 can be used as a
component for integrated pest management (IPM) plans for FAW under smallholder farmer
conditions in India.
Table 2. Infectivity of major entomopathogenic nematodes evaluated against different insect hosts
Insect pest
Common
name
Insect pest
Scientific name
Insect order
and Family
EPN
species
Key
Crop(s)
Recent references
Tomato leaf
miner
Tuta absoluta
Lepidoptera:
Gelechidae
Sc, Sf, Hb
Tomato
Batalla-Carrera et
al., 2010
Diamond
back moth
Plutella xylostella
Lepidoptera:
Plutellidae
Steinernema
spp.
Heterorhabditis
spp.
St
Cruciferous
vegetables
Mason and
Wright, 1997
Somvanshi et al.,
2006
Tobacco
caterpillar
Spodoptera litura
Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae
Sc,Sg, Sm, Sl,
Hb
Vegetables
Park et al., 2001
Leaf miner
Liriomyza spp.
Dipera:
Agromyzidae
Sc, Sf
Vegetables
ornamentals
Hara et al., 1993
Black cut
worm
Agrotis ipsilon
Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae
Hb, Sc, Sf, Sr
Vegetables
Turf grass
Ebssa and
Koppenhofer,
2011.
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Mustard saw
fly
Athalia lugens proxima
Hymenoptera:
Tenthrinidae
Hi, St, Sg
Cruciferous
vegetables
Yadav and
Lalramliana, 2012
Greenhouse
Whitefly
Trialeurodes
vaporariorum
Hemiptera:
Aleyrodidae
Sf, Hb
Vegetables
Rezaei et al., 2015
White grub
Holotrichia
consanguinea,
Holotrichia serrata
Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae
Sg, Sc
Sugarcane
Ground nut
Shanthi and
Shivakumar, 1991,
Krunakar et al.,
2000
White grub
Holotrichia parallela
Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae
Sl, Hb
Peanut
Guo et al., 2013
White grub
Leucopholis coneophora
Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae
Hi
Coconut
Arecanut
Patil et al., 2015
Mediterranean
fruit fly
Ceratitis capitata.
Diptera:
Tephritidae
Sw, Sf, Sc, Hb
Fruit crops
Karagoz et al.,
2009
Banana
Rhizome
weevil
Cosmopolites sordidus
Coleoptera:
Curculionidae
Sc
Banana
Treverrow et al.,
1991
Rhinoceros
beetle
Oryctes rhinoceros
Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae
Hi, Sc
Coconut
Patil et al., 2014
Mole cricket
Scapteriscus spp.
Orthoptera:
Gryllotalpidae
Ss
Turf grass
Leppala et al.,
2007
Red palm
Weevil
Rhynchophorus
ferrugineus
Coleoptera:
Curculionidae
Sc
Palms
Manachini et al.,
2013
Gram pod
borer
Helicoverpa armigera
Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae
Sa, Sc, Sf, Sg,
Sma
Sr, Ssi, Hb, Hi
Pulses
Hussain and
Ahmad, 2015
Citrus root
weevil
Diaprepes abbreviates
Pachnaeus litus
Coleoptera:
Curculionidae
Sc, Sr
Citrus,
Ornamentals
Bullock et al.,
1999
Black wine
weevil
Otiorhynchus sulcatus
Coleoptera:
Curculionidae
Sc, Hm
Berries,
Ornamentals
Kakouli-Duarte et
al., 1997
Codling moth
Cydia pomonella
Lepidoptera:
Tortricidae
Sc, Sr, Hb
Fruit crops
Lacey and
Unruh, 1998
Sweet potato
weevil
Cylas formicarius
Coleoptera:
Apionidae
Sf, Sc, Hb
Sweet
potato
Mannion and
Jansson , 1993
Oriental
beetle
Anomala orientalis
Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae
Ssc, Hb
Blue berry
Sridhar et al.,
2007
Sc: Stienernema carpocapsae, Sf: S. feltiae, Sg: S. glaseri, Sl: S. longicaudam, Ss: S. scapterisci, Ssc: S. Scarabaei,
Sm: S. monticola, St: S. thermophilum,Sma: S. masoodi Sa: S. abbasi Sw: S. weiseri, Sr: S.riobrave, Ssi: S.
siamkayai
Hb: Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, Hm: H. megidis, Hi: H. indica.
In conclusion, present context of food and environmental safety, biological and non-
chemical approaches for the management of insect pests are need of the hour. In this regard EPNs
are excellent biocontrol agents for insect pests. When an EPN is used against insect pest, it is critical
to match the right nematode species against the target pest. Biotic agents including nematode
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pathogens, predators and other soil living organisms, as well as abiotic factors such as ultraviolet
radiation, soil moisture, temperature, etc. can affect EPNs application efficacy. Recently,
improvement of nematode formulation, application equipment or approaches has been made to
enhance EPN application efficacy. With these advances EPNs will serve to reduce application of
chemical insecticide inputs and contribute to the stabilization of crop yields and the environment.
We also need to focus on issues related with EPNs research in India such as, nearly 50% EPN
species were described in last two decades, needs to be evaluated, Research on identification of new
EPN species or virulent strains on new target pests is needs to be strengthen, Enhanced production,
formulation technology and application methods, Influence of biotic and abiotic factors on EPNs
with in the cropping system need to be understood, In India, very less work has been done in related
to commercial formulation of EPNs. So, there is huge opportunity to develop commercial
formulations and make them available to the farming community, Development of foliar
formulations for the management of above ground insect pests were challenging task and this area
warrants more research as most above ground insect pests were susceptible to EPNs, Research in
related to basic biology, behaviour, physiology of EPNs and biochemical and molecular
characterisation of bacterial symbionts were essential.
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LII-6
Bioefficacy data generation-discovery-development and regulatory requirements-an overview
Ramesh A
International Institute of Biotechnology and Toxicology (IIBAT)
Padappai - 601 301, Kancheepuram District, Tamil Nadu, India
Corresponding author email: raamesh_a@yahoo.co.in
Discovery and development
The discovery and development of new pest management solutions is an extremely
demanding business and are highly risky. Discovery and development cycles are long and uncertain,
and market changes can occur during the process. It takes eight to ten years and millions of dollars to
test, develop, and register a new pesticide after discovering a promising compound. During this
lengthy cycle, customer needs and attitudes can fluctuate, new regulatory requirements can go into
effect, competitive products can preempt opportunities, and market prices can change. Product
development is thus a high risky business. Industry engaged in discovery, research, and development
focus primarily on customer needs with sensitivity toward views on benefits and the potential overall
risks. The development of new or newly expanded products is based on business principles, but
customer needs are the driving force behind commercial success-which, in turn, prompt funding in
new areas of research for the discovery of new products of the future.
Farmers Expectations
Farmers need pesticides that meet specific needs and enable them to grow products that
consumers will buy. Their profit margin depends on consumer acceptability. Each pesticide product
must offer the user a verifiable benefit. For example, if a grower sprays for insects yet realizes a
disappointing economic return due to insect damage, he will have no incentive to use the product
again. Whatever may be the reason the product gets an outright rejection. Users expect a calculable
return on their pesticide investment just as they would on any other investment, including
nonchemical alternatives. Growers typically are better prepared than to accept complexity when it
comes to selecting pesticides; often they have their own application of risk based knowledge while
dealing in large scale applications. The primarily information they take into consideration are:
Efficacy: does it control the pests in my crop?
Return: is it competitive and does it give an economic return on my investment?
Convenience: is the product easy to handle?
Safety: how safe is the product for the applicators, field workers, and consumers?
Performance: consistence performance, good control, no customer complaints.
User restrictions: no re-entry restrictions or risk to children, pets, neighbors, etc.
Can be applied safely.
Does it control broad range of pests and diseases, thus reducing the number of products
needed on a service truck.
The overall analysis includes consideration of two important questions: Will there be
sufficient demand for the product following the development process of a decade or more? Will its
mammalian and environmental risk projections be low enough to facilitate registration? If all analyses
are favorable, the manufacturer may risk millions
Assessment of the Size of the Potential Market
The decision to develop a new product or enter a new market depends on the size of the
market and the customers‘ needs and desires. Obviously, manufacturers seek markets where
customer needs can be met with their new products in large quantities. But only a handful of crops
actually meet the criteria of critical need and necessary volume. The crops for which a pesticide
might be specifically developed at the initial stage of discovery include the following: • Corn and
soybeans (herbicides) • Cotton (insecticides and herbicides) • Wheat and barley (fungicides and
herbicides) • Rice (herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides) • Tree and vine crops (fungicides,
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herbicides, and insecticides) • Potatoes (fungicides and insecticides) • Fruit and vegetables
(fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides
Questions that may be asked include the following:
Which insect, weed, and disease pests are prevalent?
What are the most important pests?
What level of control do you expect?
Do you expect to make one application or multiple applications?
What level of control do you currently achieve?
What products do you currently use?
How do you use our products?
Would you rather use liquid or dry products? Water- or oil-based?
Do you have any concerns about equipment damage caused by current formulations?
Is there any evidence of resistant pests in your area? If so, what pest and what compound?
What non target species need to be considered?
What critical attributes do you use to select one product over another?
What do you want the product to do and not do?
What are the weaknesses of current products?
Path forward in New Product Development: from the Laboratory to the End User
The mission of product discovery and development is to find new pesticide products that
can be used safely and effectively, with true profit potential for the manufacturer.
It costs an average of $180 million—plus the cost of a new manufacturing facility—to introduce an
active ingredient to the marketplace; so marketing professionals continually seek products that can be
used successfully on multiple crops in various geographic situations.
It takes nine years, the review of 140,000 compounds, and $180 million to discover and develop a
new pesticide
Chemistry ................................................................. 22.3
Biology ..................................................................... 23.9
Toxicological/Environmental Chemistry ..................23.4
Developmental Chemistry ........................................10.8
Field Trials ................................................................13.6
Registration ............................................................... 6.0
Efficacy in development – The key factors which are associated in developing the product
are:
A broad-spectrum fungicide is needed for control of diseases in European cereals and other
high-value commodities such as fruits and vegetables.
A broad spectrum insecticide is needed to control chewing insects in fruit and vegetable
production.
A nematicide is needed for high-value fruit and vegetable crops.
Scientists working in discovery and development consider these goals too general to use as
benchmarks; they refine them into a series of technical attributes that serve as guidelines for
comparison.
Product discovery is not about finding just another pesticide; it is a search to find novel
solutions. Discovery is a focused research aimed at finding a few active ingredients that meet very
specific criteria. It is the research and discovery group that will design the tests and screen, identify,
and evaluate compounds in the laboratory, greenhouse, and field trials.
Efficacy in marketing– Requirement of a successful product launch are:
Is the product biologically active?
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Is the mode of action new, or is it based on an existing mode that is relatively benign to non-
target organisms?
Does it have an acceptable toxicological profile?
Can it be patented, or can we get around someone else‘s patent (e.g., license the technology
from the company with the patent, or develop the product in a manner that will not violate
the patent)?
Will the cost of production be reasonable?
Will it meet other countries‘ registration requirements?
Will the use restrictions be acceptable to customers?
Will it control multiple pests on multiple crops?
Will it be efficacious and reliable?
Will it be safe to crops?
Can it be competitively priced?
Will it be easy to handle?
Will it offer significant advantages over competing products?
What are the projected returns?
The lead molecule
Scientists generally understand which metabolic sites in weeds, insects, and diseases are most
vulnerable; that is, where to target control. Modelers create a three-dimensional visualization of the
structure of an enzyme or receptor to determine how bioactive molecules interact and inhibit the
target enzyme. This visualization can be used to propose new molecules for better efficacy. Modelers
sometimes can design a new molecule based entirely on a computer model of how it will interact at
specific target sites. Conversely, by predicting which molecular structures may interact with target
sites known for becoming resistance mechanisms, modelers can help companies avoid the
development of molecules prone to rapid development of pest resistance.
Many molecules fail to advance for a wide variety of reasons:
Activity observed during initial screening is not present in greenhouse studies.
Control is limited to a very narrow range of pests or a poor pest spectrum.
Phytotoxicity occurs in the crop species.
Control rates are too high; the product would not be economically viable.
Low water solubility or other undesirable chemical characteristics make the product difficult
for applicators to use.
Usually, only one or two molecules justify more detailed greenhouse studies at the end of a hip break
research and will qualify as lead or potential molecules.
Regulatory aspects
In 1985, FAO first published its Guidelines on efficacy data for the registration of pesticides
for plant protection. The objective of these guidelines was to provide advice to registration
authorities and pesticide industry on efficacy testing of plant protection products. The document
subsequently became part of the technical guidelines supporting the International Code of Conduct
on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides
The Code of Conduct, in its Article 4 (Testing of pesticides), contains a number of provisions with
specific relevance for efficacy testing:
The guidelines discuss the general principles of the efficacy testing and evaluation of plant protection
products for registration purposes. The following aspects are addressed:
scope of efficacy evaluation
data sources and quality
general principles for the design of efficacy testing
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design, conduct and analysis of direct efficacy trials
testing for crop tolerance
evaluation of agronomic sustainability
reporting and record keeping
principles for assessing acceptability of the results of efficacy trials
various special issues, such as minor uses, biological control agents, protection of stored
products and rodenticides
Efficacy and Regulatory: The main objective of efficacy evaluation is to assess the benefits
that accrue from the use of a plant protection product at its recommended minimum effective dose
and to define the product‘s conditions of use. In other words, the aim of efficacy evaluation is to
ensure that the proposed claims and use recommendations on the product label are supported by
trial data and reflect the actual performance of the product while providing a clear benefit to the user.
Positive effects of the plant protection product can be expressed in terms of a reduction of a pest
insect or weed population occurring in a crop, the reduced development of a disease, a reduction of
crop damage, the protection or increase of crop yields, the protection or improvement of crop
quality, the protection of stored commodities, etc. Negative effects of a plant protection product on
a crop or the production system may include phytotoxicity to the target or adjacent crops, yield
reduction, negative effects on succeeding crops, adverse effects on pollinators or natural enemies of
crop pests, an increase in the risk of resistance development, or other effects that may reduce the
sustainability of the production system.
Efficacy evaluations are part of the registration process in many countries, the evaluation of
the biological efficacy of a plant protection product is part of the registration or authorization
procedure. Companies submitting a product for registration must supply data on its efficacy on the
crops or for the uses involved. The justification for requesting efficacy data is that the registration
authority should prevent inefficacious plant protection products or products that are harmful to
plants or plant products from being brought onto the market. When products have insufficient
efficacy, there is a risk that the user may increase the dose or application frequency, thus augmenting
the exposure of humans and the environment to potentially hazardous compounds. Certain countries
do not require biological efficacy data to be submitted as part of the registration dossier, and the
evaluation of the effectiveness of the product is left to the user or advisor. This approach is based on
the assumption that products will not be purchased or recommended when it becomes known that
they are not, or not sufficiently, effective. Users may also have the possibility to start legal procedures
against a manufacturer or distributor if the product does not perform well when used as
recommended on the label. In such cases it is expected that ―the market will regulate itself‖.
FAO recommends that efficacy evaluation should be an integral part of the registration or
authorization process, to prevent inefficacious or harmful plant protection products from being
brought onto the market. This is particularly important in countries where pesticide users do not
have ready access to independent crop protection advisory or extension services, where self-
regulation by pesticide manufacturers and distributors may function in a suboptimal way, where
pesticide users have limited possibilities for litigation, or where there are no poison control centers
and environmental remediation possibilities are lacking.
The evaluation of biological efficacy should be conducted in the light of the claims and
recommendations that are stated (or implied) on the product label. These include the pests and crops
on which the product is to be used, the recommended equipment and methods of application, doses,
timing and number of applications, use situations, the nature, level and duration of pest control,
possible incompatibilities with other products, and benefits and/or adverse effects of product use.
Only authorized uses of the plant protection product should be mentioned on the label, and the
efficacy of the product for all these uses should in principle be assessed by the registration authority.
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The registrant should provide all the data needed for such assessments, as well as with respect to any
other claim regarding efficacy that is made on the label.
An assessment of the efficacy of a plant protection product will normally include data on its
direct efficacy, the sustainability of its application and (sometimes) the economic impact of
registering the product. Direct efficacy (effectiveness) - The direct efficacy, or effectiveness, of a
plant protection product concerns both the effect of the product on the target pest as well as its
possible negative effects on the crop or stored product. The data provided should be sufficient to
permit an evaluation to be made of the level, duration and consistency of control or desired effect
and, where relevant, of the yield response or effects on quality of the plant product. The various
conditions of use, such as the minimum effective dose(s), pest threshold levels (if available) and/or
treatment frequency and method of application need to be stated. Crop tolerance to the plant
protection product should also be evaluated. This includes: phytotoxicity; possible yield reduction
or an effect on product quality (including on transformation processes); any possible effects on
plants or plant parts used for propagation. Agronomic sustainability - An assessment should ideally
also be made of the agronomic sustainability of using the plant protection product. The product
should not affect, in an unacceptable manner, the sustainability of the crop production system that is
targeted, or any other (succeeding or adjacent) production systems. Examples of undesirable effects
on the crop production system(s) are: the too rapid development of resistance to the plant
protection product; effects on succeeding or substitute crops; effects on adjacent crops; effects
on non-target organisms (e.g. impact on pollinators and pollination, effects on natural enemies of the
target pests or of secondary pests). Positive effects of the plant protection product on other pests
than the target, if they occur, should also be taken into account in the sustainability assessment. Of
particular concern is the question if registering the plant protection product is compatible with or
contributes to sustainable production practices or existing integrated pest management (IPM), and if
it may jeopardize the future development of IPM in the crop. The positive effect it may have on
adopting IPM should also be assessed.
Efficacy under Good Laboratory Practices
It is essential that efficacy trials are of high quality so that one can have confidence in the
results and the reports can be used by different registration authorities. Field studies on safety and
residues of plant protection products must therefore be conducted according to internationally
adopted Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) standards. GLP is very stringent and does not allow for
much flexibility in the organization of field studies.
OECD Definition of field studies
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has defined field
studies in the following terms8:
―A field study is a study which includes experimental activities carried out outside the usual
laboratory situation, such as on land plots, in outdoor ponds or in greenhouses, often in combination
or in sequence with activities carried out in a laboratory.‖
What Distinguishes Field Studies from Other Types of Experiment?
The early GLP principles focused entirely on the laboratory environment at a time when
there was no clear intention of applying GLP to non-laboratory studies.
Subsequently, the regulatory authorities in Europe, the United States and other parts of the world
have extended the requirements for GLP compliance to include a number of study types which test
the impact of chemicals on environmental test systems. OECD GLP Principles were updated
accordingly9. In the context of Good Laboratory Practice, a 'field' study usually means an evaluation
of the effects of a chemical substance or mixture (including pesticides, industrial chemicals and their
metabolites) on man, animals or the environment where an element or phase is conducted under
conditions which mirror the natural environment.
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Field studies required by regulatory authorities may be divided into two broad types - studies whose
purpose is to generate safety data on the substance under investigation; and studies concerned with
the efficacy of the substance.
Safety Studies
According to the OECD consensus document number 6 in the GLP series, safety field
studies may include, but not necessarily be limited to, the following:
magnitude of residue
photo-degradation
plant metabolism
soil metabolism
rotational crop uptake
soil dissipation
effects on mesocosms
bio-accumulation
effects on non-target organisms
This list is not exhaustive, thus operator exposure, animal transfer, drainage, leaching and
sediment studies could also be mentioned and as knowledge of the potential impact of biologically
active substances increases yet more study types may need to be included.
The concept of a Principal Investigator (PI), who can act on behalf of the Study Director
(SD) by conducting the work for delegated phases or at specified test sites of a multi-site study and
who is responsible for ensuring compliance with GLP was, from a practical point of view, a great
advance in the sensible application of GLP principles to regulated field work. Appropriate
arrangements must always be made for the whole of the study, including the isolated phases, to be
under adequate and continuous control. The keys to successful conduct of a multi-site study are a
clear allocation of responsibilities at the planning stage and effective communication prior to and
during the study.
Generally, after the PI completes his/her phase, the PI sends all the raw data with the QA
statement and the GLP compliance statement to the SD who will then put the data and information
about this phase in the final study report. Alternatively, the PI will provide the SD with a phase
report for this part of the study. The phase report (or an abstract) can then form part of the final
report. The entire data in sequence must be made available for at least three cycles of GLP for an
audit by the governmental GLP authorities / inspectors.
References
ECD Series on Principles of Good Laboratory Practice and Compliance Monitoring Number 1
EPPO (2001) Principles of acceptable efficacy. EPPO Standards – Efficacy evaluation of plant
protection products – No. PP 1/214(1). European and Mediterranean Plant Protection
Organization. Bulletin OEPP / EPPO Bulletin 31(2): 331-336 10 [Available at:
http://www.eppo.org/PPPRODUCTS/pp1.htm]
EPPO (2004) Introduction to the efficacy evaluation of plant protection products. EPPO Standards
– Efficacy evaluation of plant protection products – No. PP 1/223(1). European and
Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. Bulletin OEPP / EPPO Bulletin 34(1): 25-29
10 [Available at: http://www.eppo.org/PPPRODUCTS/pp1.htm]
FAO (2002) International Code of Conduct on the distribution and use of pesticides – Revised
version. Adopted by the hundred and twenty-third session of the FAO Council in November
2002 (reprint 2005).
FAO (2006) Guidelines on efficacy data for the registration of pesticides for plant protection.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. [Available at:
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/p.htm]
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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. [Available at:
http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/p.htm]
OECD (1999) The application of the GLP principles to field studies. Consensus document. OECD
Series on Principles of GLP and Compliance Monitoring No. 6 (revised). Document
ENV/JM/MONO (99)22, September 1999. Environment Directorate, Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France. [Available at:
http://www.oecd.org/document/
OECD Principles on Good Laboratory Practice (as revised in 1997) ENV/MC/CHEM (98)17. Jan
1998.
OECD Series on Principles of Good Laboratory Practice and Compliance Monitoring Number 13
Consensus Document of the Working Group on Good Laboratory Practice: The Application
of the OECD Principles of GLP to the Organisation and Management of Multi-site Studies
ENV/JM/MONO (2002)9. June 2002
USEPA (1998) Product performance test guidelines. OPPTS 810.1000: Overview, definitions and
general considerations. Document No. EPA 712-C-98-001. Office of Prevention, Pesticides
and Toxic Substances, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC,
USA. [Available at: http://www.epa.gov/opptsfrs/publications/ OPPTS_Harmonized/
WHO (1996) Report of the WHO informal consultation on the evaluation and testing of insecticides.
WHO HQ, 7 to 11 October 1996. Document CTD/WHOPES/IC/96.1. WHO Pesticide Evaluation
Scheme (WHOPES), Division of Control of Control of Tropical Diseases (CTD). World Health
Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. [Available at: http://www.who.int/whopes/guidelines/en/].
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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II-1
Coccinella septempunctata
L. a successful biological control agent: Feeding potential
against
Acrythosiphon pisum
(Harris) and
Aphis craccivora
Koch.
T. Shantibala, Ng. Taibangnganbi Chanu and B.N. Hazarika
Department of plant protection,
College of Horticulture and Forestry, Pasighat,
Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur
Corresponding author email: shantibro@yahoo.co.in
Aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae), specialized group of sap-sucking insect constitutes the
most potent and worldwide enemies for agricultural crops due to its high reproductive potential,
salivary secretions, and ability to transmit numerous viral diseases. Of which, Acyrthosiphon pisum and
Aphis craccivora are potential pests causing great losses in various leguminous crops by inducing
propensity as a vector, efficient colonisation, and severity of virus isolates transmission. Coccinella
septempunctata, the most abundant predator species on plants of various heights is selected to
determine the efficacy of biocontrol agent in terms of, a) Functional responses, the prey
consumption intensity at different prey densities and b) Numerical responses, the changes of
response of different predator density at constant prey density. The consumption efficacy by fourth
instar larvae of C. septempunctata increased with the increase in prey density, i.e., 25 to 800 in both the
aphids. The prey consumption by the larvae of C. septempunctata increased with the increase in
predator density, i.e., 1 to 8 nos. Both the Functional and numerical responses showed significant
positive correlationship at P<0.01. However, when the predator density doubled, prey consumption
remained less than double indicating percent prey consumption decreased with the increase in prey
density. The searching efficacy and the rate of consumption were more when one predator was
searching at the prey density of 50 aphids. Thus, the predator-prey ratio of 1:50 will be suitable for
releasing of the predator at the infested prey site and it can be used for predicting the dynamics of
prey population under field conditions.
Keywords: Biocontrol agent, Functional response, Numerical response, Searching efficacy.
II-2
Trichoderma
: a potential arsenal for management of soil borne plant pathogens
Pranab Dutta
School of Crop Protection, College of Post Graduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, Central Agricultural University
(Imphal), Umiam, Meghalay-793103
Corresponding author email: pranabdutta74@gmail.com
Trichoderma the ascomycetous filamentous fungi are versatile and ubiquitous in nature, that
occupies diverse ecological niches, from natural soil, aquatic environment and dead organic materials,
rhizosphere, phyllosphere and within the plant tissues. Trichoderma have emerged as most powerful
arsenals for better plant health management and gained more attention in agriculture as they display
high efficacy against a considerable number of plant pathogens. Trichoderma strains exert strong
aggressiveness against phytoppathogens either indirectly by competing for nutrients and space,
modifying the environmental conditions, or promoting plant growth and plant defensive mechanisms
and antibiosis or directly by mechanisms such as mycoparasitism. Trichoderma added directly to
rhizosphere or as seed treatment protects plant against numerous classes of pathogens, e.g. those that
produce aerial infections, including fungal, bacterial, nematodes and viral pathogens. This reveals
induction of resistance mechanisms similar to the hypersensitive response (HR), systemic acquired
resistance (SAR) and induced systemic resistance (ISR) in plants. During one and half decade of my
study, native strains of Trichoderma were isolated from agroecological conditions of NER and Wesyt
Bengal of India. Series of in vitro and in vivo study showed effective result against six (6) soil borne
fungal plant pathogens viz., Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Fusarium oxysporum,
Colletotrichum capsici as well as root knot nematode viz., Meloidogyne incognita causing different diseases
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in agricultural crops. Competition, coiling, lysis, antibiosis, siderophore productions, nutrient
solubilization and plat growth promoting activities are found to be the direct or indirect mode of
action of the Trichoderma spp. Trichoderma species showed compatible reaction with other biocontrol
agents like Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Verticillium leccanni, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas
fluorescens, Purpurocilliium lilacinus, and this study helps to develop a consortial bioformulation with
multiple functions. Inter and inter generic protoplast fusion was tried for Trichoderma spp and
entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhizium anisopliae and successful to produce cybrid and hybrid cell with
the ability to suppress the growth of pathogen and activate the defence mechanism against insect
pest. Trichoderma also found compatible with some commonly used organic and inorganic plant health
materials. Our Trichoderma based liquid biopesticides (Org-Trichojal and Um-Tricho) supplemental with
osmoticants, adjuvants, sticker, spreader, UV protectants, with high shelf life have been proved
successful in a large number of field, vegetable, fruit and flowering crops for the management of
diseases with plant growth promoter. Farmers, extension personnel‘s and tea garden managers etc
were trained on technical aspects of the bioformulations and its field use. The low cost technology
has opened up a new vista for plant disease management and is likely to be a boon for seed industries
who would like to provide protection to seeds as well as plants against a large number of seed, soil-
borne and foliar diseases.
Keyword: Trichoderma, potential arsenal, management of soil borne, plant pathogens
II-3
Vespid wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) as potential biocontrol agents for North-East India
Sandesh Gawas1 and Ankita Gupta2
1Jain University, #18/3, 9th Main, 3rd Block, Jayanagar, Bangalore, Karnataka—560 011, India
2ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, P. Bag. No: 2491, H.A. Farm Post, Bellary Road,
Bengaluru, Karnataka— 560024, India
Corrresponding author email: sandeshgawas92@gmail.com
North East region of India is a part of Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot and therefore is
abode to diverse flora and fauna. Documenting, preserving and sustainable use of biological
resources is the need of the hour. The global human population is growing rapidly and so are
agricultural practices to meet the growing demand for resources. Frequent and overuse of pesticides
and genetically modified crops have jeopardised the sustainability of agriculture. There is a need for
an alternative method for effective control of agricultural pest and Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) is a promising approach. It uses natural enemies of the pest as biocontrol agents. Vespidae is
the cosmopolitan family of predatory wasps. They prey upon large lepidopteran larval pests of
agricultural crops and have therefore been utilized as bio-control agents in different parts of the
world (Gould & Jeanne 1984, Donovan 2010, Picanco et al. 2010). Indian Vespidae fauna is
represented by 288 species across 60 genera and 5 subfamilies (Gawas et al. 2020), out of which 159
species, 51 genera and 4 subfamilies are found in North East region of India. This makes it evident
that the North-East region has an abundant resource of potential biocontrol agents which can
contribute to ecological solutions for sustainable agriculture.
Keywords: Vespid wasps, potential biocontrol agents, North-East India
II-4
In vitro
Antagonistic potential of native Trichoderma spp. against
Alternaria solani
(Ellis &
Martin) causing Early blight of Potato
Tusi Chakma, Ph. Sobita Devi, Bireswar Sinha, Bijeeta Thangjam and Kota Chakrapani
Department of Plant Pathology,
College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal-795004
Corresponding author email: tusi.chakma.297@gmail.com
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An experiment was conducted in vitro to evaluate the antagonistic potential of ten native
Trichoderma species viz., T. ovalisporum (KU904456), T. viride (MH257328), T. atroviradae (KU933472),
T. koningiopsis (KU904460), T. asperellum (KU933475), Hypocrea lixii (KX0113223), T. harzianum
(KU933471), T. harzianum (KU933474), T. asperellum (KU933476) and T. harzianum (KU933468)
against Alternaria solani (Ellis & Martin) causing early blight of Potato through dual culture technique.
Among ten native Trichoderma species, significantly higher mycelial growth inhibition of A. solani
was recorded in case of T. asperellum- KU933476(71.36%) followed by T. viride- MH257328(70.98%),
T. ovalisporum- KU904456(69.80%), T. harzianum- KU933468(69.80%), T. koningiopsis-
KU904460(69.02%), T. atroviradae- KU933472(68.62%), T. asperellum- KU933475 (66.66%), Hypocrea
lixii- KX0113223(66.27%), T. harzianum- KU933474(66.27%) and T. harzianum- KU933471(65.87%)
respectively. All native species of Trichoderma considerably inhibited the growth of A. solani. The
findings indicates the ability of Trichoderma spp. as potential antagonists and capable of reducing the
growth of A. solani causing early blight of Potato.
Keywords: Alternaria solani, early blight, Potato and Trichoderma.
II-5
Biological control of insect pests and diseases of crop plants through microorganisms
G. Sivakumar
Principal Scientist
ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru-560024
Corrersponding author email: sivakumarg.nbaii@gmail.com
Biological control using microorganisms has become an attractive alternative strategy for the
control of plant insect pests and diseases to reduce the excessive use of agrochemicals and its health
hazards. There are enormous and largely untapped various naturally occurring microbes that
aggressively attack insects pests and plant pathogens and benefit plants by suppressing pests and
diseases. Microbial biocontrol agents have offered some realistic alternatives to chemical pesticides
when used as part of an integrated pest management strategy. The rapid success of microbial
biocontrol agents is due to its effectiveness and safety as compared to chemical pesticides.
Antagonistic microbes have multiple beneficial characters such as rhizosphere competence,
antagonistic potential, and ability to produce antibiotics, lytic enzymes and toxins which help the
microbes to fight against plant pathogens. The list of microbial biocontrol agents included in CIB
for registration are Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Gliocladium spp., Trichoderma spp., Beauvaria
bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopliae, Verticillum lecanii, granulosis viruses, nuclear polyhedrosis viruses
(NPV), Nomurea rileyi, Isaria fumosorosea, Hirsutella species, Verticillium chlamydosporium,
Streptomyces griseoviridi, Streptomyces lydicus, Ampelomyces quisqualis, Candida oleophila, Fusarium
oxysporum (non pathogenic), Burkholderia cepacia, Coniotyrium minitans, Agrobactarium radiobacter strain 84,
Agrobactarium tumefaciens, Pythium oligandrum, Erwinia amylovora (hairpin protein), Phlebia gigantean,
Paecilomyces lilacinus, Penicilliuim islanidicum (for groundnut), Alcaligenes spp., Chaetomium globosum,
Aspergillus niger – strain AN27, VAM fungi, Myrothecium verrucaria, Photorhabdus luminescences akhurustii
strain K-1, Serratia marcescens GPS 5, Piriformospora indica. Nearly 200 products based on
entomopathogenic fungi and nematicidal fungi are registered for use against various arthropods and
plant parasitic nematodes. Regarding bacteria 45 products based on Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are
registered against bollworms, loopers, other lepidopterans and mosquitoes. Four entomopathogenic
nematode species are available in Indian market. The present article focuses on an overview of
biological control including modes of actions, enhancement of biocontrol potential and application
under field conditions to manage pests and diseases of crops.
Keywords: Biological control, Insect Pests, plant diseases, microorganisms
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II-6
Behavioural ecology of aphid (
Aphis craccivora
) infesting summer and monsoon cowpea in
association with its predatory coccinellid
Gaurang Chhangani, M.K. Mahla, R. Swaminathan, A. Vyas, H. Swami and Lekha
Department of Entomology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture,
MPUAT, Udaipur (Rajasthan)-313001
Corresponding author email: gaurangchhangani@gmail.com
The eco-behavioural pattern of cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora (Koch) indicative of the spatial
distribution and predatory potential of its major coccinellid, Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus was
studied in Department of Entomology at Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap
University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur for two successive years, 2019 and 2020. Cowpea
variety, Pusa Komal was sown in the plots of size 3m X 3m with the spacing of 45cm X 10cm.
Observations for aphids and the natural enemies were taken fortnightly to record initiation of aphid
infestation, attainment of peak abundance in association with the coccinellid predator. The spatial
distribution for aphids and associated coccinellid was observed to be aggregated or clumped (DI>1),
having k (dispersion parameter) value < 8.0; suggesting high level of aggregation during both the
seasons. The IDM (index of clumping) values were more than unity, which supports the aggregated
distribution of the pest and its predator. The population of coccinellids was positively correlated with
the aphid population during respective seasons. Coccinellids showed increasing prey consumption,
reaching a level of satiation at a prey density of 150 aphids per day, where the rising graph leveled-off
between the prey densities provided and the mean prey consumed, typically depicting Type II
functional response. Spatial distribution together with the predatory-prey relationship is the
governing tool for implementing bio-control measures.
Keyword: spatial distribution, holling's equation, dispersion pattern, index of clumping, and
aggregated distribution
II-7
Biological control potential of entomopathogenic nematodes for management of insect pests
Jagadeesh Patil*1, V Linga1, Rangasamy Vijayakumar1 and Nagesh M1
ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru 560024, India
Corresponding author email: patiljaggi@gmail.com
Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) belonging to families Steinernematidae and
Heterorhabditidae are multicellular organisms. They can potentially control economically important
insect pests belonging to several insect orders. They possess impressive attributes such as quick kill,
broad host range, high virulence and have symbiotically associated with bacteria and are safe to the
environment. These nematodes isolated from all over the world in diverse ecological habitats. Upon
penetration of infective juveniles (IJs), these nematodes have released their bacterial symbionts into
the host‘s body and cause septicaemia. These nematodes can complete 2-3 generation depending on
the availability of food source. When their food source is depleted, the next generation IJs exits from
the insect cadaver, then searches for a new host. Successes and failures of these nematodes depend
on nematode‘s behaviour and soil ecology; therefore, behaviour and ecology of EPNs must be
studied before integrating them in the biological control programme of insect pests. These
nematodes can attack almost all the life stages of insect pests. The application of EPNs at higher
doses may cause higher mortality in insect hosts than chemical insecticides. Because higher
multiplication rate and higher recycling capacity of EPNs within insect host also provide additional
pests population control. Advance research on mass-production and formulation technology of
EPNs, the discovery of numerous virulent strains, compatible with other biological control agents,
insecticides and the excellence in the reducing pesticide usage have resulted in a surge of commercial
use and development of EPNs.
Keywords: entomopathogenic nematodes, life stages of insect hosts, biocontrol potential
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II-8
Determination of lethal concentration (LC50) of entomopathogenic fungi against arecanut
mite,
Raoiella indica
Hirst (Acarina: Tenuipalpidae)
Indhusri Chavan, Pradeep, S., Manjunatha, M., Sridhara. S
University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shivamogga, Karnataka
Corresponding author email: indushree8036@gamail.com
The present investigation was undertaken to determine lethal concentration of
entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae and Lecanicillium lecanii against
areacnut mite Raoiella indica. Before conducting bioassay in the laboratory, standard procedure was
followed for bracketing of pathogens as suggested by Daoust and Roome (1974). Accordingly the
serial dilutions were prepared to arrive at approximate range of concentrations inflicting mortality of
mites between 10 and 90 per cent. Five different concentrations for each entomopathogenic fungi
were selected within each range viz., and used for the determination of median lethal concentration
(LC50). All dilutions were made using sterile distilled water. The entomopathogenic fungi were treated
against nymphal and adult stage of R. indica and among three entomopathogenic fungi L. lecanii
recorded lowest LC50 value against nymphal stage at 4 DAT (56.03 × 105 conidia/ml) and 6 DAT
(8.15 × 105 conidia/ ml) with a fiducial limit ranging from 30.91 × 105 to 71.08 × 105 conidia/ml
and 5.23 × 105 to 12.66 × 105 conidia/ ml at respective treatment intervals. Similary L. lecanii has
recorded lowest LC50 value against adult stage of R. indica at 4 DAT was 8.40 × 105conidia/ ml with
fiducial limit ranging from 4.30 × 105 to 16.30 × 105 conidia/ml, whereas at 6 DAT the calculated
LC50 value was 1.30 × 105 conidia/ ml with fiducial limit ranging from 0.70 × 105 to 2.30 × 105
conidia/ml. Followed by M. anisopliae which has recorded the LC50 of 113.89 × 105conidia / ml at 4
DAT and 18.05 x 105 conidia/ml at 6 DAT against nymphs of R. indica. For adult mites it has
recorded the LC 50 values of 22.08 × 105conidia/ ml and 2.70 × 105 conidia/ml at 4 and 6 DAT
respectively. The calculated LC50 value of B. bassiana against nymphs of R. indica were 181.64 ×
105conidia/ml and 27.13 × 105 conidia/ml at 4 and 6 DAT respectively. Similarly for adults it has
recorded the LC 50 value of 44.50 × 105 conidia/ml and 4.80 × 105 conidia/ml at 4 and 6 DAT
treatment. In the present study, it was noticed that all three entomopathogenic were effective against
can be R. indica under laboratory conditions. However, L. lecanii has recorded highest mortality
percentage followed by M. anisopliae and B. bassiana.
Keywords: Determination, lethal concentration (LC50), entomopathogenic fungi, arecanut
II-9
Evaluation of prey preference and feeding potential of green lacewing,
Chrysoperla carnea
(Stephens) on different species of aphids and its safety against different insecticides
Sheileja Thounaojam, T. Uma Maheswari #, K. Mamocha and S.M. Haldhar
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal – 795004
# Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030
Telangana
Corresponding author email: sheileja.th@gmail.com
The green lacewing, Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) is a
cosmopolitan polyphagous and efficient predator with enhanced searching capacity and voracious
feeding habits feeding on leafhoppers, psyllids, aphids, coccids and mites, of which aphids are the
most preferred host and it plays an important part in natural control of sucking pest. Prey preference
of C. carnea among four different aphid species was studied in the laboratory condition that exhibited
an order of preference i.e., Aphis craccivora > Aphis gossypii > Rhopalosiphum maidis > Lipaphis erysimi,
together with predation potential by its different larval instars. Result revealed that among the four
species of aphids, A. craccivora was highly preferred by larva of C. carnea by all three instars, whereas
L. erysimi was least preferred indicating by mean number of aphids consumed throughout the larval
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period as 445.2 ± 6.21 of A. craccivora; 309.2 ± 8.11 of A. gossypii; 197.6 ± 5.99 of R. maidis and 130 ±
4.49 of L. erysimi showing its preference for A. craccivora. Data pertaining to per day consumption
rate of C. carnea on different aphid species revealed that feeding was increased significantly from
seventh day onwards indicating that third instar was the main predatory stage. Moreover, as
insecticides continued to be the preferred component of IPM in many crops, they have shown
adverse impact on natural enemies which could be mitigated through choice of insecticides, dosage,
or timing of insecticide application. Bioassay studies on safety of six insecticides viz.,
Chlorantraniliprole, Spinosad, Emamectin benzoate, Imidacloprid, Thiamethoxam and
Diafenthiuron at recommended dose tested against egg hatchability, larval mortality, pupation, adult
emergence and mortality of C. carnea revealed that among the insecticides, Imidacloprid was found
less toxic recording maximum egg hatching of 86.67 per cent and least egg hatchability of 51.67 per
cent was observed in Thiamethoxam. After 24 and 48 hours of treatment Chlorantraniliprole has
recorded highest mortality both on treated eggs (26.67 and 46.67 %) and larvae (26.67 and 63.33 %)
showing its toxic effects. Whereas lowest mortality (3.33 and 6.67 %) was exhibited by Spinosad after
24 hours in both the conditions. But, after 48 hours, Imidacloprid registered least mortality of 13.33
and 26.67 per cent to C. carnea larvae when fed on treated eggs and larvae of Corcyra cephalonica
respectively. In case of adult mortality, Thiamethoxam registered complete mortality and
Diafenthiuron caused least mortality of 3.33 per cent after 48 hours of treatment. From the study it
can be concluded that Diafenthiuron and Imidacloprid are said to be least toxic to C. carnea at all
stages with maximum pupation and adult emergence.
Keywords: Chrysoperla carnea, chrysopidae, aphididae, feeding potential, biological control, toxicity,
mortality, insecticides
II-10
Parasitization of whitefly: Effect of biorational approach to curb whitefly,
Bemisia tabaci
infestation in cotton
Dalip Kumar and Deepika Kalkal
Department of Entomology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar -125 004
Corresponding author email: dilipshroff@rediffmail.com
Cotton is one of the major commercial crops and backbone of textile industry in India which
provides employment to vast majority of population directly or indirectly. It provides livelihood of
60 million people depending on cotton cultivation, processing trade and textiles. Cotton has the most
fragile ecosystem amongst the field crops, where approximately 162 insect-pests damage the crop in
India, of which whitefly; Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) is one of major pest that causes high economic
losses in cotton. The present investigations on the incidence of whitefly and it‘s natural bio-control
agent on cotton variety RCH 650 under biorational insecticides application were undertaken during
2018-19 at CCS HAU, Cotton Research Station, Sirsa. Mean infestation of adult whitefly per leaf
ranged from 1.5 in 30th SMW to 11.4 adults in 36th SMW in control plot with mean adult population
5.5 per leaf throughout the crop season. While nymphal parasitization in whitefly ranged from 0.0 in
40th, 42nd and 43rd SMW to 21.6 per cent in 38th SMW. After attaining the ETL level in 33rd SMW by
whitefly, plots were treated with biorationals and observations recorded at 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10 days after
treatment. Mean whitefly population 2.7/leaf was recorded minimum in Metarhizium anisopliae treated
plot followed by Beauveria bassiana (2.8), Verticillium lecanii (3.4), Nimbecidine and Dimethoate 30EC
(3.6) per leaf and in control plot recorded 7.2 whitefly/leaf. Nymphal parasitization by Encarsia in
whitefly was lowest in Dimethoate 30 EC (1.0 %) treated plot followed by Verticillium lecanii (2.5%),
Metarhizium anisopliae (2.7%), Beauveria bassiana (3.9%), Nimbecidine (4.1%) and highest (7.2%)
recorded in control plot. Nymphal parasitization by Encarsia in whitefly was lowest in Dimethate
30EC (1.0 %) treated plot followed by Verticillium lecanii (2.5 %), Metarhizium anisopliae (2.7 %),
Beauveria bassiana (3.9 %), Nimbecidine (4.1%) and highest (7.2 %) recorded in control plot. Thus, use
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of biorationals in Bt cotton in lieu of conventional insecticides could positively impact non-target and
beneficial organisms.
Keywords: Parasitization, biorational approach, Bemisia tabaci, infestation in cotton
II-11
Role of biopesticides in sustainable agriculture
Keisham Dony Devi
Ph.D Student
Department of Agronomy, Central Agricultural University, Iroisemba
Corresponding author email: doniikeisham@gmail.com
Since the advent of agriculture, numerous pests like bacteria, fungi, weeds and insects have
been infesting our crops and reducing the yield. The use of synthetic chemical pesticides have been
the most common method of pest control but the use of these chemicals have brought more harm to
the environment even though there is better productivity. Thus, there is a need of use of non-
synthetic pesticides so as to preserve our ecological diversity and sustainability. Therefore the
development of efficient biopesticides and large scale use in agriculture is needed. Biopesticides are
products and by-products of naturally occurring substances such as insects, nematodes,
microorganisms, plants as well as semiochemicals. Based on the nature and origin of the active
ingredients, biopesticides fall into several categories such as botanicals, antagonists, compost teas,
growth promoters, predators and pheromones. It is environmentally safe, target-specific,
biodegradable and suitable in the integrated pest management (IPM). Thus, biopesticide is one of the
promising alternatives to manage environmental pollutions. Some plants with biopesticidal properties
are Azadirachta indica, Allium sativum, Euphorbia sp., Curcuma longa, Zingiber officinale. Microorganisms
having pesticidal properties are Trichoderma spp., Beauveria spp., Paecilomyces spp., Bacillus spp., etc. There
are also some predators species like Phytoseiulus spp., Neoseiulus spp., Encarsia Formosa. As safer strategy
to manage pest populations biopesticides are attracting global attention for controlling weeds, plant
pathogens and insects and poses less risk to the environment. Increased adoption of biopesticides by
the farmers can be brought about with increased interest in organic farming and pesticide residue-
free agriculture. As environmental safety is a global concern, we need to create awareness among the
farmers, manufacturers, government agencies, policy makers and the common men to switch-over to
biopesticides for pest management requirements.
Keywords: Biopesticide, sustainable agriculture, botanicals
II-12
A novel strain of
Metarhizium anisopliae
(ICAR-SBIMa-16) highly virulent to white grub
Holotrichia serrata
(Fabricius)in Sugarcane: identification and evaluation
N. Geetha, K.P. Salin, R. Nirmala, C. Yogambal, P. Nirmala Devi, V. Krishnapriya and T.
Ramasubramanian.
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, ICAR-SBI, Coimbatore-641007
Corresponding author email: mvsbi@yahoo.com
Of the 182 native isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae (Metchn,)Sorokin explored from soil
samples across the forests and cultivated lands in India, a new strain ICAR-SBIMA-16 highly virulent
to white grub Holotrichia serrata, a national pest on sugarcane was identified. The morphological
characterization of this strain showed significantly faster mycelial growth, higher sporulation and
germination rates than several strains of M.anisopliae tested on modified Emerson‘ YPSS medium. It
showed highest entomopathogenic activity against the laboratory host Galleria mellonella with 90-100%
mortality against fourth and fifth instar larvae at doses of 105/ml and 106/ml respectively. The
isolate was effective against two crambid borers of sugarcane viz., shoot borer Chilo infuscatellus
Snellen, internode borer ,Chilo sacchariphagus indicus (Kapur) with more than 96.67-100% mortality at
106/ml . In a separate study, among several strains tested against the first , second and third instar H.
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serrata, the ICAR-SBIMa-16 caused 100% mortality at 106/ml ,107/ml and 108/ml respectively while
other strains of M. anisopliae tested showed 33.3 - 90%, 27- 83.3 % and 20 -70% mortality of the first
instar , second instar and third instar H. serrata at the corresponding tested doses. Pooled analysis of
three sets of pot culture experiments comparing various microbials against second instar H. serrata
indicated highest mortality by M.anisopliae (57.78%) followed by Beauveria brongniartii (44.44%) with
Beauveria bassiana as well as two entomopathogenic nematodes, Heterorhabditis indica and Steinernema
glaseri showing less than 40% efficacy. In two field trials at white grub-endemic localities viz.,
Thalawadi and Sathyamangalam single application of M.anisopliae (ICAR-SBIMa-16 ) at 1x 1012/ha
either alone or with Lesenta resulted in higher reduction of grub population ( 58.4 - 80%) than other
microbials, proving it to be an effective strain for white grub management in sugarcane. Recovery of
B.bassiana and M.anisopliae could be made from the soil samples retrieved.
Keyword: Novel strain, Metarhizium anisopliae, virulent, white grub, Holotrichia serrata
II-13
Nutritional response of
Nomuraea rileyi
to standard- and economic media during vegetative
growth
N.Geetha, D. Dinisha, K.P.Salin, V. Krishnapriya, R. Nirmala, C. Yogambal, P. Nirmala Devi, and
T. Ramasubramanian.
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, ICAR-SBI, Coimbatore-641007
Corresponding author email: mvsbi@yahoo.com
Fifteen standard media and 8 economic media were tested for vegetative growth at 7,14 and
21 days after inoculation(DAI) of Nomuraea rileyi , a native entomopathogenic fungus of the fall army
worm Spodoptera frugiperda. Colony morphology and correlations among productive zone, fruiting
zone, aging zone and outer diameter of the colony were worked out. The best starter medium among
the standard media was Czepek Yeast Extract Agar (CYEA) with the highest colony growth at 7
days. On 14th day, Yeast Extract Soluble Starch Agar(YpSs agar) showed the best growth. By 21st day,
N. rileyi could grow the best in more than 50% of tested media. The initial growth of N.rileyi on
several economic media such as Jaggery agar –III , III and IV as well as SBI II on day 7 were on par
with the standared media YPSS while on day 14, SBI-II and Jaggery agar I and III were found be the
best and better than YPSS. All the economic media except Jaggery I and II were as good as the
standard YPSS with good colony growth of N.rileyi on day 21. No concrete correlation could be
found among the different components of the colony growth, though in certain instances, aging and
productive zone measurements corresponded to outer diameter on high growth media. There were
wide morphological variations in the colonies of N .rileyi across the standard media. Colour ranged
from light brown to dark green. Colony could be either powdery or floccose. Independent of media,
the colony shape was circular but the elevation varied from thin flat to convex. The colony margin
was either curled or entire or regular or filiform . The results indicated the nutritional flexibility of
N.rileyi and identified economic media based on agricultural products such as molasses and jaggery
for mass production.
Keywords: Nutritional response, Nomuraea rileyi, economic media, vegetative growth
II-14
Field Evaluation of
Bt
127SC Formulation for Efficacy against Lepidopteran Larvae
Infesting Soybean under Manipur Conditions
Nilima Karam and Subhadip Sen
College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal
Corresponding author email: nilikaram@gmail.com
Bt 127SC formulation (a promising Bt kurstaki isolate) supplied by the Indian Institute of
Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad was field tested against lepidopteran larvae infesting soybean in
Manipur conditions viz, bihar hairy caterpillar, bean leaf webber and tobacco caterpillar at Central
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Agricultural University, Imphal (Manipur) during kharif 2017 – 2019 by raising recommended
soybean variety, JS-335. The formulation was compared with Bt commercial Delfin along with
recommended chemical insecticides viz., Indoxacarb 15.8SC, Quinalphos 25EC and
Chlorantraniliprole 18.5SC. Two spray applications of each treatment were given at 30 days and 50
days after sowing and observations on insect population were recorded at pre-treatment, 3 and 7 days
after each treatment. Yield data (kg/ha) was recorded at harvest. Based on the results of three
consecutive years, it can be inferred that 2 spray application of Bt 127 SC @ 3 ml/litre of water
proved to be at par with commercial Bt formulation Delfin and untreated control after first and
second spray application but was less superior to commercial synthetic insecticides in reducing bihar
hairy caterpillar and bean leaf webber. However, it is comparatively similar in efficacy with the
synthetic insecticides in reducing tobacco caterpillar. There was a higher reduction in larval
population of all lepidopteran pests on the 7th day after Bt treatment as bacterial infection starts to
manifest within 3-5 days after treatment leading to high mortality of larva after 5th day of treatment.
Soybean seed yield due to treatment by Bt 127 SC formulation and Bt commercial Delfin were on par
but lower in comparison to the chemical insecticides.
Keywords: Bt 127SC, lepidopteran defoliators, bihar hairy caterpillar, bean leaf webber and tobacco
caterpillar
II-15
Efficacy of some microbial insecticides on larval mortality of diamondback moth (
Plutella
xylostella
L.)
Subhadip Sen, Nilima Karam, K. I. Singh and S. M. Haldhar
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur-795004
Corresponding author email: subha14agrn@gmail.com
Diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella L.) is one of the major pests of all cruciferous crops
and it can survive in all the agro-climatic zones of India. The marketable crop loss caused by
Diamondback moth (DBM) varies from 52% to 100%. The use of entomopathogenic micro-
organisms proves to be very efficient in pest management. The efficacy of three commercial
microbial insecticides viz., Bacillus thuringiensis (Green Lipel), Beauveria bassiana (Multiplex Baba) and
Metarhizium anisopliae (Green Pacer) at different doses was tested on the basis of percent larval
mortality when 3 day old larvae of DBM were exposed to the formulations. All the microbial
formulations were effective in suppressing larval growth and development as compared to untreated
control. Larval death could be markedly observed after 72 hours of treatment. Treatment with
Beauveria bassiana @ 4g/l gave the highest larval mortality of 27.50% after 72 hours of treatment. At
96 hours after treatment, percent larval mortality caused by B. bassiana @ 5g/l recorded maximum
mortality of 55.00% which was observed to increase from 25.00% at 72 hours after exposure. After
120 hours of treatment, mortality of larvae exposed to the microbial insecticides was observed to be
highest with larval mortality ranging from 25.00% to 62.50% for all the microbial formulations. Of
which, the highest percent mortality of larvae was observed with treatment B. bassiana @ 5g/l that
gave 62.50% mortality. Lower mortality could be recorded with lower doses of microbial insecticides
as compared to the mortality due to higher doses. B. thuringiensis proved to be least effective among
the tested microbial formulations.
Keywords: Diamondback moth, Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Larval
mortality
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II-16
Biopesticides for sustainable management of stored grains pests- a way forward
Kasinam Doruk, Hiren Das ,Rafiya Choudhury,Nakeertha Venu,Laishram Nikita Devi
Department of Soil Science &Agricultural Chemistry
College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University,Imphal-795004
Corresponding author email: dorukkasi@gmail.com
A large number of insect pests have been reported to be associated with stored grains. About
80% of human food comes from grains,12% of harvest is lost to insects before harvest ,Another
36% is lost after harvest to insects.Overall total food losses due to pests are about 50%
destruction.The major pests of stored grains include rice weevil(Sitophillus oryzae),khapra/wheat
weevil (Irogoderma granarium),Rust red flour beetle(Tribolium castaneum),Lesser grain
borer(Rhizopertha dominica),Pulse beetle(Callosobruchus chinensis) etc. Biopesticides extracts kill
and repel pests affect insect growth and development,have antifeedant and arrestant
effects.Continuous and indiscriminate use of pesticides have not only led to the development of
resistant strains but also accumulation of toxic residues on food grains used for human
consumption.Higher plants like neem have also been used as antimicrobials against storage pests
because of their relatively safe status and wide acceptance by the consumers.Various herbs and spices
e.g. Turmeric,Garlic,Cloves etc have been used for management of storage pest.Plant products could
offer a solution for the problem of availability ,health risks ,costs and resistance in the case of
synthetic pesticides .Good storage practices combined with good hygiene ,adequate drying and all
other safety botanicals measures will always be effective in preventing storage losses.There are many
ways of protecting storage products .Time-honored methods such as the use of natural materials like
plants ,minerals ,and oil are still very effective.
Keywords: Biopesticides, stored grains pests, antifeedant
II-17
Parasitism potential of geographical strains of
Trichogramma chilonis
Ishii against fall
armyworm
Spodoptera frugiperda
(J. E. Smith)
Omprakash Navik, Venkatesh Vijji, Y. Lalitha, Richa Varshney and Jagadeesh Patil
ICAR - National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, H. A. Farm Post, Bellary Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru -
560 024, Karnataka, India
Corresponding author email: omnavikm@gmail.com
The fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) is a highly invasive and
polyphagous pest of maize and other crops. Fall armyworm has caused severe damage in the major
maize growing regions of India. Considering the potential of damage caused by FAW in a different
part of India, surveys were taken to search potential natural enemies inhabiting in maize ecosystem in
various locations of India. The survey results revealed the occurrence of egg parasitoid Trichogramma
chilonis Ishii from different locations in the maize ecosystem. These geographical strains of T.
chilonis were collected, identified and screened on the target host with other strains collected from
different insect hosts to find out potential strains for management of FAW. The result of laboratory
screening showed that strains originally collected from FAW eggs of FAW parasitized a higher
number of host eggs than other strains. The geographical strains of T. chilonis collected on FAW eggs
from Karnataka has parasitized 77% of host eggs, followed by T. chilonis collected from Andhra
Pradesh with 59% FAW eggs parasitism. However, there was no difference in the adult emergence
rate of strains of T. chilonis which ranged 85-90% on FAW eggs.
Keywords: Parasitism, geographical strains, Trichogramma chilonis, fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda
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II-18
UmTricho
: A potential
Trichoderma harzianum
based plant health materials for cultivation
of pea in organic environment
Punabati Heisnam1, 2Abhinash Moirangthem, 1Y. Disco Singh, 1Priyanka Irungbam, 3M. Mahanta,
3Jyotim Gogoi, 3L. Deb, 1B.N. Hazarika and 3Pranab Dutta
1College of Horticulture and Forestry, Central Agricultural University, Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh
2College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal
3School of Crop Protection, CPGSAAS, CAU (Imphal), Umaim, Meghlaya-793103
Corresponding author email: anuheisnam@gmail.com
A field trial was conducted on to evaluate the seven different treatment combinations of
Trichoderma harzianum based bioformulation UmTricho on the pea (var. Makhyat Mubi) under Pasighat
region of Arunachal Pradesh. The treatment combinations tried were. T1: Control; T2: Seed
Treatment at 10 ml per Litre of water; T3: Soil application at 1 kg enriched compost per m2, T4:
Foliar application at 10 ml per litre of water, T5: T2+T3, T6: T2+T4 and T7: T2+T3+T4. All the
treatments were replicated thrice and arranged in randomized block design. Observation of seed
germinations, plant growth parameters are disease incidence were recorded. Results reveal that the
treatment T7 recorded highest seed germination (%), plant growth parameters (plant height, number
of branches etc), yield attributing characters, and yield of the crops which is found to be at par with
T5. A recorded of 20 days early flowering in all treated plot as compared to control. Studies focused
on the efficacy of biocontrol agents at natural field condition through evaluation and demonstration
leads to maximum productivity of pea. Disease incidence like damping off, wilt and rust were also
found to be lowest in T7 followed by T5, T3 and T4 respectively. The seed treated at 10 ml per litre
of water along with soil application at 1 kg enriched compost and foliar application at 10g per litre of
water found most effective to reducing the incidence with enhanced seed germination (%), plant
growth parameters.
Keywords: UmTricho, Trichoderma harzianum, pea, seed and soil treatment, foliar application, disease
incidence
II-19
Competitive interactions between
Telenomus remus
Nixon (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae)
and two trichogrammatids, exploiting fall armyworm (FAW) eggs
Richa Varshney
ICAR- National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Department of Insect Ecology, Post Bag No. 2491, H.A
Farm Post, Bellary Road, Bangalore – 560024, India.
Corresponding author email: richavarshney84@gmail.com
Fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a new
invasive pest to India. It has been reported to feed on 182 plants belonging to 42 families. In India,
several natural enemies have been reported against this pest and play an important role in the
management. In India, natural parasitization of FAW eggs by Trichogramma chilonis Ishii and Telenomus
remus Nixon have been reported to cause 15.81–23.87% and 5.44–8.78% FAW egg parasitism,
respectively. Interaction between two egg parasitoids i.e. Telenomus remus Nixon and Trichogramma
pretiosum Riley and T. remus and Trichogramma chilonis Ishii of fall armyworm was studied in order to
understand parasitism capacity and intrinsic competition. Percent parasitism was not significantly
affected when FAW eggs were exposed with either T. remus or with T. remus and T. chilonis (Tr+Tc).
However, percent parasitism and percent adult emergence were always high where T. remus was
exposed alone compared to release of both T. remus and T. pretiosum (Tr+Tp) exhibiting more
efficiency of T. remus compared to T. pretiosum. In sequential release that emergence of other
parasitoid was not observed when FAW eggs were first exposed to either parasitoid species. Though
dissection data of FAW eggs show sign of competition between T. remus and T. chilonis at high
parasitoid and host egg ratio (1:1), at the ratio 1:10 this competition is less and hence it can be
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inferred that presence of T. remus does not affect performance of T. chilonis or vice-versa when
released together.
Keywords: Competitive interactions, Telenomus remus, trichogrammatids, exploiting fall armyworm
(FAW) eggs
II-20
Microbial resources for plant disease management-a success story of native
Trichoderma
spp from lab to land in Manipur under sustainable agriculture
Bireswar Sinha, Ph. Sobita Devi, L. Nongdrenkhomba Singh and S. Bhagat*
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture,
Central Agricultural University, Imphal
*ICAR- Central Rainfed Upland Rice Research Station, Hazaribag (Jharkhand)- 825301
Corresponding author email: bireswarsinha@gmail.com
Trichoderma is well known for its biocontrol uses all over the world. The present research
was undertaken the utilization of some available microbial resources for the management of the soil
borne diseases as well as plant growth promotion. A total of 200 numbers of isolates of Trichpoderma
spp were isolated from the rhizosphere of agricultural crops. Initially isolated Trichoderma spp were
characterized by growth pattern and morphological characters such as size of phialides, phialospore
and conidiophores, sizes were ranges from 3.6–8.5X1.2-3.6µm, 1.5-5.3X1.2-2.8µm and 4.1-35.8X2.1-
5.4µm respectively. Molecular characterizations were carried out using ITS for fungus and partially
sequence genomes were compared at NCBI database and accession number are obtained
accordingly. Among the isolated Trichoderma spp, potent isolates were screened based on the
production of volatile and non-volatile compounds, bio-priming, rhizosprere colonization,
production of certain enzymes such as chitinase, PPO etc. Low cost mass production technology of
the potent isolates were carried out using by agricultural waste materials and standardization of the
technique and application to filed also validate at research farm as well as farmers filed. Presently
some farmers club are producing themselves the Trichoderma with their available resources, enhancing
crop production under sustainable agriculture.
Keywords: Trichoderma spp, primers, rhizosphere, mass production
II-21
Loranthus- a menace to mandarin orchards of Arunachal Pradesh
B. N. Hazarika
Central Agricultural University, College of Horticulture and Forestry, Pasighat-791 102, Arunachal Pradesh,
India
Corresponding author email: bnhazarika13@yahoo.co.in
Loranthus- a parasitic weed appear as great menace in most of the mandarin orchards of
Arunachal Pradesh in recent past. This is a very noxious weed grown in branches of plants and
creeps along the branches of host and attaches with a peg like haustoria or knot like structures and
grows very luxuriantly by absorbing nutrient and moisture from the host. They bear fruit which are
berries and seeds are disseminated by birds from one plant to another. Seeds dropped on young
branches of the host germinate and penetrate the tissue. Most of the orchards in Arunachal Pradesh
are affected by and large by this parasite and it hastening the process of declining citrus orchards.
Unless and until these parasites are removed from the plants at a time from orchards it is difficult to
eradicate completely. This paper will discuss the strategies for complete eradication of this noxious
parasite in making mandarin orchards healthy.
Keywords: Mandarin, Arunachal Pradesh, diversity, Loranthus
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Theme-III
Priorities in host plant
resistance, crop architecture
and semiochemicals for pest
and disease management
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National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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LIII-1
Overview of semiochemicals for the management of crop pests
N. Bakthavatsalam
National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources,
P B No 2491, H. A. Farm Post, Bengaluru 560024
Corresponding author email: nbakthavatsalam@yahoo.com
Semiochemicals have been defined as the chemicals produced by an organism eliciting a
favourable behavioural response in the other organism. If the response is from the individuals of the
same species it is defined as the pheromone and if the response is on the individuals belonging to
another species then it is termed allelochemicals. Allelochemicals are further divided into several
categories depending on their functionality, namely, kairomones (eliciting a favourable response in
the receiver), synomone (eliciting a favourable response in the elicitor as well as receiver) amd
allomone (eliciting a favourable response in the emitter). Sex pheromones are widely used for insect
pest management. Usually females produce sex pheromones from their abdominal gland secretions at
specific time of their biology called ―calling period‖. A male moth far away (even <2 kms) can
perceive the sex pheromone and fly upwind against the plumes to mate with the female. Aggregation
pheromones in several coleopterans and hemipterans act as long range attractants facilitating the
aggregation of both the sexes of the species. They are produced in the thoracic gland secretions of
males. The pheromones are distinguished by the long carbon chain, one or two functional group,
double bond in the specific carbon atoms, positional isomerism of double bonds and the blend ratio
of minor and major compounds. An example of pheromone of Helicoverpa armigera is given below.
The name ―hexadecen‖ indicates the chemical is with 16 carbon chain, the letters ―al‖ indicates the
chemical has functional compound as aldehyde,the numbers ―11‖ or ―9‖ referes that there is double
bond at the 11 th postion or 9 th position starting from the carbon which has attachment of
functional group. The position of carbon atoms are referred to as Z (zusammen) which means
together and E (entgegen) which means opposite. The pheromone blend ratio is very important
which determines the species specificity.
Eg. Pheromone of Helicoverpa armigera (Z)-11-hexadecenal and (Z)-9-hexadecenal (97:3)
Dispensers play a major role in delivering appropriate quantity of pheromones at optimal
doses, simulating the release rate of pheromones by the calling females which is very much essential
for successful trapping. Rubber septa, tubes, vials, ply wood pieces, wigs etc. are some of the
dispensers used for delivery of pheromones. Depending on the behaviour of the target insects
various traps have been designed. Sticky traps, McPhail traps, sleeve traps, top pan trap, delta trap,
crosswane traps, bucket traps and plastic traps are often used to manage various types of pests.
Pheromones are used for monitoring, mass trapping, mating disruption and male annihilation. Role
of pheromones in quarantine monitoring, estimation of population of pests and dispersal pattern of
introduced weed killers is well documented. Monitoring of the pest is very important and
pheromones become handy tools for that. Especially countries which do have the threat of fruit flies,
deploy large number of traps in the sea and airports, to monitor the arrival of fruit fly pests and they
use these data for immediate control measures. In several insect pest species pheromone are used to
identify the appearance of pest and for deployment of suitable measures. In fact the correlation
between pheromone catches and population in the field have been worked out to develop simulation
models of pest incidence. In Australia, the spread of imported weed killing insects is monitored using
the pheromone trap catches. Mass trapping is an effective technology where aggregation pheromones
have been identified. In India, coffee white stem bore Xylotrechus quadripes and Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
have been effectively controlled using mass trapping method.
Mating disruption requires more quantity of pheromones, often upto 150 gram per ha. Different
types of dispensers such as checkmate, cidretk, isomate, ropes, and SPLAT have been specially
devised to confuse the males. The SPLAT formulation uses very low quantity of pheromones (24 g
per ac) per season bring down trap shut down and low incidence. Mating disruption also ensures
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safety to natural enemies and pollinators. However in some instances where the area is smaller the
mating disruption is not effective. Male annihilation technique is another type of mating disruption
where the male populations of insects are selectively trapped and killed resulting in more of virgin
females. Use of methyl eugenol or cue lure @ 10 or 20 per acre of mango or cucurbits, respectively
was found to result in good control of Bactrocera spp. Plant volatiles such as pinene and linalool have
been effectively used as attractant for the management of coleopteran pests. Verbanone, an
oviposition marking pheromone has been exploited as excellent repellent for beetles. Herbal based
repellents have been widely used for the management of several cerambycid borers and termites.
Pheromones are highly stable compounds and can be stored for longer periods thus suitable
for storing in retail shops, unlike biocontrol agents. The pheromones can be applied along with the
insecticides and do not hinder the efficacy of biological control agents. They are very safer
alternative, environmentally safe, ensures safety of water, soil and environment. An international
pheromone repository for the invasive pests, identification and synthesis of pheromone for regional
specific pests and sucking pests, economical and effective dispensers such as nano dispensers for
mating disruption, and pheromone detection through e-noses are the future of pheromone
technologies. Establishment of chemical ecology laboratories and adequate funding are necessary for
the proliferation of pheromone technologies.
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LIII-2
Insect attractants and repellents in agriculture and veterinary pest management
Kesavan Subaharan and N.Bakthavatsalam
Division of Germplasm Conservation and Utilization
ICAR – National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bangalore -24
Corresponding author email: Kesavan.Subaharan@icar.gov.in
Abstract
Increased dependence of pesticides for pest management has negative impact on consumers,
farmers and environment. Insect behavioural manipulation is an alternative strategy in pest
management that is eco friendly. Behaviour manipulation depends on chemical stimuli that are long
range and short-range cues. Pheromone and kairomone are chemical stimuli that cause the insects to
orient from distance. The sex pheromone released by females attracts only males, identifying the
volatiles from host to which the females respond and using them in tandem with sex pheromone
attracts both sexes and increases trapping efficiency. Chemical stimuli causing physiological and
behavioural response are identified using biological and chemical detectors (GC MS- EAD). Insects
of veterinary importance, viz., tsetse and tabanids depend on both visual and chemical cues.
Repellents when used for pest management ward off those insect that cause annoyance to cattle and
damage to crops. The short-range stimuli like deterrents cause behavioural changes and impact the
growth and development of insects. Behavioural manipulation method in veterinary and agricultural
entomology and their impact and wayforward are reviewed and discussed.
Keywords: Behaviour manipulation, chemical stimuli, pest management, pheromone, repellent
Introduction
The need to produce an inexpensive and abundant food supply for a growing population is a
great challenge and warrants higher use of inputs like fertilizers and pesticides. Increasing use of
pesticides has negative impact on farmers, consumers, non target organism and environment and this
prompts the search for safe alternative for pest control. The challenge to balance between crop
production and environmental protection can be achieved by adopting eco friendly pest management
strategies like behavioural manipulation methods. Understanding the chemoecological approaches
using cutting edge technologies involving chemical detectors (GCMS) and electrophysiological tools
resulted in developing robust behavioural manipulations in pest management. The compounds
identified to be used in behavioral pest management will aid to decline the dependence on
xenobiotics.
Manipulation depends on the use of stimuli that either stimulates or inhibits behavior in
insects that changes its expression (Foster and Harris, 1997). Behavioral manipulation exploited for
pest management depends on knowledge on insect‘s ethology, identifying behavior to be exploited,
development of methods and tools to be used in behavioral management of pests. The dynamics in
the behaviour of pest exposed to sub lethal dose of insecticides or antixenosis (Eigenbrode et al.,
1991), trap cropping (Hokkanen, 1991) and mixed cropping (Altieri and Liebman, 1986) are
exploited as behavioural manipulation methods in pest management (Foster and Harris, 1997).
Considering the limition in space, only those stimuli that are defined and artificially produced are
discussed. Behavioral manipulation techniques that can be used in isolation or in combination with
other management methods are discused.
Behavioural manipulation methods
Long rangecues
The behavioural methods used for managing the insect pests are grouped into those which
act over long distance (finding type) eg.attractants and repellents or those that act at short distance
(acceptance type) eg. Deterent. The orientation of the insect to long distance cues can be exploited to
attract and trap insects. The commonly used attractants are volatile organic compounds that act as
chemical stimuli in insects.
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Chemical stimuli
Among the chemical stimuli, pheromones having specificity and selectivity are commonly
used in pest monitoring and mass trapping (Wyatt 1998). They are safe and have no undesiarable
effect on workers, consumers and environment. Among the types of pheromones, sex and
aggregation pheromone are widely used in insect pest management (Vilela and Della Lucia, 2001).
Pheromone molecules released by its conspecifics is perceived by the insects antennae. Sensillum in
the insect‘s antennae works as a ―signal transducer‖ responding to a specific chemical signal and
―translates‖ it into language of brain, i.e., electrical signals. Interaction of semiochemicals with
odorant receptors in olfactory receptor neurons triggers a cascade of intracellular events that lead to
neuronal activity (spikes) (Walter, 2005). Extracellular processes associated with the uptake, binding,
transport, and release of hydrophobic pheromones to their receptors as well as the post-interactive
events related to inactivation of chemical signals are referred to as the ―perireceptor events‖
(Getchell, 1984). The sex pheromone produced by females, which when released causes the males to
orient to them and this is exploited in mating disruption or monitoring (Ridgeway etal., 1990). Use of
sex pheromone in mass-trapping has been met with success in Heliothis armigera, Spodoptera litura,
citrus flower moth Prays citri on lemons (Sternlicht et al., 1990) and gypsy moth (Kolodny-Hirsch and
Shwalbe, 1990).
The limitations of sex pheromone in attracting males alone can be overcome by combining
the odorants to which the females orient. Integrating sex pheromone attracting males in tandem with
a food lure to attaract the female synergises the trapping efficiency of both sexes so as to bring down
the population. In case of Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica a combination of volatiles from food lure
(a mixture of phenethyl propionate, eugenol, and geraniol) along with pheromone attracted more
males and females than when they were used in isolation for trapping (Ladd and Klein, 1986).
Compounds that attract male tephritid flies are methyl eugenol, 1-(p-acetoxyphenyl)- butan-3-one
(cue-lure), and t-butyl 4 (or 5)-chloro-2-methyl-cyclohexanoate (trimedlure). Methyl eugenol was first
used in a male eradication program for the Oriental fruit fly, Dacus dorsalis, in the island of Rota
(north of Guam) in the Marianas (Steiner et al., 1965). Essentially, they absorbed a mixture of methyl
eugenol and insecticide onto cane-fibre squares and were spread out in the field.
Aggregation pheromones attract both sexes and are employed for monitoring and mass
trapping.They are commonly exploited for the management of coleopterans. Coconut red palm
weevil, Rhynchophorous ferrugineus weevils are opportunistic oligophages to early fermentation volatiles
like ethanol emanating from wounded host (Gunatilake and Gunawardane,1986), on feeding palm
tissue, they produce an aggregation pheromone (4 methyl 5 nonanol) that attract their conspecifics
(Giblin-Davis et al., 1996). Combining agregation pheromone with food volatiles strongly enhanced
attraction of Rhynchophorus species (Rochat et al., 1993). The palm esters, ethyl acetate, ethyl
propionate, ethyl butyrate and ethyl isobutyrate are kairomones for R. phoenicis, R. palmarum,
R.cruentatus, R. ferrugineus and R. vulnaratus (Gries et al., 1994). The American palm weevil, R. palmarum
adults were attracted to odors of variety of plant tissues (pineapple, banana and coconut) that were
used as baits in traps (Jaffe et al., 1993; Oehlschlager et al., 1993). Synthetic blends of host volatiles
when used in tandem with aggreagtion pheromone caused enhanced efficacy of trapping of weevils
(Kesavan Subaharan et al., 2011). Synergy between pheromone and plant volatiles (PVs) was
confirmed by analyzing the locomotory responses of R. palmarum in a four choice olfactometer (Saıd
et al., 2003).
Coconut petioles in traps attracted maximum weevils when they were 2—5 days old, the
catch declined thereafter as volatile profile changed due to fermentation (Hallet et al. 1993). The
proportional changes in volatile from fermenting palm are attributed to abiotic conditions and
microflora present (Nagnan et al., 1992, Samarajeeva et al., 1981). Fermented sap exuding from dead
or wounded palms was highly attractive to R. cruentatus (Giblin-Davis et al., 1996). The efficiency of
the kairomones in attracting insects depends on the odour quality and/or the amount released.
Timing of volatile trapping to identify the compounds and their ratios in their matrix is essential to
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formulate an effective pherosynergestic blend. The aggregation pheromone ethyl 4-methyloctanoate
trapped more coconut rhinoceros beetles, Oryctes rhinoceros (L.), when petiole of coconut waere placed
along with the lure in bucket traps (Kesavan Subaharan et al., 2011). The screwworm flies, Cochliomyia
hominivorax and Cochliomyia macellaria are major pests of livestock in tropical America. C. macellaria has
become a major pest in North Africa (Gabaj et al., 1988). They lay their eggs in wounds and cause
myiasis. A combination of liver and sodium sulfide are used to monitor and trap the flies (Bishopp,
1916). An array of VOCs from the rotting meat that attract screwworm flies have been identified and
used as an attractant, originally called swormlure, for screwworm control (Jones et al., 1976).
Swormlure- 4, a formulation contains butanol, several organic acids, phenol, cresol, indole, and
dimethyl disulfide (Mackley and Brown, 1984).
Chemical attractants in traps are used to attract biting flies (Foil and Hribar 1995). Phenols
are attractants to tabanidae in Africa (Gibson and Torr 1999). Baiting traps with 3-methylphenol
increases the catch of tabanids in West Africa (Amsler and Filledier 1994). In southern Africa, 4-
methylphenol is effective bait for horse flies (Phelps and Holloway 1992). A mixture of octenol, 3-n-
propylphenol, and 4-methylphenol in the proportions 4:1:8 is attractive to tabanid flies in Lousiana
(Foil and Hribar 1995). Aged urine of African buffalo, rhinoceros, cows, horses, sheep, and pigs
contain some phenolic compounds that attract tsetse, as well as most tabanids (Okech and Hassanali
1990, Krčmar et al. 2006). Naphthalene is a commonly used repellent for insects. The
electrophysiological response from the antennae of live tsetse (Glossina pallidipes Austen) to
naphthalene, activated the olfactory cells (Voskamp et al. 1999), but ceased to trap the flies in the
filed (Torr et al. 1996).
Cues from host plants
Plants emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that play important role in their interaction
with other organisms. Their role in plant physiology and ecology has been extensively investigated
(Dudareva et al., 2004). These chemicals lure insect to plant for feeding, oviposition and shelter.
Several plant species store mixtures of VOCs in specialized secretory structures such as glandular
trichomes or resin ducts (Gershenzon et al., 2000) which release their contents in response to tissue
damage. Responses that are used by plants to limit damage that occur from insect feeding have been
documented (Turlings et al., 1995). The VOC s can act as direct defense compounds (De Moraes et
al., 2001) or play a role in indirect defense by attracting natural enemies preying upon or parasitizing
herbivores ( Rasmann et al., 2005). Chemical volatile signals released from injured plants not only
affect herbivores but also signal alarm to neighboring plants by triggering defense responses
(Engelberth et al., 2004).The chemical pathways induced in plants due insect herbivore feeding or
attack by pathogens has been elucidated (Fidantsef et al., 1999). Insect damage triggers the
octadecanoid pathway via lipoxygenation of linolenic acid (LOX) which in turn produces jasmonic
acid. Jasmonic acid (JA) is a signal for expression of a number compounds such as proteinase
inhibitor, polyphenol oxidase and steroid glycoalkaloids. These contribute to defense mechanism in
plants.
The octadecanoid pathway, in addition to inducing secondary metabolites releases volatiles
and this starts several hours after the plant is damaged. As the response is systemic, the undamaged
leaves in the plants subjected to insect damage also emit herbivore-induced volatiles. The plants
damaged with a razor do not release systemic compounds (Rose et al., 1996). Herbivore-induced
plant signals are important for the foraging success of parasitoids. Many natural enemies are known
to discriminate between volatile chemicals emitted by uninfested and herbivore-infested plants.
Chemical stimuli emanating from the plant-host complex can originate from the herbivore, the plant,
or from interactions between the herbivore and the plant. The stimuli derived directly from the insect
host are generally more reliable to the parasitoid than those emitted from the damaged plant. The
limitations of the stimuli directly from the host are its presence at low level. The host derived cues
are difficult to detect at long distances and thus become more important when parasitoid gets closer
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to the host. There are several types of host cues that are used by parasitoids to locate hosts from long
distances.
Stimuli from the food of the host or prey are usually more readily available, because of
their relatively large biomass, but are less reliable to parasitoids. The amount of herbivory on the
plant strongly affects the usefulness of the volatile cues from the plant. If the infestation is very high,
information from the plant is very reliable (Pare and Tumilson, 1999). There is a clear difference
among the plants that had been subjected to damage in the recent past or if the plant had been fed
earlier. The signals are effective if they are emitted shortly after a herbivore starts damaging a plant.
Moreover, the volatiles would be most effective if they are emitted during the time when natural
enemies are most likely to forage (Felton et al., 1999).
Visual and Chemical Stimuli
Visual stimuli in combination with chemical stimuli, enhances the efficacy of attracting over
the use of either stimulus type alone. Even in methods that do not purport to use visual stimuli, such
as sex pheromone-baited traps, the visual stimuli of traps are important .Tabanids find the host by
odour or visual cues (Allan et al., 1987). Tabanids are diurnal and visual stimuli assist their final
orientation in host location, whereas olfactory stimuli are used for long- and short-range orientation
(Gibson and Torr, 1999). Tabanids use polarized light reflected from an animal‘s coat as a signal in
finding a host (Horvath et al., 2010). Synergism between ammonia and phenols, a combination that
frequently occurs in aged urine attratcs Hybomitra species (Mihok and Lange, 2011). Tsetse (Glossina
spp.), which are the vectors of the protozoans that cause trypanosomiases in sub-Saharan Africa,
including human sleeping sickness and important animal diseases, use both visual and chemical
stimuli in an attract-annihilate method. This method is effective in tsetse because of adenotrophic
viviparity and low reproductive potential in females. The host-finding behavior of tsetse is influenced
by visual stimuli, including shape, orientation, brightness, contrast, movement, and color (Colvin and
Gibson, 1992). Traps using only visual stimuli, such as the biconical trap, are used for control of
these flies (Muirhead Thomson, 1991). Tsetse also responds to host odors like CO2, 1-octen-3- ol,
butanone, acetone, and phenols (Colvin and Gibson, 1992). The addition of odor (acetone and CO2)
to the biconical trap doubled catches over a non-odor-baited trap (Flint, 1985).
Tsetse flies are managed using odor baited black cloth targets coated with insecticide (Vale et
al., 1988). The combination of visual and olfactory stimuli concentrates a fly‘s movements toward the
target, and increases its chances of landing on it (Torr, 1989). Insecticide treated net that were placed
near the smaller odor baited stumps attracted more flies that those placed near the taller stumps
(Vale et al., 1994). Females of apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella find host trees and oviposition
sites using a combination of host odors and visual stimuli (Prokopy et al., 1994). Sticky red wooden
sphere hung in the apple orchards gave a good protection (<1% damage) of fruit from R. pomonella
(Prokopy, 1975). The trap was improved through identification of odors from apples that attract the
flies (Fein et al., 1982). Placing the sticky spheres baited with butyl hexanoate on the perimeter trees
of a small orchard block gave protection equal to that of nonbaited spheres on every tree of the
block (Prokopy et al., 1990).
Repellents
Repellents derived from natural sources such as insects (e.g. defence secretions), plant oils or
synthetic compounds like insecticides are widely used in pest management (Norris, 1990). Volatile
repellents are effective in protecting humans from mosquitoes and other biting vectors (Schreck,
1977). They are also used in warding off the pest that feeds on the blood of the cattle's. Verbenone
inhibits the aggregation in bark beetles. Pine oil repel colonization of forest trees or logs by bark
beetles (Nijholt et al., 1981) and prevent oviposition by the onion fly, Delia antiqua (Javer et al., 1987).
(E)-._/-farnesene, a major component of alarm pheromones of a number of species of aphids
(Pickett et al., 1992).
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Stimuli acting at close distance
Deterrents are stimuli that act at a close distance. The cabbage root fly, Delia radicum, did not
lay eggs on cauliflower plants sprayed with an extract of the frass of caterpillars of the garden pebble
moth, with sinapic acid as the active component (Jones et al., 1988).Neem extract are a potential
source of deterrents as it affects the behavior, growth regulation, ovarian development, fecundity,
and fertility in insects. Lepidoptera are sensitive to azadirachtin, with feeding deterred at <1–50 ppm
(Mordue and Blackwell, 1993). As neem has dual action of deterrence and toxicity on an array of pest
its considered as a vital component in IPM module.
Way forward and conclusion
In addition to understanding ethology of insects, cutting edge technologies like chemical
detectors and biological detectors are to be used in identifying compounds that cause physiological
and behavioural response in insects. This information may be exploited to develop clean and green
pest management strategies. At present emphasis in behavioural manupulation is centred around
chemical stimuli, hence attempts are to be made to isolate the compounds from the insects or their
host plant by non destructive sampling so as to isolate the physiologically relevent compounds.
Simultaneous exposure of insect‘s antennae to seperated volatiles organic compounds from the gas
cromatograph with mass spec. coupled with the electrophysiogical recording unit will aid to pin point
and identify the compounds that can be exploited for behavioural manipulation. Understand the
ethology of the insect to the physiologically relevent compounds can be done with precision if the
computational imaging techniques are adopted so as to extarct the minute details during the olfactory
assay. Identifying the response of olfactory receptors to VOCs using the single sensillum recording
followed by using the molecular tools can lead to silencing the olfactory gene that could be
effectively used for developing a robust pest management strategy.
Though the adoption rate of behavioural manipulation in pest management is at a lower level
as compared to pesticides, considering the shift in the policy by Government to scale down the use
of pesticides due to health and environmental concerns there is a scope to increase the adoption rate
of behavioural manipulation methods. A note of caution is that behavioural manipulations methods
may also face the same fate related issues raised over toxicity issues, as very little effort has been
made to test the chemicals that are used in behaviour manipulation.
Another problem is that natural enemies use the cues used by the insect pest to identify its
host and if the cues from the host plant to altered to bring in desirable pest control it would have a
negative impact on natural enemies as its devoid of the cue to orient itself to its host. Hence a proper
understanding of the volatiles role in various trophic levels has to be understood prior to attempting
a pest management method. The demand for environmentally safe alternatives to broad-spectrum is
on rise. The adoption of behavioral manipulation techniques can help to meet this demand, since the
amount of chemicals released into the environment by behavioural manipulation is relatively small
and are relatively nontoxic to vertebrates and are selective to the target pest species.
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LIII-3
Host plant resistance study (bottom up effect) in dryland horticultural crops: a review
S. M. Haldhar1&2, Sandeep Singh3, M. K. Berwal1, D. K. Samadia1, J. S. Gora1 and K. I. Singh2
1ICAR-Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Sri Ganganagar Highway, Beechwal Industrial Area, Bikaner
(Rajasthan)-334006, India
2Present Address: Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture (CAU), Iroisemba, Imphal, Manipur 795004
3Sr. Entomologist (Fruit), Department of Fruit Science, PAU, Ludhiana
Corresponding author email: haldhar80@gmail.com
Abstract
Differences in genotypes of plant characters may effects on insect-plant herbivore
interactions and variation in genotypes traits is responsible for modify the bottom-up effects. Recent
evidence shows that simultaneous occurrence of abiotic and biotic stress can have a positive effect
on plant performance by reducing the susceptibility to biotic stress which is a positive sign for pest
management. Plant responses to these stresses are multifaceted and involve copious of antibiosis,
physiological, antixenotic, molecular, molecular and cellular adaptations. Plants having antibiosis
characters such as flavonoids, phenols, tannins, alkaloids etc. may cause reduced insect survival,
prolonged development time, decreased size and reduced fitness of new generation. Quality and
quantity of constitutive secondary metabolites production is species as well as cultivar specific and
can be expressed as signature of particular plant or species and leads to the phenomenon of host-
plant resistance. Hence such mechanisms of plant resistance have been effectively and widely used
for managing insect-pests in fields of dryland horticultural crops. Direct defenses are mediated
through plant characteristics that affect the insect biology such as mechanical protection on the
surface of the plants (e.g., hairs, trichomes, thorns, spines and thicker leaves) that either kill or retard
the development of the herbivores. This phenomenon of host plant resistance to insect can be
exploited for development of resistance crop cultivars which readily produce the inducible response
upon mild infestation and can perform as one of the of integrated pest management for sustainable
dryland horticultural crop production. This review presents overviews about these constitutive and
inducible responses towards antixenotic and antibiosis adaptations in arid horticultural crops to
protect themselves against insects.
Keywords: Insect, dryland horticultural crops, allelochemicals, antixenosis, host plant resistance
Introduction
Plants and insects have been living together for more than 350 million years. In co-
evolution, both have evolved strategies to avoid each other‘s defense systems. This evolutionary arms
race between plants and insects has resulted in the development of an elegant defense system in
plants that has the ability to recognize the nonself molecules or signals from damaged cells, much like
the animals, and activates the plant immune response against the herbivores. Plant-arthropod
interactions are thought to be of utmost importance for understanding the dynamics of ecological
communities (Han et al., 2016; Haldhar et al., 2018a&d). Plant defence strategies against insect
herbivores may involve the synthesis of a plethora of biologically active compounds (allelochemicals),
which are phylogenetically conserved in specific plant families or genera. Plants frequently display
genetic variation within and between population for traits that influence the preference and non
preference of insects on their hosts that is resistance traits (Johnson and Agrawal, 2005). It has been
widely recognised that biological diversity plays a vital role in structuring community ecosystem
processes. The genotypic variation may influence the distribution and damage levels of herbivores on
focal plants through processes referred to as associational resistance or susceptibility. Host plants
play an important role in determining insect populations in respect to concentrations and
proportions of nutrients, which differ among species. Plants having antibiosis characters such as
flavonoid, phenols, tannins etc. may cause reduced insect survival, prolonged development time,
decreased size and reduced fitness of new generation adults (Gogi et al., 2010; Haldhar et al., 2013a).
Several plant characteristics affect the growth and development of arthropods. The plants defend the
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attack by pests through production of defensive biochemical compounds to whole plant system
(Tews et al. 2004).
Plants are generally exposed to a variety of biotic and abiotic factors that may alter their
genotypic and/or phenotypic properties resulting in different mechanisms of resistance which enable
plants to avoid, tolerate or recover from the effects of pest attacks. Host plants play an important
role in determining insect populations in respect to concentrations and proportions of nutrients,
which differ among species. Direct defenses are mediated by plant characteristics that affect the
herbivore‘s biology such as mechanical protection on the surface of the plants (e.g., hairs, trichomes,
thorns, spines, and thicker leaves) that retard the development of the herbivores (Hanley et al., 2007;
Samadia and Haldhar, 2019). Antixenosis, which refers to the potential plant-characteristics/traits or
morphological, that impair or alters insect behavior towards the host preference, in such a way, as to
lessen chances of insects, using a host plant for oviposition food, damage or shelter (War et al.,
2012).
Hence, such mechanisms of plant resistance have been effectively and widely used for
managing insect-pests in horticultural crops (War et al., 2012; Haldhar et al., 2015a; Haldhar et al.,
2017a&b). The utilization of native and introduced genetic material of arid horticulture crops for
breeding varieties over the long period of time in the country resulted into generation of many new
genotypes/ lines in the form of selections and to some extent through hybridization. Thereby,
considerable generated material/ variations may have exists in targeted species with regards to the
plant type, flowering, fruiting, morphological and physiological of fruits, reaction to biotic and abiotic
factors and eco-adaptations. Since, detailed evaluation of identified genotype is essential for further
breeding programme and to incorporate desirable gene(s) through combination breeding. Wild and
relative species gene-pool possesses unique traits and that can be exploited both by direct selection
for use in combination breeding or improvement through advanced approaches. They also constitute
priceless reservoir that contain gene (s) conferring better adaptations to stressed environment and
also resistant to diseases and insects or have more nutritional and medicinal properties. Therefore,
there is urgent need to promote systematic utilization of wild genepool in strategic breeding work for
developing genotypes having biotic and abiotic stress resistance or tolerance, and their conservation
as relative species (Samadia and Haldhar, 2017, Krishna et al., 2018). In this manuscript reviewed
major dryland horticultural crops for morphological and biochemical basis of plant-insect interaction.
1. Ber,
Ziziphus mauritiana
Lamark
The ber, Ziziphus mauritiana is native to Province of Yunnan in southern China to
Afghanistan, Malaysia and Queensland, Australia. It is native of South and Central Asia, found
throughout the arid and semi-arid tracts. It is cultivated to some extent throughout its natural range
on commercial scale and has received much horticultural attention in India. Z. mauritiana is a
gregarious spiny shrub or a small tree, ends of branches curved or drooping. Branches and branchlets
armed with short stipular spines. The plant is a vigorous grower and has a rapidly-developing
taproot. The richness of the pulp in nutritive compounds has been widely recognised. Nonetheless,
there are no definitive values for pulp composition. However ber is richer source of protein,
phosphorus, calcium, carotene and vitamin C. The crop is gaining popularity among the growers
because of its adaptability to adverse climatic conditions and good returns of yield. The crop is
suffered great losses due to insect-pests and diseases and more than 130 species of insect-pests were
found to attach the crops in India. Balikai (2013) reported a total of 22 insect and non-insect species
and likewise, Kavitha and Savithri (2002) documented about 23 insect species on ber.
Stone weevil,
Aubeus himalayanus
resistance study
The ber stone weevil, Aubeus himalayanus Voss (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) appeared to be an
emerging pest reported from various region of India (Karuppaiah et al., 2010; Haldhar et al., 2012;
Haldhar et al., 2016a). The stone weevil is an emerging threat for ber production in India especially in
Northern India. The ber varieties/ genotypes Kali, Katha, Illaichi and Tikadi were found to be
resistant; Akharota, Dandan, Gola, Goma Kirti, Sanaur-1, Seb, Umran and ZG-3 moderately
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resistant; Badami, Banarasi Karaka, Gularvasi, Jogia, Kaithli, Mundia, Reshmi, Sanaur-3, Thar
Bhubhraj, Thar Sevika and Thornless susceptible and Banarsi Pebandi, Chhuhara, Sanaur-2, Sanaur-4
and Sanaur-5 highly susceptible varieties/ genotypes against stone weevil (Haldhar et al., 2018c). The
per cent fruit infestation was found highest in Sanaur-2 (49.44 % in retained fruit and 73.77 % in
dropped fruits) and the lowest in Tikadi (8.80 % in retained fruits and 13.31 % in dropped fruits)
followed by Katha (9.07 % in retained fruits and 13.71 % in dropped fruits). Plant-arthropod
interactions are thought to be of utmost importance for understanding the dynamics of ecological
communities. Plant defense strategies against insect herbivores may involve the synthesis of a
plethora of biologically active compounds (allelochemicals), which are phylogenetically conserved in
specific plant families or genera. Plants frequently display genetic variation within and between
population for traits that influence the preference of insects on their hosts that is resistance traits
(Johnson and Agrawal, 2005; Haldhar et al., 2013c; Haldhar et al., 2017).
Tannins, phenols, alkaloids and flavonoid contents had significant negative correlations (P =
0.01) with the percentage fruit infestation on plant fruits and the fallen fruits. The antixenotic fruit
traits like fruit surface, stone hardness and pulp: stone ratio was observed for different varieties/
genotypes of ber. The pulp: stone ratio ranged from 2.12 to 27.13 and was significantly high in
susceptible and low in resistance varieties/ genotypes. The highest pulp: stone ratio was found in
variety Mundia and least in variety Tikadi. Most of the resistant varieties were having extremely hardy
stones and in susceptible varieties the stones were slightly hard (Haldhar et al., 2018c). Based upon
the above morphological and biochemical characters individually, it was impossible to group the
entities as variables were not in agreement to each other. The extraction communalities for all the
variables tested were ≥ 0.5 indicating that the variables were well represented by the extracted PCs
which together explained a cumulative variation of 90.75 %. PC1 explained 70.74 % of the variation
while PC2 explained 20.01 % of variation. PC1 had the loadings for flavonoid content (0.91), tannins
content (0.71), total alkaloid (0.93) and phenols content (0.95). Pulp: stone ratio of different varieties
of ber (0.96) was loaded in PC2 (Haldhar et al., 2018c).
Fruit fly,
C. vesuviana
resistance study
Fruit fly, Carpomyia vesuviana Costa is the most destructive pest of ber in India. It is a
monophagous pest, infests Zizyphus species only and contributes towards low yield and poor quality
fruits (Haldhar et al., 2013b; Haldhar et al., 2016a; Dhileepan, 2017). The fruit fly causes yield losses
of up to 80% under severe infestation when no control measures as taken. The cultivars such as
Tikadi, Katha and Illaichi were found to be resistant; BS-75-1, Safeda, Dandan, Gola, Goma Kirti,
Jogia, Narma, Mundia, Reshmi, Seb, ZG-3, Umran and Akharota were found to be moderately
resistant; Banarasi Karaka, Banarasi Pawandi, Chhuhara, Kaithli, Thar Sevika and Thar Bhubraj were
susceptible, whereas Sanaur-3, Sanaur-4 and Sanaur-5 were highly susceptible to fruit fly, C. vesuviana
in both the studied seasons (Haldhar et al., 2018a). Hosagoudar et al. (1999) reported that fruit fly, C.
vesuviana infestation was high in the cultivar Sanaur-2 followed by Umran and Sanaur-6 and the
lowest infestation being recorded in Illaichi. The flavonoid content (179.0 mg/100 g) was found to be
maximum in Safeda followed by Tikadi (176.5 mg/100 g) and minimum in Chhuhara (40.7 mg/100
g). The tannin content (511.6 mg/100 g) was found to be the highest in Safeda followed by Tikadi
(502.8 mg/100 g) and the lowest in Chhuhara (264.8 mg/100 g). Phenols content was highest in
Safeda (239.0 mg/100 g) followed by Tikadi (232.0 mg/100 g) and lowest in Sanaur-4 (113.0 mg/100
g) with values significantly higher in resistant and lower in susceptible cultivars. The percentage of
fruit infestation with flavonoid (-0.914), tannins (-0.914) and phenols (-0.947) had significant negative
correlation (Haldhar et al., 2018a). Backward stepwise regression analysis indicated that flavonoid and
phenols contents explained 89.0% of the total variation in fruit fly infestation. The maximum
variation in fruit infestation was explained by flavonoid content (83.5%) followed by phenols (5.5%),
and tannin (1.9%) (Haldhar et al., 2018a). Phenolic heteropolymers play a central role in plant
defense against insects and pathogens. Phenols also play an important role in cyclic reduction of
reactive oxygen species such as superoxide anion and hydroxide radicals, H2O2, and singlet oxygen,
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which in turn activate a cascade of reactions leading to the activation of defensive enzymes (Maffei et
al., 2007). Phenols act as a defensive mechanism not only against herbivores but also against
microorganisms and competing plants. Tannins, flavonoids and isoflavonoids protect the plant
against insect pests by influencing the behavior, growth, and development of insects (Nath et al.,
2017). Two principal components (PCs) were extracted explaining the cumulative variation of 84.7%
in ber fruit fly infestation. The fruit length, fruit width, pericarp thickness and pulp: stone ratio which
ranged from 17.2 to 43.2 mm, 12.8 to 33.4 mm, 0.3 to 1.2 mm and 2.1 to 27.1, respectively. The
resistant germplasm accession Tikadi, Katha and Illaichi was having pulp texture (hard) and fruit
surface (ridge and plain) being high in resistant and low in susceptible cultivars. The pericarp
thickness (-0.85) had significant negative correlations and pulp:stone ratio (0.47) and fruit length
(0.42) had significant positive correlation with percentage fruit infestation. The maximum variation in
fruit infestation was explained by fruit length (1.90%) followed by pulp: stone ratio (1.60%) and
pericarp thickness (0.20%), whereas the remaining biophysical fruit traits explained < 1.0% variation
in the fruit infestation.
2. Tingid bug resistance study in Indian Cherry (Cordia myxa L.)
Cordia myxa L. commonly called Indian cherry (synonyms: clammy chery, franrant manjack,
lasora, shelu, cinnanakkeru, bahubara, chokri, lahsoda, lahsua, gonda, gondi) belongs to Boraginaceae
family. This tree is a multipurpose species distributed in hot arid and semi-arid regions of India and it
originated in North-Western part of the country. Few studies were made on the bug, D. cheriani
infestation on Cordia sp. (India) and bug, D. monotropidia infestation on Cordia verbenacea (Brazil) by
Daniel et al. (2008). AHCM-22, AHCM-25 and AHCM-34 were found to be resistant; AHCM-14,
AHCM-30 and AHCM-31moderately resistant; AHCM-16 and AHCM-09 moderately susceptible;
AHCM-33 and AHCM-08 susceptible and AHCM-01 and AHCM-26 highly susceptible germplasm
accessions of Indian cherry against tingid bug (Haldhar et al., 2019).
The allelochemical compounds of leaf were significantly different among the tested
germplasm accessions of Indian cherry. The flavonoid content was positively correlated to tannins
content, phenols content and total alkaloid content. The negative correlations were observed with
percent bug infestation, bug density per leaf and free amino acid (Haldhar et al., 2019). Isoflavonoids
(judaicin, judaicin-7-O-glucoside, 2-methoxyjudaicin, and maackiain) isolated from the wild relatives
of chickpea acted as antifeedant against Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) at 100 ppm. Judaicin and
maackiain were also found to be deterrent to S. littoralis and S. frugiperda, respectively (Simmonds and
Stevenson, 2001). The tannins content of tested germplasm accession was the maximum in AHCM-
22 followed by AHCM-25 and the minimum was found in AHCM-01. The negative correlation was
observed with percent bug infestation, bug density per leaf and free amino acid and positive
correlations with flavonoid content, phenols content and total alkaloid content. Tannins had a strong
deleterious effect on phytophagous insects and affected the insect growth and development by
binding to the proteins, reduced nutrient absorption efficiency, and caused midgut lesions
(Barbehenn and Peter Constabel, 2011).
The maximum length of leaf was found in AHCM-22 followed by AHCM-25 and minimum
in AHCM-01 and being high length in resistant and the minimum length in susceptible germplasm
accession. The positive correlation was observed between length of leaf and width of leaf and
negative correlations with percent bug infestation and bug density per leaf. The maximum width of
leaf was recorded in AHCM-14 and the minimum in AHCM-26. The negative correlation was
observed between width of leaf and percent bug infestation and bug density per leaf. The resistant
germplasm accession of Indian cherry (AHCM-22, AHCM-25 and AHCM-34) had the maximum leaf
size, high rough and high hairy (Haldhar et al., 2019). The first line of plant defense against insect
pests is the erection of a physical barrier either through the formation of a waxy cuticle and/or the
development of spines, setae, and trichomes (Sharma et al., 2009). Based on Kaiser Normalization
method, one principal component (PC) was extracted explaining cumulative variation of 90.07% in
tingid bug infestation. PC had the loadings for flavonoid content (0.99), tannins content (0.97), total
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alkaloid (0.99), phenols content (0.88), free amino acid (-0.96), leaf length (0.90) and leaf width (0.86)
(Haldhar et al., 2019).
3. Fruit borers,
Meridarchis scyrodes
and
Dudua aprobola
resistance study in jamun
(
Syzygium cumini
)
The jamun is native to India, Burma, Ceylon and to the Andaman Islands and available
throughout Indian plains as well as in Kumaon hills up to 1,600 m. It is widely distributed in Sri
Lanka, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and Australia. The jamun, Syzygium cuminii Skeels (Eugenia
jambolana) has vernacular English names as Jaman, black plum, damson plum, duhat plum and Indian
blackberry. It is nutritive fruit with a variety of uses. Every part of the tree has been utilized by both
urban and rural peoples. The jamun fruit has sub- acid spicy flavour and squash is very refreshing
drink for quenching the thrust in the summer season. A little quantity of fruit syrup is much useful
for curing the diarrhoea. The vinegar prepared from juice of slightly unripe fruit of jamun is
stomachic, carminative, diuretic, cooling and digestive properties. The fruit borer, Meridarchis scyrodes
(Lepidoptera: Carposinidae) is a serious pest of jamun. The moths lay eggs on fruits at pea stage and
upon hatching the newly emerged caterpillars bore into fruits and feed on the pulp near seed and
accumulate fecal. The borer causes up to 60% yield loss under severe infestation. The leaf roller,
Dudua aprobola (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is reported to be a major pest of jamun in Rajasthan and
Gujarat. It mainly damaged tender leaves and the inflorescence but recently it is also damage to fruits
of jamun. Eggs were laid in axils of leaves or flowering stalks or on fruits. GJ-26, GJ-27, GJ-19, GJ-
17 and GJ-15 were found to be resistant; GJ-3, GJ-6, GJ-7, GJ-9, GJ-13, GJ-16, GJ-18, GJ-20, GJ-
23, GJ-24 and GJ-25 moderately resistant; GJ-4, GJ-8, GJ-10, GJ-12, GJ-14, GJ-21 and GJ-22 were
susceptible and GJ-1 and GJ-GJ-11 highly susceptible genotypes. The percent fruit infestation of
fruit borer, M. scyrodes was highest in genotype GJ-1 (64.70%)) followed by GJ-11 (62.07%). The
minimum percent fruit infestation of fruit borer, M. scyrodes was observed in GJ-27 (8.23%) followed
by GJ-17 (10.03%). The per cent infestation of D. aprobola was highest in GJ-1 (76.30 %) and lowest
in GJ-27 (10.80 %) followed by GJ-26 (11.13 %) (Haldhar et al., 2016c).
The allelochemical compounds of the fruit differed significantly among the tested jamun
genotypes. Tannins, phenols, total alkaloids and flavonoid contents had significant negative
correlations with percent fruit infestation of fruit borer, M. scyrodes and D. aprobola (Haldhar et al.,
2016c). In wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea), the concentrations of glucosinolates, which are secondary
metabolites acting as chemical defences to insects, increased from summer to winter (Gols et al.,
2018a). Other plant secondary metabolites such as methyl-ketones and derivates of sesquiterpene
carboxylic acid could have negative effects on population development of insect-pests. Phenol
compounds also play main role in cyclic reduction of reactive oxygen species such as superoxide
anion and hydroxide radicals, H2O2, and singlet oxygen, which turn activate a cascade of reactions
leading to the activation of defensive enzymes (Maffei et al., 2007). Tannins, flavonoids and
isoflavonoids protect the plant against insect-pests by influencing the behavior, growth, and
development of insect herbivore (Barbehenn and Peter, 2011; Nath et al., 2017).
The antixenotic fruit traits were significantly different among the tested jamun genotypes.
The fruit length, fruit width , pulp thickness and pulp: stone ratio were found minimum in GJ-27
genotype but maximum fruit length in GJ-4, fruit width in GJ-8, pulp thickness in GJ-11 and pulp:
stone ratio in GJ-11 and GJ-24 genotypes, respectively. The fruit length, fruit width, pulp thickness
and pulp: stone ratio showed significant positive correlations with percent fruit infestation of fruit
borer, M. scyrodes and D. aprobola (Haldhar et al., 2016c). Glandular trichomes secrete secondary
metabolites including flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids that could be poisonous, repellent, or trap
insects and other organisms, thus forming a combination of structural and chemical defence (Sharma
et al., 2009). Pramanick et al. (2005) reported that the genotypes were found to differ for all the
physical and biochemical traits indicating divergence for them. The genotypic coefficient of variation
(GCV) ranged from 65.4 to 8.4 percent in both the physical and biochemical characters, respectively.
Structural traits such as spines and thorns, trichomes, toughened or hardened leaves, incorporation
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of granular minerals into plant tissues, and divaricated branching (shoots with wiry stems produced at
wide axillary angles) played a leading role in plant protection against herbivory (He et al. 2011).
4. Fruit fly resistance study in snapmelon (
Cucumis melo
L. var.
momordica
)
Snapmelon (Cucumis melo L. var. momordica (Roxb.) belongs to family Cucurbitaceae that is a
native of India, and is used as vegetable in a variety of ways. Snapmelon is rich in nutritional
attributes; 100 g edible fruit of snapmelon contains 15.6 g carbohydrates, 18.6 mg vitamin C, and
provides 74.0 kcal energy. The melon fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is
a serious pest of snapmelon in India and its outbreak causes substantial crop losses to the growers.
The melon fruit fly has been observed on 81 host plants, but snapmelon is one of the most preferred
hosts and has been a major limiting factor in obtaining good quality fruits and high yield. The
genotypes IC-430190, DKS-AHS 2011/4, and DKS-AHS 2011/3 were resistant; IC-430160, IC-
430162, IC-430175, IC-430179, IC-430180, IC-430185, IC-369788, and DKS-AHS 2011/2 were
moderately resistant whereas IC-430155, IC-430164, IC-430169, IC-430171, IC-430172 and IC-
430184 were found the susceptible genotypes to fruit fly infestation (Haldhar et al., 2018b).
The free amino acid and total soluble solid was the lowest in resistant and the highest in
susceptible genotypes, whereas flavonoid, tannins, phenols, and total alkaloid contents were the
highest in resistant and lowest in susceptible genotypes of snapmelon (Haldhar et al., 2018b).
Phenols act as a defensive mechanism not only against herbivores but also against microorganisms
and competing plants. Qualitative and quantitative alterations in phenols and elevation in activities of
oxidative enzyme in response to insect attack was a general phenomenon. Lignin, a phenolic
heteropolymer played a central role in plant defense against insects and pathogens (Barakat et al.,
2010). Flavonoids were cytotoxic and interacted with different enzymes through complexation. Both
flavonoids and isoflavonoids protected the plant against insect pests by influencing the behavior, and
growth and development of insects. Total soluble solid and pH of fruit had a significant positive
correlation whereas tannins, phenols, alkaloids and flavonoid contents had significant negative
correlation with the percentage fruit infestation and the larval density per fruit. The biochemical
characters such as total sugar and crude protein were positively correlated with fruit borer infestation,
whereas total phenols had negative correlation (War et al., 2012; Haldhar et al., 2013a; Haldhar et al.,
2015b).
Fruit length, flesh thickness and fruit diameter had significant positive correlations whereas
rind hardness at immature stage, rind hardness at mature stage, pericarp thickness and length of
ovary pubescence had significant negative correlations with the percent fruit infestation and larval
density (Haldhar et al., 2018b). In these findings, biophysical fruit-traits were also found significantly
different among genotypes (Simmons et al., 2010; Haldhar et al., 2015b&c). Glandular trichomes
secrete secondary metabolites including flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids that could be
poisonous, repellent, or trap insects and other organisms, thus forming a combination of structural
and chemical defense (Sharma et al., 2009). The extraction communalities for all the variables tested
were ≥ 0.5 indicating that the variables were well represented by the extracted PCs which together
explained a cumulative variation of 82.8 %. PC1 explaining 53.41 % of the variation while PC2
explained 29.39 % of variation. PC1 had the loadings for flavonoid content (0.86), tannins content
(0.88), total alkaloid (0.82), phenols content (0.88), free amino acid (-0.83), total soluble solid (-0.66),
length of ovary pubescence (0.88), pericarp thickness (0.67) and rind hardness at immature stage
(0.89). Rind hardness at mature stage (0.52), flesh thickness (-0.74), fruit length (-0.86) and fruit
diameter (-0.68) were loaded in PC2 (Haldhar et al., 2018b).
5. Fruit fly resistance study in musk melon,
Cucumis melo
L.
Musk melon (Cucumis melo L.) is one of the important horticultural crops worldwide and plays
an important role in international trade. Different forms of melon are known that are
morphologically different. The melon fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae)
is a serious pest of muskmelon in India and its outbreaks cause substantial crop losses to growers.
The melon fruit fly has been observed on 81 host plants, but muskmelon is one of the most
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preferred hosts and has been a major limiting factor in obtaining good quality fruits and high yield
(Haldhar et al., 2014; Choudhary et al., 2015; Choudhary et al., 2018a). The extent of losses varies
between 30 to 100%, depending on the cucurbit species and the season. As the maggots damage the
fruits internally, it is difficult to control this pest with insecticides. Hence, development of varieties
resistant to melon fruit fly is an impotent component of integrated pest management. The genotypes,
AHMM/BR-1, RM-50 and AHMM/BR-8 were the most resistant; MHY-5, D. Madhu and P.
Sarabati were moderately resistant; AHMM/BR-13, P. Madhuras and Arka Jeet were susceptible
whereas Arka Rajhans and GMM-3 were the highly susceptible varieties/ genotypes of muskmelon
(Haldhar et al., 2013a). Ismail et al. (2010) reported that the cantaloupe flesh extract afforded the
highest yield (89.6 ± 0.3%) whilst the lowest yield was obtained from the seed (13.7 ± 0.5%). The
leaf extract showed the highest total phenolic content (26.4 ± 0.3 mg GAE/g extract) and total
flavonoid content (69.7 ± 3.37 μg RE/g extract).
Total sugar, reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar of different varieties/ genotypes fruits of
muskmelon were ranged from 309 to 553.27, 62.07 to 124.27 and 246.93 to 429 (mg/g on dry weight
basis), respectively with values significantly lower in resistant varieties/ genotypes and higher in
susceptible varieties/ genotypes. The pH was significantly highest in Arka Rajhans (6.56) and lowest
in RM-50 (5.67). Tannins, phenols, total alkaloid and flavonoid contents ranged from 0.02 to 0.12
mg/g, 15.27 to 39.13 mg/g, 0.24 to 1.25 % and 0.40 to 1.05 mg/g, respectively with values
significantly higher in resistant varieties/ genotypes and lower in susceptible varieties/ genotypes.
Total sugar, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar and pH of fruit had a significant positive correlation
(P = 0.01) whereas, tannins, phenols, alkaloids and flavonoid contents had significant negative
correlations with the percentage fruit infestation and the larval density per fruit (Haldhar et al., 2013a;
Bhargava et al., 2016).
The antixenotic mechanisms of fruit traits were significantly different among the tested
muskmelon genotypes. Fruit diameter and days to first harvest had significant positive correlations
whereas fruit toughness, rind thickness, flesh thickness and length of ovary pubescence had
significant negative correlations with the percent fruit infestation and larval density. In these findings,
biophysical fruit-traits were also found significantly different among genotypes (Gogi et al., 2010).
Structural traits such as spines and thorns (spinescence), trichomes (pubescence), toughened or
hardened leaves (sclerophylly), incorporation of granular minerals into plant tissues, and divaricated
branching (shoots with wiry stems produced at wide axillary angles) play a leading role in plant
protection against insects (Hanley et al., 2007; He et al., 2011). Pubescence consists of the layer of
hairs (trichomes) extending from the epidermis of the above ground plant parts including stem,
leaves, and even fruits, and occur in several forms such as straight, spiral, stellate, hooked, and
glandular (Hanley et al., 2007). Chamarthi et al. (2010) reported that leaf glossiness, plumule and leaf
sheath pigmentation were responsible for shoot fly Atherigona soccata(Rondani) resistance in
sorghum Sorghum bicolor (L.) (Moench). Similar results were documented by Gogi et al. (2010) that
fruit-length, fruit diameter, number of longitudinal ribs/fruit and number of small ridges/cm2, which
were significantly lowest in resistant and highest in susceptible genotypes, had a significant positive
correlation with the percent fruit infestation and larval density per fruit. However, fruit toughness,
height of small ridges, height of longitudinal ribs and pericarp thickness, which were significantly
highest in resistant and lowest in susceptible genotypes, had a significant negative correlation with
the percent fruit infestation and larval density per fruit. These variations in measurements of
biophysical fruit-traits may be attributed to differences in the tested genotypes and/or stage of the
fruits selected for measuring these traits, as reported earlier studies (Gogi et al., 2010).
Backward stepwise regression analysis indicated that total alkaloid and pH contents explained
97.96% of the total variation in fruit fly infestation. The maximum variation in fruit infestation was
explained by total alkaloid contents (97%) followed by pH contents (0.96%), flavonoid (0.88%), total
sugar (0.51%), phenols (0.32%), reducing sugar (0.18%), non-reducing sugar (0.10%) and tannins
(0.01%) (Haldhar et al., 2013b). Similar finding also incorporated that pH was lowest in resistant
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varieties/ genotypes and tannin, flavanol and phenol contents were highest in resistant varieties/
genotypes (Gogi et al., 2010). Similar to our findings, phenols, tannins, and flavonoids enhanced
plant defences against insects (Gogi et al., 2010).
6. Fruit fly resistance study in watermelon,
Citrullus
lanatus
(Thunb.) Matsumara & Nakai
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) is a popular dessert crop throughout the tropics and the
Mediterranean regions of the world. Because of its antioxidant properties, the fruit is being rated
equal to apple, banana, or orange. Fruits contain diverse carotenoids that are responsible for the
different flesh colors. Different carotenoid patterns have been associated with distinct cultivars and
cultivated environments. Insect pests are a major constraint for increasing the production and
productivity of the watermelon crop. The melon fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera:
Tephritidae), is a serious pest of watermelon in India, and its outbreaks cause substantial crop losses
to the growers. The melon fly has been observed on 81 host plants, with watermelon being a highly-
preferred host, and has been a major limiting factor in obtaining good-quality fruits and high yield
(Nath and Bhushan, 2006). The varieties/genotypes Asahi Yamato, Thar Manak, and AHW/BR-16
were resistant; AHW/BR-12, Arka Manik, Charleston Grey, AHW-65, AHW-19, Sugar Baby, and
Durgapura Lal were moderately resistant; and AHW/BR-137, AHW/BR-9, IC 582909, BSM-1, and
AHW/BR-60 were susceptible (Haldhar et al., 2015b).
The free amino acid content of fruit had a significant positive correlation whereas flavonoid,
tannin, total alkaloid, phenol, and ascorbic acid contents had a significant negative correlation with
percentage fruit infestation and larval density per fruit. Backward stepwise regression analysis
indicated that flavonoid and total alkaloid contents explained 88.4% of the total variation in fruit fly
infestation. The maximum variation in fruit infestation was explained by flavonoid content (69.7%)
followed by total alkaloid (18.7%), phenol (3.3%), ascorbic acid (1.4%), tannin (1.0%), and free
amino acid contents (0.3%) (Haldhar et al., 2015b). Total soluble solids and pH of fruit had a
significant positive correlation whereas tannin, phenol, alkaloid, and flavonoid contents had a
significant negative correlation with percentage fruit infestation and larval density per fruit (Gogi et
al., 2010). Biochemical characters such as total sugar and crude protein were positively correlated
whereas total phenols were negatively correlated with fruit borer infestation (War et al., 2012;
Haldhar et al., 2013a). Similar to our findings, it has been demonstrated that phenols, tannins, and
flavonoids enhanced plant defenses against insects (Haldhar et al., 2018a).
The antixenotic mechanisms of fruit traits were significantly different among the tested
watemelon varieties/ genotypes. Fruit length, fruit diameter and days to first fruit harvest had
significant positive correlations whereas rind hardness, rind thickness and length of ovary pubescence
had significant negative correlations with the percent fruit infestation and larval density. In these
findings, biophysical fruit-traits were also found significantly different among genotypes (Gogi et al.
2010). Pubescence consists of the layer of hairs (trichomes) extending from the epidermis of the
above ground plant parts including stem, leaves, and even fruits, and occur in several forms such as
straight, spiral, stellate, hooked, and glandular (Hanley et al. 2007). Similar results were documented
by Gogi et al. (2010) that fruit-length, fruit diameter, number of longitudinal ribs/fruit and number
of small ridges/cm2, which were significantly lowest in resistant and highest in susceptible genotypes,
had a significant positive correlation with the percent fruit infestation and larval density per fruit.
However, rind hardness, height of small ridges, height of longitudinal ribs and pericarp thickness,
which were significantly highest in resistant and lowest in susceptible genotypes, had a significant
negative correlation with the percent fruit infestation and larval density per fruit. These variations in
measurements of biophysical fruit-traits may be attributed to differences in the tested genotypes
and/or stage of the fruits selected for measuring these traits, as reported earlier studies (Gogi et al.
2010). Stepwise regression analysis indicated that maximum variation in fruit infestation and larval
density per plant were explained by length of ovary pubescence followed by fruit length. However
Gogi et al. (2010) showed indicated that the tested morphological traits explained 100% of the total
variation in fruit infestation and larval-density per fruit. The maximum variation, in fruit infestation
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and larval-density per fruit, was explained by rind hardness followed by fruit diameter and number of
longitudinal ribs.
7. Fruit fly resistance study in ridge gourd [
Luffa acutangula
(Roxb.) L.]
Ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula) is an important warm season cucurbitaceous vegetable crop
grown in different parts of India and in the tropical countries of Asia and Africa. Its immature fruits
are cooked as vegetable and also used in the preparation of chutneys and curries. Being a warm
season crop, it has the ability to tolerate hotter conditions, which makes it suitable for widespread
cultivation throughout the tropics (Choudhary et al., 2014; Choudhary et al., 2018b). Host plant
selection by insects is either expressed by the occurrence of a population of insects on the plant in
nature or by feeding, oviposition or use of the plant for complete offspring development. Direct
defenses are mediated by plant characteristics that affect the herbivore‘s biology such as production
of toxic chemicals such as terpenoids, alkaloids, anthocyanins, phenols, and quinones) that either kill
or retard the development of the herbivores (Hanley et al., 2007). The ridge gourd varieties/
genotypes; AHRG-57, Pusa Nasdar, and AHRG-29 were resistant; AHRG-35, Arka Sujata, AHRG-
41, AHRG-36, S. Manjari, and S. Uphar were moderately resistant; AHRG-49, AHRG-33, AHRG-
42, and AHRG-30 were susceptible whereas AHRG-47, and AHRG-31 were the highly susceptible
varieties/ genotypes. Pooled data of larval density per fruit in both seasons (13.23- 28.5 larvae per
fruit) was significantly lower in resistant and higher in susceptible varieties/ genotypes. The per cent
fruit infestation was highest in AHRG-31 (79.72 %) and lowest in AHRG-57 (15.92 %) followed by
AHRG-29 (17.67 %) (Haldhar et al., 2013c; Haldhar et al., 2015b).
The phenotypic mechanisms of fruit traits were significantly different among the tested ridge
gourd varieties/ genotypes. Fruit length and fruit diameter had significant positive correlations
whereas rind hardness, rind thickness, fibre content and length of ovary pubescence had significant
negative correlations with the percent fruit infestation and larval density. In these findings,
biophysical fruit-traits were also found significantly different among genotypes (Gogi et al.,
2010). Pubescence consists of the layer of hairs (trichomes) extending from the epidermis of the
above ground plant parts including stem, leaves, and even fruits, and occur in several forms such as
straight, spiral, stellate, hooked, and glandular (Hanley et al., 2007). Similar results were documented
by Gogi et al. (2010) that fruit-length, fruit diameter, number of longitudinal ribs/fruit and number
of small ridges/cm2, which were significantly lowest in resistant and highest in susceptible genotypes,
had a significant positive correlation with the percent fruit infestation and larval density per fruit.
However, rind hardness, height of small ridges, height of longitudinal ribs and pericarp thickness,
which were significantly highest in resistant and lowest in susceptible genotypes, had a significant
negative correlation with the percent fruit infestation and larval density per fruit. These variations in
measurements of biophysical fruit-traits may be attributed to differences in the tested genotypes
and/or stage of the fruits selected for measuring these traits, as reported in earlier studies (Gogi et al.
2010).
The allelochemical compounds of fruit were significantly different among the tested ridge
gourd varieties/ genotypes. The free amino acid was lowest in resistant and highest in susceptible
varieties/ genotypes, whereas flavonoid, tannins, phenols, and ascorbic acid contents were highest in
resistant and lowest in susceptible varieties/ genotypes (Haldhar et al. 2015a). Total soluble solid and
pH of fruit had a significant positive correlation whereas tannins, phenols, alkaloids and flavonoid
contents had significant negative correlation with the percentage fruit infestation and the larval
density per fruit. The biochemical characters such as total sugar and crude protein were positively
correlated with fruit borer infestation, whereas, total phenols had negative correlation (War et al.,
2012, Haldhar et al., 2013a). Basis on Kaiser Normalization method, two principal components (PCs)
were extracted explaining cumulative variation of 90% in melon fruit fly infestation. The PC1 and
PC2 were plotted and the plot showed four discrete classes of varieties genotypes which could be
grouped into resistant (R), moderately resistant (MR) and susceptible (S) and highly susceptible (HS)
as depicted in Figure 5 (Haldhar et al., 2015b). According to Gogi et al. (2010) maximum variation in
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fruit infestation was explained by tannin and flavanol contents whereas, rest of the biochemical fruit
traits explained <0.2% variation in the fruit infestation.
8. Fruit fly resistance study in kachri,
Cucumis melo
var.
callosus
Cucumis species is an important genus of cucurbitaceous vegetable crops and is widely grown
for their fresh fruits at various stages. Kachri, a non-desertic form of Cucumis melo var. callosus is an
under-exploited drought-hardy cucurbit vegetable of the Indian Thar Desert. Kachri is the Hindi
name of the species, which is also known as mango melon in English, and as karkati in Sanskrit
belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae which is a widely found in rainy season crop in arid and semi-
arid regions of India. The bottom-up effects in the crop plant is an economical and environment-
friendly method of insect management. The attractive and beneficial feature of botton up effect is
that it is farmer friendly and does not need much financial investment for pest control. The
identification and development of crop specific genotypes with resistance to pests is determined by
the nutrients and concentrations of secondary metabolites. Host plants play an important role in
determining insect populations in respect to concentrations and proportions of nutrients and differ
among species. The kachri genotypes IC-350933and IC-373479 were found to be highly resistant; IC-
350953, IC-351005, IC-351088, IC-258131 and DKS 2011/01 were found to be resistant whereas
IC-351258, DKS 2011/02 and DKS 2011/03 were highly susceptible to melon fruit fly. The larval
densities ranged from 4.87 to 15.50 larvae per fruit and were found to be significantly lower in
resistant genotypes than in the susceptible genotypes. The larval density was the highest in genotype
DKS 2011/03 (15.5 larvae/ fruit) followed by IC-351258 (15.3 larvae/ fruit). The minimum larval
density was found in IC-370479 (4.9 larvae/ fruit) followed by IC-350933 (5.2 larvae/ fruit). The per
cent fruit infestation was the highest in IC-351258 (76.9 %) and the lowest in IC-350933 (7.8 %)
followed by IC-370479 (8.5 %). The fruit infestation ranged from 7.8 to 76.9 % which was
significantly lower in resistant genotypes and higher in susceptible genotypes (Haldhar et al., 2017a).
The phenotypic (antixenotic) mechanisms of fruit traits were significantly different among the tested
kachri genotype. The length of ovary pubescence, rind hardness, rind thickness, fruit length, and fruit
diameter had significant negative correlations with the percent fruit infestation and larval density. In
these findings, biophysical fruit-traits were also found significantly different among the genotypes
(Gogi et al., 2010; Haldhar et al., 2015b). Glandular trichomes secrete secondary metabolites
including flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids that could be poisonous, repellent, or trap insects and
other organisms, thus forming a combination of structural and chemical defense (Sharma et al.,
2009). Structural traits such as spines and thorns (spinescence), trichomes (pubescence), toughened
or hardened leaves (sclerophylly), incorporation of granular minerals into plant tissues, and
divaricated branching (shoots with wiry stems produced at wide auxiliary angles) played a leading role
in plant protection against herbivory (Chamarthi et al., 2010; He et al., 2011). Similar results were
documented by Haldhar et al. (2015b) that the length of ovary pubescence, rind hardness, fiber
content, and rind thickness had significant negative correlations whereas; fruit length and fruit
diameter had significant positive correlations with the percentage fruit infestation and the larval
density per fruit in different genotypes of ridge gourd. These variations in measurements of
biophysical fruit-traits might be attributed to differences in the tested genotypes and/or stage of the
fruits selected for measuring these traits, as reported in earlier studies (Gogi et al., 2010; Haldhar et
al., 2015a). Stepwise regression analysis of our data indicated that the maximum variation in
percentage fruit infestation and larval density per fruit were explained by the length of ovary
pubescence followed by rind hardness. However, Gogi et al., (2010) showed that the tested
morphological traits explained 100% of the total variation in percentage fruit infestation and larval
density per fruit. The maximum variation, in percentage fruit infestation and larval density per fruit,
in their study was explained by rind hardness followed by fruit diameter and number of longitudinal
ribs. Maximum variation in fruit infestation and larval density were explained by the length of ovary
pubescence (82.50 and 83.60%, respectively) followed by fruit length (4.3 and 3.0%, respectively) and
rind thickness (3.2 and 2.0%, respectively) in watermelon against fruit fly (Haldhar et al., 2015a).
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The allelochemical compounds of the fruit differed significantly among the tested kachri
genotypes. The flavonoid, tannins, phenols, and total alkaloid contents were the highest in resistant
and lower in susceptible genotype of kachri. The percentage of fruit infestation and the larval density
per fruit with flavonoid (-0.955 & -0.938), tannins (-0.891 & -0.902), phenols (-0.903 & -0.896) and
total alkaloid (-0.797 & -0.759) had significant negative correlation. Backward stepwise regression
analysis indicated that flavonoid and tannins contents explained 93.6% of the total variation in fruit
fly infestation. The maximum variation in fruit infestation was explained by flavonoid content
(91.2%) followed by tannins (2.4%), phenols (0.4%), and total alkaloid contents (0.1%) (Haldhar et
al., 2017a). Phenols act as a defensive mechanism not only against herbivores but also against
microorganisms and competing plants. Tannins, Flavonoids and isoflavonoids protect the plant
against insect-pests by influencing the behavior, growth, and development of insects (Barbehenn and
Peter, 2011). Similar to our findings, it has been demonstrated that phenols, tannins, and flavonoids
enhanced plant defenses against insects and had a significant negative correlation with the percentage
fruit infestation and the larval density per fruit (War et al., 2012; Haldhar et al., 2013a; Haldhar et al.,
2015b; Haldhar et al., 2016b). Based upon the above biochemical characters individually it was
impossible to group the entries as variables were not in agreement with each other. Hence, principal
component analysis was performed to achieve parsimony and reduce the dimensionality by extracting
the smallest number of components that accounted for most of the variation in the original
multivariate data. Four principal components (PCs) were extracted with eigenvalue ≥1.0, after
varimax rotation with Kaiser Normalization procedure which converged in three iterations. The
extraction communalities for all the variables tested were ≥ 0.5 indicating that the variables were well
represented by the extracted PCs which together explained a cumulative variation of 88.2 %. PC1
explaining 71.6 % of the variation while PC2 explained 16.6 % of the variation. PC1 had the loadings
for flavonoid content (0.92), tannins content (0.94), the total alkaloid (0.86) and phenols content
(0.96) (Haldhar et al., 2017). Gogi et al. (2010) indicated that the maximum variation in percentage
fruit infestation was explained by tannin and flavanol contents whereas maximum variation in larval
density per fruit was explained by tannin followed by flavanol contents.
Future work
Although host plant resistance has attained a considerable momentum recently, and has
attracted the attention of scientists in evolutionary ecology, entomology, plant physiology, and
biotechnology, much of the underlying mechanism have still remained unanswered. There is a need
to understand the insect specific signal molecules, their identification, mode of action, and further
signal transduction pathway. Since a single attribute can affect the insects and/or natural enemies
positively and/or negatively, understanding of the multitrophic interactions is important to know the
consequences of supposed defensive traits of a plant for use in pest management. Since the
biochemical pathways that lead to induce resistance are highly conserved among the plants and
elicitors of these pathways could be used as inducers in many crops. The future challenge is to
exploit the elicitors of induce defense in plants for pest management, and identify the genes encoding
proteins that are up and/or down regulated during plant response to the insect attack, which can be
deployed for conferring resistance to the insects through genetic transformation.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to Director, ICAR-Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner,
India, for providing facilities and advice required for experimentation, and to R. Swaminathan,
Professor, Department of Entomology, MPUAT, Udaipur, India and Majeet Singh, Ex-Professor,
SKRAU, Bikaner, India for critical discussion and suggestions.
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LIII-4
Nanoformulations of pheromones and their application in insect pest management
Deepa Bhagat,* A. N. Shylesha** and N. Bakthavatsalam***
*Principal Scientist, Division GCU-ICAR-NBAIR, Bangalore-560024
**HOD, Division GCU-ICAR-NBAIR, Bangalore-560024
***Director (Acting), ICAR-NBAIR-560024
Corresponding author email: Deepa.Bhagat@icar.gov.in
Abstract
The use of nanoformulation for pest management is a promising technology that has
attracted global, commercial and scientific interest in the recent years. Our team develop nanogels
and nanosensors technology for insect pest management and early pest detection in agricultural
fields. We have developed a slow-release pheromone formulation for the effective management of
harmful pests such as Bactrocera dorsalis(Hendel), Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera,
Noctuidae), Scirphophaga incertulas(Walker) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae), Leucinodes orbonalis(Guenee)
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), Holotrichia consanguinea (Blanchard), Scirpophaga excerptalis(Lepidoptera,
Crambidae), Spodoptera frugiperda(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), Plutella xylostella(Lepidoptera, Plutellidae)
and many more. The agricultural crops that are benefitted by these nanogels are cotton, pigeon pea,
chick pea, tomato, coffee, guava, mango, rice, brinjal and many more. Further to include Artificial
Intelligence for pest management using semiochemicals as cues we had fabricated a silicon dioxide-
based Microelectro-Mechanical System (MEMS) sensor for the selective pest female sex pheromones
detection of Helicoverpa armigera and Bactrocera oleae. In the fields, this technology (MEMs sensor) can
be tagged in plants for volatile profiling also. The developed products are cost-efficient, reusable,
farmer-friendly and eco-friendly. By these products, an early detection of pest is possible and
appropriate steps can be taken to prevent their invasion and also minimize the use of pesticides in
crop fields.
Introduction
In recent years, utilization of nanotechnology to create novel formulations is an efficient
technique that has attracted commercial market for insect pest management. Slow release pheromone
formulations and nanosensors for early pest detections increase the agricultural productivity. It
benefits the farmers to protect their fields from harmful pests, thereby decreasing the use of chemical
pesticides and controlling the pollution level in the environment. Nanoformulations have many
advantages over conventional formulations of semiochemicals due to high target delivery and smart
controlled release mechanism. Semiochemicalsare chemical signals released by the insects for the
transmission of information between individuals. These semiochemicals have ability to modify the
behavior or physiology of the individuals. Semiochemicals can be divided into two groups, namely
pheromones and allelochemicals. Pheromones assist intraspecific communication (individuals of the
same species) and allelochemicals promote interspecific interactions (individuals of different species).
Pheromones can be further classified as alarm pheromones, trail pheromones, sexual pheromones
and aggregation pheromones.Technically the pheromones could be used in three principal ways,
firstly, detection and monitoring of insect pheromones are done with the traps for the surveillance
and control of harmful pests. Males are usually, the responders to female pheromones. The traps are
designed similar to female pheromones and aimed to trap and destroy the male population, thereby,
controlling the infestation of the pests. Through this technique, we are able to detect and monitor
the presence of these harmful pests in crop fields. Secondly, in mass trapping method the female
pheromone baited traps will attract and trap male moths in the field. Due to loss of male moths there
is a reduction in the pest population. This results in less chances of mating and decreased
multiplication of these pests. Thirdly, mating disruption – high concentration of sex pheromones
released at regular intervals of time prevents the males finding the females. The pheromones
produced by females are in minute quantities and cannot be sensed by the males in the presence of
high concentration synthetic pheromones. The males get attracted to the synthetic pheromones and
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get trapped. Incorporating this technique in pest management will result in reduced mating and
reproductive potential, thereby reducing damage caused by pests. These three approaches were
efficient but not economical because traps need to be changed frequently in the field which added
costs. To make these methods economical nanotechnology has played role and our team prepared
slow release pheromone formulations (Figure 1). We had developed nano-formulations of
pheromones for the effective management of these harmful pests. The insect pheromones are
entrapped in a supramolecular polymeric nanogel, forming an immobile viscoelastic semi-solid mass
which is easily handled and transported without refrigeration.The use of slow release pheromones
formulations controls the release of pheromones and reduced amount of pheromones are required,
thereby reduces the input costs and increasing shelf-life. The developed product is eco-friendly and
does not harm the non-target organisms. The transportation of the slow release pheromones is
trouble-free, due to the stability and mechanical strength of the biopolymer nanogels.
Figure 1. Slow-release pheromone formulations for management of Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner)
Studies have shown that parapheromones like Methyl eugenol, cuelure, and trimedlure
facilitate in monitoring, male annihilation and mass trapping (Bakthavatsalam, 2016). Our team has
prepared nanogels of these parapheromones (Figure 1) and increased the shelf life and efficiency of
the pheromones which attract more pests with reduced cost (Deepa et al., 2013). To be noted these
nanomaterial formulations developed by our team needs only one third of the pheromone in
comparison to traditional technology. Plants respond to pest attack producing defensive volatile
compounds for the non-host insects. The plant volatiles (alone or blend) have been successfully used
for mass trapping of several insects. Pheromones which repel harmful pests or attract their natural
enemies can be used as a strategy for maintaining pest infestation level. Bakthavatsalamet al., 2000
had studied the behavioral response of Chrysoperlacarnea (Stephens)adults to the different parts of
cotton plant infested byH. armigerausing an electroantennogram and olfactometer. The C. carneaadults
responded more to the volatiles of the infested flowers and bolls and lowest response was recorded
in leaves. In the dual choice test maximum number of C. carneaadults moved towards the synomone
arm when tested for cotton bolls damaged by H. armigera.Bakthavatsalam et al., 2000 suggested that
C. carnea can be introduced into cotton fields for the reducing the infestation of H. armigera.
Bakthavatsalam et al., 2003 reported that the synomonal effects of Trichogramma were influenced by
tricosane, heneicosane, pentacosane and hexacosane. Bakthavatsalam et al. conducted experiments to
identify the effective kairomones and increase the parasitizing efficiency of Trichogrammachilonisin the
laboratory. The most attractive kairomone was fresh hexane extract of Corcyra cephalonica
(1%)+hexacosane (0.3%) and C. cephalonica scale extract (1%) + nonacosane (0.3%) The highest egg
parasitization (77.25%) was achieved. Bakthavatsalam et al., 2005 reported that H. armigera showed
highest electrophysiological response (-0.462 mv) to the floral volatiles of T. erecta and S. viarum
showed maximum olfactometric responses to hexane extract of T. erecta flower bud (47.5%). The
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common compounds found in both the plants were 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid, cis-a-bisabolene,
eicosane, hexacosane, heptacosane, pentacosane, tetradecane and nonadecane. The results revealed
that T. erecta and S. viarum were friendly to Trichogramma.Bakthavatsalam et al., 2006 reported that the
dispensers impregnated with kairomones were more effective than the paper strips. Bakthavatsalam
et al., 2007 reported that greaternumber of C. carnea eggs, larvae, pupae and adults were found in
kairomonessuch as tricosane and acid hydrolyzed L-tryptophan treated plots when compared to the
control. In the kairomone-treated plots there was a significant decrease in the number of aphids,
jassids and bollworm. He also reported in 2006 that hexacosane (0.1%) induced maximum
parasitization (36.6%). Bakthavatsalam et al., 2016 evaluated different tomato genotypes for studying
the influence of Trichogrammachilonison Helicoverpa armigera eggs. The highest parasitization was
recorded on ArkaAhuti (50%) and the lowest on ArkaAbha (20%). There was no significant
difference in the olfactory response of T. chilonisto fruit volatiles but significance difference was
observed in tomato leaf volatiles. The identified synomonal activity inducing compounds were (Z)-α-
farnesene, trans-α-ocimene, α-phellandrene, α-pinene, trans-caryophyllene and selinene.
Bakthavatsalam et al., 2016 studied the olfactory behavioural response (Autodetection) of H. armigera
using electroantennogram. The resulted proved that the gravid females of H. armigera respond to
their pheromone blend containing Z-11-hexadecenal and Z-9-hexadecenal in the ratio
97:3.Bakthavatsalam, 2016identified and synthesizedthe semiochemicals of Planococcuscitri (Risso),
Pseudococcuscomstocki (Kuwana), Phenacoccusmadeirensis Green, and Maconellicoccushirsutus (Green).
Semiochemicals were used for the successful management of Planococcuscitri (Risso),
Pseudococcusmaritimus (Ehrhorn), and Saccharicoccussacchari(Cockerell). The pheromone formulation
effectively reduced the incidence of M. hirsutus to 3-4% when compared control plots. Male
annihilation technique by the installation of pheromone traps at the edge of fields was used for mass
trapping of Planococcuscitri. In the presence of semiochemicals, there was increased rate of parasitism
by Anagyruspseudococci (Girault). The use of semiochemicals for pest management is tedious, expensive
and being highly volatile in nature adds cost. Applying the fundamentals of nanotechnology, we have
few productive systems for the efficient management of pests. Using these approaches we can scale
down the anthropogenic contamination due to the excess use of harmful pesticides. And it is a very
simple and resourceful system to farmers for the early identification of pests and preventive measures
can be taken for crop protection, and in turn overcome reduction in the food production. To
increase the efficiency of semiochemicals, we had developed nano-formulations of pheromones for
the effective management of harmful pests such as Bactroceradorsalis(Hendel), Helicoverpa armigera
(Hubner) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), Scirphophagaincertulas(Walker) (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae),
Leucinodesorbonalis(Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), Holotrichiaconsanguinea(Blanchard),
Scirpophagaexcerptalis(Lepidoptera, Crambidae), Spodopterafrugiperda(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and
Plutellaxylostella(Lepidoptera, Plutellidae) (Figure 2). The insect pheromones are entrapped inside the
polymeric nanogel, forming an immobile viscoelastic semi-solid mass which can be easily managed,
transported and remains stable at ambient conditions. Deepa et al., 2013 showed the use of slow
release pheromones formulations reduces the input costs and increases shelf-life of the product.
Subaharan et al., 2019 reported that the combination of palm tissue volatiles and food bait with
nanomatrix increased the use of semiochemicals and reduced the dependence on chemical pesticides
for the management of Red palm weevils.
Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner), Bactroceradorsalis (Hendel), Bactroceracucurbitae (Coquillett),
Holotrichia consanguinea (Blanchard) and Scirphophagaincertuals(Walker) are infamous for their damage
economic cash crops among many others. Moths of all these species lay eggs on crops, and the larvae
that hatch devour and destroy the crops. One way to stop this would be to discourage the laying of
eggs by using techniques like pheromone traps for the male insects. Since sex pheromones are unique
and carry a distinct chemical signature for each species, pheromone traps rely on luring male insects
into a physicalcontraption or trap by smearing it with the insect's signature pheromone. However,
this is a tedious and expensive technique and leads to farmers enduring an unnaturally high exposure
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to pheromone chemicals. To control the pest influx in an alerted area of infestation, we have chosen
more environment friendly pheromone nanogels (Bhattacharya et al., 2015). In this case, insect
pheromones are entrapped in a supramolecular polymeric nanogel, forming an immobile viscoelastic
semi-solid mass which is easily handled and transported without refrigeration. Due to its slow-release
properties, it allows a reduction in the frequency of pheromone recharging in the orchard. Such
nanogelled pheromone exhibits a high residual activity and an excellent efficacy in an open orchard,
even during rainy seasons. Thus, with the deployment of polymeric nanogel carrier systems, there is
less need to use genetically modified crops. Also, the transportation of the nanogelled pheromones is
trouble-free, due to the significant mechanical strength of the polymer nanogels.These formulations
of nanogel were developed for many pheromones and kairomones and all of them dramatically
increase the field-life of various pheromones that disrupt the lifecycles of harmful crop pests, such as
B. dorsalis; H. armigera (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae); S. incertulas(Lepidoptera, Pyralidae);
Leucinodesorbonalis(Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae); Xylotrechusquadripes(Chevrolat) (Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae); H. consanguinea; Hypothenemushampei(Ferrari); Xylosandruscrassiusculus(Coleoptera:
Scolytidae); Xylosandrusgermanus(Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae); Hylurgopspalliatus;
Tomicuspiniperda; Trypodendrondomesticum; Cnestus mutilates; Rhizophagusferrugineus(Coleoptera:
Rhizophagidae); Pollenia species (Diptera: Calliphoridae); Fanniacanicularis; Muscinastabulans;
Muscadomesticaetc (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Slow-release pheromone formulations for efficient management of pests
The present invention involves the immobilization of the semiochemicals within the 3-D
nano-pockets of the nanofibrous gel by using weak non-covalent interactions. At first, gelation was
checked with different pheromones/ attractants in various solvents out of which the nanogels were
formed specifically in toluene, R-(2)-butanol, ethanol, and 1:1 (v/ v) ethanol: methanol and
methanol. We also varied the molar ratio of the two components and the nanogels were found only
when the ratio of the two components was 1:1 equivalent. Also (R)-2-butanol itself acts as a sex
pheromone of the white grub beetles, a serious insect pest of sugarcane. Ethanol alone or a mixture
of ethanol and methanol (1:1 v/ v) acts as an attractant to various devastating agricultural pests,
including coffee berry borer (H. hampei). The nanogels loaded with ethanol control the forest pests
such as the black stem borer (X. crassiusculusand X. germanus). Wood borers/ bark beetles such as H.
palliatus, Tomicuspiniperda, T. domesticum, Cnestus mutilates, X. crassiusculus, Rhizophagusferrugineusand
Pollenia species are the most devastating forest pests controlled by nanogels loaded with ethanol. Also
important are veterinary pests such as Fanniacanicularis, M. stabulansand M. domesticabecause they are
carriers of diarrhoeal diseases and cause skin and eye infections. Rheological studies revealed that
these nanofibrous matrix are viscoelastic and semi-solid in nature. The remarkable mechanical
strength of these nanofibrous matrix makes them ideal to be handled/ transported without taking
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any special care. These nanofibrous matrix samples comprising immobilized semiochemicals may be
used in the field for prolonged period of time due to their sustained release properties. The strategy
may be applicable even for kairomones such as nanogelled linalool for the attraction of predators and
parasitoids, natural enemies of crop pests. Targeted agricultural products that may be benefitted by
these products include cotton, pigeon pea, chick pea, tomato, coffee, guava, mango, rice, brinjal etc.
Thus this novel approach has the potential to revolutionize the modern agricultural era in a new
dimension.
Early pest detection before it causes intended losses. We decided on a different approach by building
a portable and highly sensitive device that can detect even minute quantities of sex pheromone in the
air at levels naturally secreted by pests (Figure 3).
The micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) based technology has micron-sized electronic
devices with moving parts, routinely used in gyroscopes and health monitoring sensors. This research
marks the suitablyfunctionalized MEMS devices for the first time to selectively detect pest
pheromones. In this strategically designed and fabricated a few MEMS devices and then covalently
functionalized them for the selective sensing of particular pheromones (Bhattacharya et al., 2016a).
The silicon dioxide based MEMS devices those were fabricated have no selectivity on their own, it is
the chemical functionalization steps, developed by the authors after many standardizations, make
these devices specific to the female sex pheromones. To date, detection with device are possible for
the female sex pheromone of H. armigera (Bhattacharya et al., 2016b), S. incertulas (Bhattacharya et al.,
2016b,c) and Bactoceraoleae(Rossi) (Bhattacharya et al., 2017a,b; Moitra et al., 2020), because these are
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three of the most hazardous agricultural pests known globally. Olive oil is preferred worldwide over
other vegetable oils because of its health benefits. The major hindrance in achieving large-scale
production of olive oil is due to fruit pests which cause serious damage to olive orchards. Their
control requires careful monitoring and the timely application of suitable remedies before substantial
pest infestation (Figure 4).
Herein we demonstrate the efficacious utilization of covalently functionalized β-
cyclodextrinylated MEMS devices for the selective and sensitive detection of the female sex
pheromone of the olive fruit pest, B. oleae. Two of the MEMS devices, silicon dioxide surface-
micromachined cantilever arrays and zinc oxide surface-microfabricated inter-digitized circuits,
selectivelycapture the major pheromone component, 1,7-dioxaspiro[5,5] undecane. The non-covalent
capture of olive pheromones inside the β-cyclodextrin cavity leads to the reduction of resonant
frequency of the cantilevers, whereas an increase in resistance has been found in case of zinc oxide
derived MEMS devices. Sensitivity of the MEMS devices towards the olive pheromone was found to
be directly correlated with the increasing availability of β-cyclodextrin moieties over the surface of
the devices and thus the detection limit of the devices has been achieved to a value as low as 0.297
ppq of the olive pheromone when the devices were functionalized with one of the standardized
protocols. Overall, the reversible usability and potential capability of the suitably functionalized
MEMS devices to selectively detect the presence of female sex pheromone of olive fruit fly before
the onset of substantial pest infestation in an orchard makes the technology quite attractive for viable
commercial application. Operationally, an increase in pheromone concentration during the detection
Specific Recognition
Functionalized Devices
Early Detection of
Pest Infestation
No Recognition
Non-functionalized Devices
Female Sex Pheromone
Bactocera oleae
Pheromone Volatile:
1,7-dioxaspiro-[5,5]-
undecane
Pest Infestation
Figure 4. Early detection of pest infestation of Bactoceraoleae
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period can be quantitatively sensed by a proportionate change in frequency or resistance which is
continuously measured and monitored. After selective detection of the pheromone, and prior to
applying any measure to control the pest plague, a stage will be identified when the pheromone
concentration is just below the danger level. Necessary actions can then be taken as needed and when
needed in a confined region of the alerted pest attack. This approach reduces the possibility of
anthropogenic contamination due to the current overuse of pesticides/ insecticides. The device was
tested for durability in the temperature range between 0 to 60 ◦C and in extreme humidity. In some
cases, the devices were dipped in water, dried and then checked. They were found to be active even
in that condition. To simulate a real field condition, the devices were tested in a large box of tomato
plants with male and female H. armigera moths. When checked every 6 hours, the functionalized
devices clearly showed the presence of pheromones each time. Also, these devices are robust enough
to be chemically cleaned and re-used. The devices responded selectively only to pheromone
chemicals from H. armigera and S. incertulaswhen tested in the presence of interfering pheromones
from various other insects present in an agricultural field. Although the results seem promising for
farmers of cotton, rice and olive field who fight crop losses due to pests, the devices are currently in
their nascent form and need to be developed into a handy product for wide usage (Moitra et al.,
2016; Moitra et al., 2017). The research team have thus used state-of-art technology and developed
products for the management of manyagricultural pests. These products have the potential to
empower the agriculture sector globally. In a way, our technology can be considered a step forward
in artificial intelligence (AI) because AI is dependent on sensors and feedback loops as originally
described by Norbert Weiner who foresaw many future developments in this general field. The
theoretical implications of our work fits into a revolution into agri-technology will revolutionize food
production worldwide.
In this series of work for organic farming, to support organic farming, we developed a low-cost,
portable pesticide sensor for detecting paraquat (PQ) in the field (Dey et al., 2017). Red light-emitting
water-soluble semiconducting quantum dots (QDs) have been synthesized using a thiol-type capping
agent for the sensing of the herbicide PQ dichloride. The QDs with their negatively charged nano-
surface showed excellent selectivity toward PQ at pH 7.4 over other commonly encountered
pesticides/ herbicides, including diquat (DQ). Precoated quartz plates were thus developed as a low-
cost, portable sensor for on-site detection of PQ, both in natural water samples and in human urine,
adulterated dairy products, with excellent sensitivity, and in the screening of more than 50 different
food items including several vegetables, fruits, cereals and fodders. Thus an innovative technology
was developed to construct a generalized marker for sensing any residual PQ in such specimens.
Biopesticides, such as H. armigera NPV, SpilosomaobliquaNPV and SpodopteralituraNPV also desired
products to be used in organic farming. We developed rapid detection of biopesticides containing
viruses such as for H. armigera NPV (Bhattacharya et al., 2018), S. oblique NPV (Bhattacharya et al.,
2020) and S. lituraNPV (Bhattacharya et al., 2019a,b). An inexpensive, reusable, portable ‗color-strip‘
was developed by us for the rapid on-field detection of H. armigera nuclear polyhedrosis virus
(HaNPV) (Dey et al., 2019) in commercial biopesticide formulations. The present system can
differentiate between the active and inactive HaNPV without involving any sophisticated
instrumental facility. The invention provides a method for obtaining a compound specific for rapid
detection of biopesticides. The method includes obtaining a bromide precursor in acetonitrile at a
predefined temperature to obtain a piperazine derivative. Subsequent to obtaining the piperazine
derivative, the piperazine is reacted to obtain an intermediate aldehyde derivative. The aldehyde
derivative is further refluxed to obtain a carbazole derivative. Further, the invention provides a
method for obtaining a probe for rapid detection forbiopesticides containing NPV. The invention
also provides a device comprising a probe, a detection means and an analyzer for rapid detection of
biopesticides containing NPV (Figure 5).
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Developed two nanofertilizers, firstly Zinc (Zn) functionalized thymolnanoemulsion (Kumari et al.,
2019) and secondly Copper (Cu) and Salicylic acid (SA) chitosan nanofertilizer (Sharma et al., 2020)
and successfully done field trials. Zn functionalized thymolnanoemulsion treated seeds revealed
better seedling vigor index and higher activities of seed stored food mobilizing enzymes (α-amylase
and protease) whereas foliar application of Zn-TNE enhanced defense-antioxidant enzymes
activities, balanced reactive oxygen species, induced higher content of chlorophyll-a, b and higher
lignin deposition in soybean plants. Zn-TNE also promotes higher grain yield, resistance to bacterial
pustule disease, and slow delivery of various micronutrients. Thymol component of nanoformulation
promotes excellent bactericidal activity and Zn component stimulates the plant innate immunity,
sustains oxidative homeostasis and overcomes the severity of pathogenic infection. The synthesized
nanofertilizer Zn-TNE can serve as an alternative to synthetic agrochemicals and an environment
friendly approach for sustainable agriculture coupled with protection of biosphere. Copper (Cu) and
salicylic acid (SA) chitosan nanofertilizer when treated with seedpromotes 1.6 folds higher seedling
vigour index, 1.7–3.0 folds higher activities of reserve food mobilizing enzymes in seedlings as
compared with control. Foliar application of nanofertilizer increases the activities of antioxidant
enzymes (1.06–1.91 folds), reduced malondialdehyde content and enhanced chlorophyll contents (2
folds) in leaves. Application of nanofertilizer remarkably induced sucrose translocation (2.5–3.5
folds) in internodes. Cu and SA are released from the nanofertilizer in a slow and sustained manner
during a long-time interval. Chitosan is a biodegradable biopolymer and can be easily degraded by
enzymes released by soil microorganisms making it environment friendly. Hence, chitosan
nanofertilizer can be implemented to promote source activity in maize for higher crop yield.
Figure 6. Slow release pheromone formulations for the management of Holotrichia consanguinea
(Blanchard) – Laboratory to Market
Figure 5. Device Fabrication: Inter-digitated Circuits a) SiO2 (1 μm); ZnO (100 nm); Au
circuit (50 nm) b) Wire Bonded and Soldered
a
b
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Figure 7: Slow release pheromone formulations for the management of Bactrocera cucurbitae
(Melon
Fruit Fly) – Laboratory to Market
Our laboratory has developed some exceptionally innovative products that are available for
the next stage of implementation (Figure 6 & 7). The products allow the management of pests by
trapping them with the technology available with us for forecasting of early pest detection. Therefore
policy makers need to champion these proven products so that their commercialization can enhance
agricultural productivity and profits.
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LIII-5
Pollinators and pollination under changing climate
Ranjan Das and Sangita Das
Department of Crop Physiology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013
Corresponding author email: rdassam1966@gmail.com
Introduction
Growth in human population have brought about accelerating changes in the earth‘s
environment which have led to increased resource consumption and changes in technologies and
socio political organizations (IPCC, 2007). Changes in land use, land cover, biodiversity, and rapid
increase in the greenhouse gas content have contributed to global climate changes. A rise in 1.4 and
5.8oC average global temperature was projected by 2100 and by 2030 the increase will be lesser
(FAO, 2002 synthesis report). The human activity for example burning of coal, oil, and natural gas
have led to CO2 emission in air. The escape of carbon stored in trees into atmosphere occurs by
burning of trees. Emission of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
has been occurring due to raising cattle‘s and rice cultivation under waterlogged conditions (Hansen,
1988 and Fuller, 1997). The increase in concentration of these gases has led to additional warming of
the earth‘s surface and atmosphere which may cause a threat to change the climate of entire earth
system in an unpredictable manner. After Mauna Loa studies, the rise in CO2 showed a saw tooth
pattern model reflecting the seasonal cycle of vegetation growth (Keeling et al , 1989) including
pollination processes. Various studies have shown that the distribution and phenology of many
plants are biased in the directions predicted from global warming (Parmesan, 2006). A global
advancement of spring events by 2.3 days per decade along with a species range shift of 6.1 km/
decade towards the poles have been reported (Parmesan and Yohe, 2003). Plant–pollinator
interactions are necessary for successful plant reproduction. Such interaction has adverse impact on
pollination under climate change condition. Pollinator‘s sensitivity to temperature helps to study the
responses of plants and pollinators to changing abiotic conditions that vary seasonally and
geographically are often uncoordinated, climatic conditions (Byers, 2017). Recent changes in
phenology of flowering have been reported flowering (Sparks et al., 2000; Fitter and Fitter, 2002;
Miller-Rushing et al., 2006). Plant–pollinator interactions are the basic to the resilience in many
ecosystems (Ollerton et al., 2011; Bartomeus et al., 2013; Bascompte and Olesen, 2015). The yield of
many agricultural crops relies entirely on adequate pollinator services (Klein et al., 2007; Hoehn et al.,
2008). The mutualism between plants and pollinators is ecologically important.Currently the
interaction is under threat due to various environmental impacts including invasive species, habitat
loss and fragmentation, and changes in global climate (González-Varo et al., 2013; Kiers et al., 2015).
The present environmental changes associated with climate change are striking some challenges for
the spatial and temporal dynamics of the interactions (González-Varo et al., 2013; Ovaskainen et al.,
2013). A comprehensive assessment of the impact of climate change on plant–pollinator interactions
is difficult in part because of the temporal and spatial dimensions of the abiotic changes and biotic
responses. Here, we try to summarise the knowledge about climate change which influence the
mismatches between plants and pollinators..In this review, we will also try to discuss the recent
information of some works which are reported in various manuscript by reflecting of some of our
work which indicating some approaches, as well as research needs in some further understanding of
theses area.
Impact of climate change on pollinators
Pollination is a crucial stage in the reproduction of most flowering plants. For sustainable
crop production, the mutualistic interaction between plants and animals is crucial. A great diversity of
plants and animals depend mutually on each other for pollination and food. The diversity of insect
pollinators and increase in food demand has occurred due to increase in population. Insect
pollination is threatened by several environmental and anthropogenic factors, and this has lead to
potential pollination crisis. 35 % of global food production depends on animal pollination. Fruits,
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vegetables and seed production in world‘s leading food crops depends on animal pollination Klein et
al. (2007). Losey and Vaughan (2006) emphasized on the importance of insects in providing an
important ecosystem component through their pollination services. Rahman (2019) have reported
the pollination requirement for different crops (Table 1). The total economic value of crop
pollination worldwide has been estimated at €153 billion annually (Gallai et al., 2009). Most of the
pollinator-dependent crops are vegetables and fruits, followed by edible oil crops, coffee, cocoa, nuts
and spices that are used directly for human consumption. They categorized and ranked them based
on vulnerability to pollinator loss. Therefore knowledge about temperature sensitivity of pollinators‘
is essential under climate change condition to understand their effects on phenology and other
growth factors.
Table 1. Pollination requirements by crop
Crop
Pollination requirement/ha
Yield (qha-1 )
Percentage increase
yield over without
bee pollination
Rapeseed & mustard
Five Apis cerana colonies/two
apis mellifera colonies
12.25
127.27
Niger
Six Apis cerana colonies/two apis
mellifera colonies
6.10
120.2
Buckwheat
Five Apis cerana colonies/two
apis mellifera colonies
12.20
121.87
Pigeon Pea
Five Apis cerana colonies/two
apis mellifera colonies
12.0
59.61
Lichi
Five Apis cerana colonies/two
apis mellifera colonies
66.7
123.27
Assam lemon
Five Apis cerana colonies/two
apis mellifera colonies
50.8
57.14
Guava
Five Apis cerana colonies/two
apis mellifera colonies
75.22
276.97
Cucumber
Five Apis cerana colonies/two
apis mellifera colonies
75.97
240.36
Ridge gourd
One thousand xylocopa bamboo
nest
75,67
249.53
Sesamum
Five Apis cerana colonies/two
apis mellifera colonies
7.45
44.34
Rahman, 2019
Studies indicated that annual global food production depends directly on pollinators (FAO)
as pollinators viz. wild bees and several species of butterflies, flies, moths, wasps, beetles and birds
that contributed to pollination processes in food grains, vegetables, seeds, nuts oil etc . Hence global
food security is also dependent on pollinators. The economic impact of insect pollinators is directly
related to the economic growth worldwide (Table 2). For example the decline in honey bee
population (Table 3) has posed a serious threat in different countries.
Table 2. Economic impacts of insect pollination on major food crops and their rate of vulnerability
to pollinator loss (World scenario)
Crop group
Total production
Economic value in 109e
(EV)
Insect pollination
Economic value in
109e (IPEV)
Rate of vulnerability %
(IPEV/EV)
Fruits
219
50.6
23.1
Vegetables
418
50.9
12.2
Nuts
13
4.2
31.0
Stimulants
19
7.0
39.0
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Oilseeds
240
39.0
16.3
Roots and tubers
98
0.0
0.0
Spices
7
0.2
2.7
Cereals
312
0.0
0.0
Pulses
24
1.0
4.3
Adapted from (Gallai et al.2009)
Table3. Population decline of honey bees: world scenario
Country
Decline (%)
Duration
Germany
57
Last 15 years
UK
61
Last 10 years
USA
>51
Last 20 years
Poland
>35
Last 15 years
India
>40
Last 25 years
Brazil
>53
Last 15 years
Netherland
58-65
Last 25 years
China
>50
Last 20 years
Adapted from (Gallai et al., 2009)
Effect of high temperature and pollination processes
Requirements for climatic conditions vary according to pollinators and plants hence respond
differently to changes in ambient temperature. A spring temperatures may deter plant flowering time
while pollinators might be unaffected (Hegland et al., 2009). Data viz. number of degree days,
maximum temperature during day hours with a temperature above or below a certain threshold is
critical for crop plants and pollinators than that of temperature during observations pollinator
activity. Variation in response of pollinators to different temperature has been reported.
Temperature-induced activity patterns may differ depending on pollinator size, age and sex. Elevated
temperatures can affect the physiology of flowering plants, resulting in altered production of flowers,
nectar, and pollen (e.g., Koti et al., 2005; Petanidou and Smets, 1996; Saavedra et al., 2003). Warming
can affect foraging activity, body size after attaining maturity,and life span (e.g., Bosch et al., 2000;
Radmacher and Strohm, 2011; Willmer, 1983). Certain physiological responses could have opposing
effects on the interactions between plants and pollinators.
Fig 1. The linear relationships between climate warming and appearance dates in pollinators (flight
activity) and plants (flowering) as currently observed, and some potential future development of this
relationship (Adapted pted from Hegland et al., 2009)
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Effect temperature in Flower size and timing of anthesis
Under elevated temperatures, several important traits of flowers related to attractiveness,
accessibility, and rewarding capability for insect visitors (Scaven and Rafferty, 2013) are likely to be
affected for instance, individual flower size.Pumpkin produced flowers of smaller diameter at 23 °C ,
shorter corolla tube lengths in Ipomoea trichocarpa flowers were reported under warmer temperature
(Hoover et al., 2012). Floral size also plays role in attracting pollinators (Totland, 2001).Temperature
also influenced the timing of anthesis, in warm morning flowers opening was reported to be 2-3 h
ahead (Murcia, 1990). These temperature-induced changes in flower size and timing of anthesis
might affect pollinators‘ activity in obtaining floral resources. Changes in floral dimensions could also
affect pollinator foraging efficiency for obtaining rewards (Harder, 1983).
Effect temperature floral scent, nectar, and pollen production
Capacity of bees to recognize them and orient themselves. The existence of plant species will
be at stake if it ceases to attract insects. Floral characteristics viz.scent, nectar, and pollen can also be
affected by temperature. Yuan et al. (2009) have reviewed greater emission of volatility of organic
compounds (VOCs)under warmer temperature although some worker reported decrease in floral
scent with an increase in temperature (Sagae et al., 2008). Similarly, nectar growth and quality are also
influenced by temperature (reviewed by Pacini et al., 2003). In some a Mediterranean plant, the
nectar volume and sugar content increased with temperature (38 °C) (Petanidou and Smets, 1996),
wheras a negative effect in ratio of glucose to fructose in the nectar of pumpkin was observed
(Hoover et al., 2012). Elevated night temperature also affected pollen germination in soybeans (Koti
et al., 2005).
Precipitation
High precipitation may adversely affect pollinators‘ foraging activity since climate change is
expected to alter existing precipitation patterns. Water stress may decrease flower numbers & nectar
production. Bumblebees have been reported to respond more to snow cover than to temperature
(Inouye, 2008).
Extreme climate events
Besides climate change, due to climate variability, both crops and pollinators are adversely
affected by extreme climatic events such as flash flood, long periods of heavy rain, acute
thunderstorm, hailstorm, cyclone, Tsunami may change the pollinators foraging behaviour, flight
activity. Alteration in nectar and pollen quality gets deteriorated under such climatic conditions.
Impact of climate change on plant phenology and its relation to pollinators
Changes in phenology of capsicum chinense have been reported due to elevation in CO2 and
temperature (Das et al, 2020). According to them, higher leaf emission rate and acceleration in days
to anthesis occurred under high temperature stress. Such changes in phenology could be one of the
reasons for temporal and spatial mismatches among the two partners for mutualism. Days to anthesis
was also significantly accelerated under elevated CO2 and temperature. A significant difference in
days to anthesis between the cultivars, elevated CO2 & temperature treatments and interaction of
treatments and cultivars were recorded. Asynchronous flower development can reduced the insect
visit and pollen deposition. (Reddy et al., 2012). Figure 1 depicts the effect of climate change on
phenology and distribution of plants and pollinators and creation of temporal or spatial mismatches
in plant‐pollinator interactions have been adopted from (Hegland et al., 2009). Berjano et al. (2009)
reported temporal pollinator attendance in two species of Aristolochia where both the species had
overlapping floral phonologies and extended flowering periods.
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Fig 1. Framework showing how climate warming may affect the phenology and, distribution of
plants (left panel) and pollinators (right panel) and thereby creating temporal or spatial mismatches in
plant-pollinator interactions (Hegland et al., 2009).
Effect of climate change on plants and their interaction with pollinators
Phenological responses to climate change might occur at parallel magnitudes in plants and
pollinators. Lehmann et al., (2020) studied the distribution of insect pests and reported occurrence of
different species in many continents most pollinators are insect‘s temperature will be critical for their
life cycle development and activity patterns, particularly in alpine and arctic regions (Totland, 1994;
Hodkinson et al., 1998). Plant-pollinator interactions can be disrupted by temporal (phenological)
and spatial (distributional) mismatches which may change the availability of mutualistic partners. It
may affect plants by reduced insect visit and pollen deposition, while pollinators experience reduced
food availability. Memmott et al. (2007) reported how global warming might affect a highly resolved
plant pollinator network. Studies have shown that warming of climate might generate temporal
mismatches among the mutualistic partners. Hegland et al. (2009) suggested potential ways of
studying warming-causing mismatches and effect on plant-pollinator interactions. The symbiotic
relation between flowers, insects between flowers; insects have been adversely affected by global
warming. A study showed that rise in spring temperatures disturb the relationship between early
spider orchid and the miner bee and therefore disturbs the reproduction. Demographic consequence
of mismatches between plants and pollinators seriously affect the pollinator population densities and
distributions (Durant et al., 2007). A mismatch with important pollinators can reduce pollen
deposition in plants (Ashman et al., 2004). Studies showed increase in seed setting after
supplementing pollination in flowering plants (Hegland and Totland, 2007; Price et al., 2008).
Climate change and drought and impact on pollination
Weather variables viz. Intensity of wind, temperature and solar radiation influences the visits
of insects (Kjohl et al., 2011; Nielsen et al., 2017). Increase in atmospheric temperature is one of the
most important effects of climate change w.r.t plant pollinator interaction (Kjohl et al., 2011).
Drought has been another vital stress affecting honey bees and thereby reducing yield of the crop.
Honey bee colony requires water to thermoregulate the hive in hot days by evaporative cooling,
diluting the stored honey, and also for consumption of nursing bees to produce jelly for feeding the
larval brood. For long distance flight for water source, they fuel their foraging flights with more of
sucrose (Woyciechowski, 2007). Flowers are strong sinks of sucrose and nutrients. Retrieval of
symplasmic and apoplasmic sucrosFe in flowers reflects the floral development and for newly
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formed tissues (Müller et al., 2010). Physiological function of petals is to attract animal pollinators to
flowers, synthesis of pigments and aromatic molecules play an important role. Petals too store
carbohydrates where polysaccharides get accumulated gradually but at anthesis it degrades rapidly to
generate the osmotic potential leading to water influx and flower opening ( van Doorn and
Kamdee, 2014). In tomato, sucrose is partially hydrolyzed to glucose and fructose and transported
along the filament, making the sugar available in the anther wall (Pressman et al., 2012). The
enzyme, Cell wall invertase (cwINV) in apoplasmic space hydrolyzes Sucrose to Glucose and
Fructose. The sucrose transporters carry Sucrose and hexose across the plasma membrane of the
receptacle cells and carbohydrates are stored as transitory starch. The partitioning of amino acids,
amides and peptides also takes place in floral tissues (Borghi ad Fernie, 2017). The colour and
fragrance can display the metabolic resources of flowers whch is attributed by the accumulation
secondary metabolites (Khan and Giridhar, 2015). Under drought condition, a reduction in
photosynthetic processes have been reported in Brassica species (Das, 2020) which might have led to a
decrease in flower production and sugar accumulation in reproductive organs ultimately lowering the
pollination activity. Absence of sugar source might be one of the reasons behind colony collapse
disorder. Under changed climatic condition, high mortality rate in bees and colony collapses disorder
have been reported worldwide (Conte and Navajas, 2008). Even wind speed has a strong effects on
successful pollination compared to other factors (Young et al., 2018).
Climate change is predicted to cause deleterious effect for insects in tropical zones. Under
drought, yield reduction is a result of decrease in pollen viability and increase in seed abortion rates
have also been reported (Melser and Klinkhamer, 2001; Boyer and Westgate, 2003). Reductions in
inflorescence and flower numbers in Trigonella coerulea have been reported by Akhalkatsi and Losch
(2005), when subjected to controlled drought conditions. Less flowers attracted by pollinators
experiences reductions in pollination and hence decreased seed quality and quantity (Philipp and
Hansen, 2000; Kudo and Harder, 2005) Yield reduction under drought is a result of decrease in
pollen viability and an increase in seed abortion rates (Melser and Klinkhamer, 2001; Boyer and
Westgate, 2003). Similar findings have also been reported by Das et al. (2021) in hot chilli was
exposed to high CO2 and temperature condition. Reduction in pollen number and pollen viability
was reported under elevated CO2 and high temperature (750 ppm CO2+ temperature elevation of
4oC than ambient) lead to the injury of pollen shape and size and even stigma. Abnormal floral
morphology have reported when the flowers collected from controlled structure (CTGT III) where
plants were grown under 750 ppm CO2 and an elevation of temperature by 4oC. Anatomical
aberrations like elongation of style as compared to the stamens and bending of style were noticed
(Fig 2). Increased temperature have an effect on temperature dependent insect those who require
biological timing by both crop and pollinators eg mango, litchi, coffee etc have a period of mass
blooming over short period requiring tremendous visits of pollinators. Elevated CO2 is expected to
modify ratio of C and N in plant tisuue possibly leading changes in nectar composition (Rusterholz
and Erhardt, 1998)
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Field condition= ambient CO2 condition and
ambient temperature condition
CTGT I = 380 ppm CO2 + ambient temperature
CTGT II =550 ppm CO2 + 2oC higher than
ambient from flower bud initiation till maturity
CTGT III= 750 ppm CO2 + 4oC higher than
ambient from flower bud initiation till maturity
Fig 3. Effect of elevated CO2 and temperature on pollen viability, pollen number, pollen diameter,
abnormal floral anatomy in Capsicum chinense Jacq.(Das et al., 2021)
Some crop plants are more vulnerable to reduction in numbers of pollinator. According to
Ghazoul (2005), the vulnerable plant species are those that have self-incompatible breeding system,
making them dependent on pollinator visitation for seed production.
Conclusion
Food security is directly related to potential productivity of crop which is greatly influenced
by pollinator. Several reports indicated that climate change has tremendous impact in increasing risk
of plant -pollinator interaction and information regarding their interaction is meagre. Recent research
suggests that environmental-induced changes in floral VOCs are more important for pollinators than
visual cues, at least for some plant species. Examination of information-rich floral VOCs opens
numerous avenues for future research that provide exciting opportunities to integrate chemical and
pollination ecology.
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It is necessary to elucidate climate sensitivity of different pollinators and crop plants and the
ecological cues which affect the various processes related to plant and pollinating species. Therefore,
this might be considered as a potential research area with the integration of various disciplines. A
holistic approach may be considered for enhancing crop productivity through upliftment of various
technologies related to pollination
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LIII-6
Priorities in ecological services for food and nutritional security: role of pollinators
U. Amala and T. M. Shivalinga swamy
ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru-560024
Corresponding author email: swamy.tms@gmail.com
Introduction
Agro-biodiversity components carry out ecosystem services (ES) that sustain the resources
and ecological processes upon which agriculture depends. Ecosystem services beyond production of
food, fiber, fuel, and income include recycling of nutrients, control of local microclimate, regulation
of local hydrological processes, pollination, regulation of the pests via biological control,
detoxification of noxious chemicals, etc. All renewal processes and ecosystem services performed by
agro-biodiversity are largely biological and therefore their persistence depends upon maintenance of
biological diversity and ecological integrity of agricultural systems.
Of the estimated 2,50,000 species of flowering plants, 91% require the services of pollinators to set
fruit and seed. Roubik‘s (1995) survey indicated that the world‘s major crops are pollinated by 44
genera of animals including bees (72.7%), flies (18.8%), bats (6.5%), wasps (5.2%), beetles (5.1%),
birds (4.1%), butterflies and moths (4.4%) and thrips (1.3%). Honey bees pollinate approximately
$10 billion worth of crops in the United States each year (Watanabe, 1994). However, of the hundred
or so crops that make up most of the world's food supply, only 15% are pollinated by domestic bees,
while at least 80% are pollinated by wild bees and other wildlife (Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen,
1990; Ingram et al., 1996a; Buchmann and Nabhan, 1996). Domesticated honey bees, which are
commonly used to pollinate crops, have declined dramatically in recent years. Parasitic mites were
responsible for some of the declines; more recent declines are from Colony Collapse Disorder
(CCD). Pollinators support biodiversity: There is a correlation between plant diversity and pollinator
diversity (Heithaus, 1974, in Tepedino, 1979; Moldenke, 1975, in Tepedino, 1979; del Moral and
Standley, 1979, in Tepedino, 1979).Declines in pollinators may make plants more vulnerable to
extinction (Committee on the Status of Pollinators in North America, 2007). Climate change has the
potential to affect the distribution of pollinators and the plants they pollinate, as well as the timing of
flowering and migration (Committee on the Status of Pollinators in North America, 2007).
Bees are key pollinators and their widespread decline has raised considerable concerns regarding the
sustainability of ecosystems and food production. Many environmental stressors do not directly kill
the bees, but they alter their physiology and behaviour, ultimately impacting colony build up and
their populations. Pollinators decline is a global crisis with factors influencing like colony collapse
disorder (CCD), overuse of plant protection chemicals, large scale monocropping, crop
intensification, fungal diseases resulting in loss of honeybees all around the world. Native wild bees
are of paramount importance in effecting pollination of major agricultural crops. Native bees with
typical ability to sonicate the flowers of crops which honeybees do not accounts for a major share in
the pollination and yield of major agricultural and horticultural crops. Overdependence on pesticides
in intensive cropping system with a loss of natural pest suppression ultimately reduced the native
pollinators‘ pool. The negative effect of pesticides on bees was compounded by the loss of their
natural habitats and also increased their vulnerability towards pathogens. Potential causes of decline
in bee pollinators might be due to factors including climate change, pesticides, land-use changes,
agricultural policies, competition, disturbances to reproductive habits and pathogens. There is a
paucity of data related to the strength of evidence for decline of native bees among various taxa.
The extent of decline in the native bee population due to the pathogens and insecticides is vital to
devise constructive ecological interventions to protect the bees. To conserve the bees, the vital stress
factors over the survival of native bees has to be established. Loss of bees is relatively due to a
number of complex factors along with their interaction making significant challenge to in-situ/ex-situ
conservation of native bees. Sound crop management tactics with a focus on sustaining wild bee
pollination services depends upon the balance between the insect pest management against the cost
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of native bee pollinators. Large assemblage of native flowering crops within agriculturally dominated
landscapes could preserve the native bees by serving as a refuge providing nectar, pollen and hiding
sites during application of plant protection chemicals.
Common non-apis bees
Sweat bees (Halictidae)
Adult sweat bees feed on nectar and pollen and during the summer may be seen with
impressive pollen loads on their hind legs as they return to their nest with food for immatures
(larvae). Founding females dig branching burrows in bare soil (on flat surfaces to vertical banks). The
female provisions cells at the end of each branch of tunnels with pollen balls and nectar. She lays her
eggs in the ends of the provisioned tunnels and the developing larvae feed on the balls of pollen and
nectar. Sweat bees usually overwinter as larvae or pupae in burrows in the soil. These bees were
attracted to human perspiration. Females can sting, but the sting is considered by most people to be
mildly painful. Stings commonly occur when one tries to brush them off their body.
Mining bees (Andrenidae)
They are solitary and do not form large, socially organized nests, dig single nests in the soil.
In spring, adult bees emerge, mate and begin nest preparation. They select exposed, well-drained soils
to nest in such as banks, hills and road cut-outs. Although the bees are solitary nesters, they often
construct nests in large numbers next to one another at a given nesting site. Each female mines out a
cylindrical hole to raise offspring. The nest consists of a vertical tunnel and side cells alongside the
tunnel for hatching eggs. Females forage flowers in spring to buildup food reserve to raise the young.
Once a cell has adequate food reserves, the female deposits an egg. The hatching larva feeds on the
food reserves throughout the summer. Foraging activity generally lessens during the summer months
and the bees become less noticeable. Mature larvae pupate and transform in adults during the late
summer. Adults spend the winter inside the burrow and will emerge the following spring to start the
whole cycle over. Areas that are dry, exposed and well-drained with sparse vegetation are the
preferred nesting sites.
Leafcutter bees (Megachildae)
Medium-sized, black, often with a striped abdomen, these bees collect pollen on the
abdomen. Their heads are large relative to their body size, with large mouthparts used to cut leaf
pieces to construct nest cells in hollow plant stems or beetle holes. Leafcutter bees are first observed
in late spring, and some species continue collecting pollen until the first frost. These bees are solitary
and have a single generation per year. Megachilids were found to successfully pollinate Leguminosae.
Species of Megachile were found to visit flowers and has been reported to be an efficient pollinator of
leguminous crops under captive conditions (Abrol et al., 1990).
Mason bees
Mason bee species (Osmia sp.) are recognised as potential pollinators for diverse crops,
including orchard (apple, pear, almond), vegetable, greenhouse, and field crops. Mason or Osmia bees
(Family: Megachilidae). Small to medium-sized, deep blue metallic or black with white hair on thorax,
these bees collect pollen on the abdomen. They nest in hollow plant stems or holes made by beetles,
and they need mud near the nest to make their nest cells. Many mason bees are active in early spring,
and some species have been successfully managed using nesting boxes so that large numbers are
present to pollinate spring-blooming fruit crops. Although they will nest close to other females of
their species, these are solitary bees and have a single generation per year.
Nesting behavior of some of the native bees
Nesting habits of halictid bee,
Hoplonomia westwoodi
Halictid bee, H. westwoodi constructs its subterranean nest in aggregations in fine drained
alkali soils in flower pots, smooth surfaces with its nest entrance marked with a chimney like
structure termed as turret measuring 0.5 cm high. The nest founding activity commonly coincides
with the early rainy days. During active nesting period, adult females could be observed repairing its
broken turrets in case of heavy rains. A layer of salty white encrustation can be often seen in the
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turrets after hardening. The main shaft of the nest runs underground at a depth of 70.1 cm with
horizontal laterals originating from the main shaft at a depth of 41.7 cm that end in brood clusters.
The brood cells contain different stages of the brood with a colloidal pollen mass with an internal
hydrophobic lining to protect the developing broods. The bee lays translucent white c- shaped egg at
the top of the pollen mass from the larva emerges out feed upon the pollen and matures into a pupa.
Female bee gets frequently encountered inside the cells tending the developing broods and often
sighted at the nest entrance to evade the enemies from entering the nest.
Nesting habits of leaf cutter bee
, Megachile
spp
Leaf cutter bees belonging to the genus Megachile uses leaf pieces/soil particles to construct
nests in the pre-existing cavities, hollow stems, dead woods, leaf whorls, flower pots, papaya petioles
and manmade holes. These bees cut the leaves to line their cells making multiple layers of leaf and lay
their eggs inside the leaf cell pre-provisioned with pollen (Raw, 2004; Buschini, 2006; Michener,
2007). The adult female bee undertakes pollen foraging trips and makes a pollen bed in its cell and
oviposits on it. The hatching grub feeds upon the pollen ball and develops into a mature brood.
Hollow stems / structures of diameter 5-10 mm can be used to attract the adult female bees to
construct their nests for their in-situ habitat conservation. These leaf cutter bees were reported to be
highly opportunistic in its nesting behaviour and conserving its natural nesting habitats could be a
viable way to protect the diversity of this bees.
Nesting habits of digger bees
Digger bees belonging to the tribe Anthophorini constructs their nests in soil in aggregations
along the edges of flower pots, old mud walls and in places where abandoned soils were dumped.
The nest entrance will be marked with a heap of dug up soil termed as tumulus. The nests had a main
shaft that ends in brood clusters. The brood clusters appear cylindrical with different stages of the
brood provisioned with the pollen mass. The bee prefers to nest in red soil with rich potting mixture
(Sandeep and Muthuraman, 2018).
Role of solitary bees in crop pollination
Amegilla spp – an efficient native pollinator of Solanaceous vegetables. Blue banded bee,
Amegilla zonata are native medium large, long tongued pubescent bees that build solitary nests in
underground soil in vertical burrows. These bees were well reported pollinators of crops like
tomatoes (Hoogendorn et al., 2007) and Ocimum (Sharma and Abrol, 2015). These blue banded bees
with an ability to buzz pollinate could be a suitable pollinator for tomatoes under greenhouse
conditions. Hoogendorn et al., 2006 reported a 24% increase in tomato weight when flowers were
pollinated during frequent visitations by A. chlorocyanea throughout a day. A significant positive
correlation was observed between the increase in fruit weight with the number of seeds set per fruit
in flowers buzzed upon by the A. chlorocyanea. Amala and Shivalingaswamy (2017) reported that
pollination by native blue banded bee, A. zonata (177.12 seeds/fruit) and sweat bee, Hoplonomia
westwoodi (140.50 seeds/fruit) increased the number of seeds per fruit in tomato compared to self-
pollinated fruits (56.63 seeds/fruit). Amala and Shivalingaswamy (2021) reported that flower visit and
pollination by native bee, A. violacea enhanced the fruit set by 76.02% with a greater number of seeds
set per fruit (1278.9 seeds/fruit) compared to wind pollination (31.99% fruit set and 151.48
seeds/fruit).
Leaf cutter bees – an efficient pollinator of pulses
Pulse crops with typical papilionaceous flowers were tripped by the solitary bees that makes
their keel petals to get spread apart and the anthers gets exposed as a result of which the visiting bee
gets brushed with pollen grains. Leaf cutter bee belonging to the genus Megachile and Carpenter bee
belonging to the genus Xylocopa were the major pollinators of pulse crops and they trip the flowers.
This tripping behaviour by these solitary bees were reported to increase the pollination and yield in
crops like pigeon pea, sunn hemp and other crops. Conservation of solitary bee, Megachile sp by
providing artificial trap nests in pigeon pea significant increase in the percent pod set, number of
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seeds per pod and 100 seed weight by the pollination of leaf cutter bees in the plot installed with trap
nests compared to the control plot (Amala & Shivalingaswamy, 2020 unpublished data).
References
Amala, U., Chaubey, B.K. & Shivalingaswamy, T.M. 2021. Amegilla violacea (Lepeletier, 1841)
(Anthophorini: Apidae) – a native bee, an effective pollinator of eggplant (Solanum
melongena). Journal of Apicultural Research DOI.org/10.1080/00218839.2020.1862393.
Buschini, M.L.T. 2006. Species diversity and community structure in trap-nesting bees in Southern
Brazil. Apidologie 37, 58–66
Hogendoorn, K., Gross, C.L., Sedgley, M. and Keller, M.A. 2006. Increased tomato yield through
pollination by Native Australian Amegilla chlorocyanea (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae). Journal
of Economic Entomology 99(3): 828–833.
Hoogendorn, K., Coventry, N. and Keller, M.A. 2007. Foraging behaviour of a blue banded bee,
Amegilla chlorocyanea in greenhouses: implications for use as tomato pollinators. Apidologie 38:
86–92.
Michener, C.D. 2007. The bees of the World, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore,
pp 992.
Raw, A. 2004. Ambivalence over Megachile. In: Freitas, B.M., Pereira, J.O.P. (eds.) Solitary bees.
Conservation, rearing and management for pollination, Imprensa Universitária, Fortaleza, pp.
175–184.
Sandeep, K.J., Muthuraman, M. Bio-ecology of blue banded bees, Amegilla zonata L. (Apidae:
Hymenoptera). Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2019; 7(1): 428-434
Sharma, D. and Abrol, D.P. 2015. Foraging behaviour of Amegilla zonata (L.) on Ocimum
kilimandscharicum Guerke. Bangladesh Journal of Botany 44 (1): 129–132.
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III-1
Screening for resistance rice genotypes to stem borer (
Scirpophaga incertulus
) in North
Eastern Region
Sushilkumar S1, Takhellambam Julia2
1PhD Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, SASRD, Nagaland University, Medziphema
2PhD Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University,
Imphal
Corresponding authorvelloreji@ email: gmail.com
Crop plants persistently experience biotic stresses which obstruct the ultimate yield and
survival of the crop plants. Insects directly or indirectly cause damage by feeding on nearly all parts
of the plant from root to panicle. Rice dominates Indian agriculture and accounts for 40 per cent
production under food grains. Eight species of stem borer of rice are known to be significantly
important in Asia. Several species of rice stem borers are reported from NEH region and yellow
stem borer is considered as predominant. This insect attacks the crop specifically during vegetative
stage, reproductive stage and causes yield reduction. Drying of central shoot known as dead heart at
vegetative stage and white ear and chaffy panicle at harvesting stage, which lead to no grain
formation. S. incertulus causes yield loss of 27- 34 percent every year. Progress on the development
of rice varieties with high level of resistance to stem borers in India and other part of the world is
very much slow due to lack of suitable germplasm, screening techniques and a poor understanding of
the genetics of resistance. Several landraces from the North Eastern region have been identified for
moderate level of resistance that includes, ARC 6107, ARC 6044, RYT 2908 (vegetative stage), ARC
6215, ARC 6579, ARC 5757 (heading stage), and ARC 5500. Using resistant planting material is an
important component of rice. Varieties with adequate levels of resistance to insect pests will
encourage farmers to reduce insecticide application. As natural resistance in rice against insect pests
is one of the important components of Integrated Pest Management program and highly compatible
with other control measures, understanding of the resistance response of advanced rice cultivars will
be useful for the efficient utilization of the existing resistant sources for the development of resistant
varieties against stem borer.
Keywords: Screening, resistance, rice genotypes, stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulus, North Eastern
Region
III-2
Interaction of plant growth regulator and beneficial microbes in plant defence
Lukram Shantikumar1, Nasratullah2, S.R. Singh3, B.N.Hazarika4
1Department of Basic Sciences & Humanities (Plant Physiology), College of Horticulture and Forestry, Pasighat,
Arunachal Pradesh
2,3,4Department of Fruit Science, College of Horticulture and Forestry, Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh
Corresponding author email: lukeshanti@gmail.com
Plant interact with beneficial microbes through plant growth regulators like salicylic acid
(SA), jasmonic acid(JA), ethylene and others conferring long-lasting protection against a broad
spectrum of biotic stresses. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is triggered by avirulent or attenuated
pathogens which lead to the production of SA, ROS and pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins inducing
hypersensitive responses and resistance to a number of pathogens and pests. Generally, SAR is most
effective against biotrophic and hemibiotrophic pathogens that thrive on live plant tissues. Some
beneficial microorganisms such as Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Trichoderma, and mycorrhizal fungal
species, prime the plant‘s immune system mostly by the activation of JA and ethylene leading to
Induced Systemic Response (ISR) and providing resistance against against a broad range of
pathogens and insect herbivores. Plants attract these microbes by altering root exudation to attract
them. ISR is most effective against necrotrophic pathogens. SAR and ISR can crosstalk through JA
and SA. In our study, seeds of Citrus cv. Rangpur Lime were treated with Trichoderma viride,
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Pseudomonas fluorescens, mycorrhiza and humicil. Minimum fungal incidence (0.8%) was observed in
Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens and maximum seed germination percentage (86.7 %) was
recorded in the treatments of mycorrhiza and Trichoderma viride combined with Humicil. This shows
that seed priming with beneficial microorganism can improve the germination and seedling
performance of Rangpur Lime.
Keyword: Interaction, plant growth regulator, beneficial microbes, plant defence
III-3
Biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles, their characterization and study on its effect
against sheath blight and BLB of rice, mammalian cell line, and beneficial microbes
Arti Kumari1, Pranab Dutta1, N. N. Barman2, Ankita Das3, Bubul Chandra Das4
1School of Crop Protection, CPGSAS, Central Agricultural University (Imphal), Umiam, Meghalaya
2Department Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Khanapara, Guwahati
3Department of Plant Pathology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam
3Regional Agricultural Research Station - Titabar, AAU, Jorhat, Assam
Corresponding author email: artikumari14002@gmail.com, 2pranabdutta74@gmail.com
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesized biogenically mediating the fungus Trichoderma
asperellum and were characterized using UV-Vis spectrophotometer, DLS, FTIR and NTA. The UV-
Vis spectroscopic results revealed characteristic SPR peak at 410 nm. The average size of hexagonal,
crystalline, and amorphous AgNPs were 49.20 nm with zeta potential value -28.4 mV and
concentration 2.24 X 107particles/ml respectively. FTIR analysis showed characteristic peaks at
1638.2 and 3339.7 cm-1 which corresponds to bending vibration of amide I, amide II bands of
proteins and primary amines respectively. The toxicity of AgNPs were evaluated at three different
concentration viz., 50, 100 and 200 ppm against the causal agents of sheath blight and bacterial
blight (BLB) of rice, three biocontrol agents viz., Trichoderma harzianum, Beauveria bassiana and Bacillus
thuringiensis and mammalian cell line (Vero cells). Results showed that AgNPs could cause significant
reduction of sheath blight and BLB of rice being highest reduction of disease at 200 ppm
concentration. Toxicity study showed that AgNPs posed weak toxic effect against T. harzianum and
B. bassiana with highest mycelial biomass inhibition at 200 ppm i.e. up to 31.54% and 28.40%
respectively but without any inhibitory effect to B. thuringiensis. The study on uptake of NPs by Vero
cells revealed rapid uptake in a concentration and time dependent manner. Cellular fluorescence
microscopic study also revealed increase in AgNP content within cells with increase in AgNP
concentration. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) showed distortions in cellular structure at 200
ppm AgNP. The study on cytotoxicity of AgNPs on Vero cells showed mild toxicity in a dose
dependent manner. The percent viability of Vero cells was found to be highest at 50 ppm (75.27%)
and lowest at 200 ppm (72.81%). The highest per cent cytotoxicity (28.22%) on Vero cells was
recorded at 200 ppm and lowest (12.15%) at 50 ppm. This study showed effective result in reduction
of Sheath blight and BLB of rice and posed mild toxicity on fungal biocontrol agents and Vero cells
and without any toxic effect on B. thuringiensis.
Keywords: Silver nanoparticles, antimicrobial, toxicity, mammalian cells
III-4
Induced mutagenesis in plant breeding for resistance to disease and insect pest
Takhellambam Julia 1, Rimamay Konjengbam2, Sushilkumar S3 and N. Sunita Devi4
1,2,4Ph.D Scholar, College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal-795004.
3Ph.D Scholar, SASRD, Nagaland University
Corresponding author email: takhellambamjulia@gmail.com
Global food security faces several challenges such as climate change, increasing human
population and decreasing area of arable land. World population is projected to reach 10 billion by
2100 (United Nations, 2011) with the trend of changing diet towards higher quality food. Induced
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mutagenesis could be one of the solutions to challenges facing the agriculture. Mutation breeding has
substantially contributed to conservation of biodiversity by stopping gene erosion. Breeding for
resistance to pest and disease is one of the main goals in plant breeding programme. Pathogens cause
huge yield losses in the agriculture every year with large economic losses and damage to ecosystems.
Actual losses due to pests (weeds, animal pests and pathogens) range from 26-29% for sugar beet,
barley, soybean, wheat and cotton, to 31-40% for maize, potato and rice. The actual loss is referring
to the losses sustained despite protection measures applied. The advances in molecular technology
and recent findings in cloning of disease resistance (R) genes allow the improvement of crop disease
resistance by applying traditional breeding, genomic approaches, transgenic deployment and
mutagenesis tools for enhancing disease and pest resistance. According to the FAO/IAEA database,
there are 320 cultivars with improved disease resistance using mutagenic agents that were obtained as
direct mutant or derived from hybridization with mutant or from progeny (for example by self-
fertilization). Induced mutations have been used to improve economically important crops such as
wheat, barley, rice, cotton, peanut, sunflower, sesame, banana etc. Disease and pest resistance in
commercial crops was improved mostly in cereals (rice, barley, maize, wheat) and legumes (bean,
green pea). For the improvement of disease resistance, the induction of mutations is applied by
different mutagenesis approaches: virus induced gene silencing, RNA-mediated interference,
Agrobacterium-mediated insertional mutagenesis, radiation and chemical mutagenesis and with
combined approaches such as Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genome (TILLING).
Keywords: Induced mutagenesis, disease resistance, pest resistance
III-5
Advancement for pest resistance in coffee: a review
C. N. Nidhi
College of Agriculture,
Central Agriculture University, Imphal, Manipur
Corresponding author email: nidhicheppudira@gmail.com
An important plantation crop, coffee which is grown in about 80 countries across the world
is attacked by major pests like white stem borer (Xylotrechus quadripes), coffee berry borer
(Hypothenemus hampei), leaf miner (Perileucoptera coffeela), and root nematodes (Meloidogyne spp. and
Pratylenchus spp.). A recent trend of developing genetically modified crops has been channelised for
obtaining better results with pest resistant coffee varieties. Transgenic technology is a sophisticated
approach to develop resistant varieties with desired traits to combat such pest problems without
chemical usage. Biobalistic transformation using Plasmid pMDC85 carrying the cry10Aa gene was
introduced into a typica cultivar of Coffea arabica L. Stable transformation was first achieved and
reported by Eliana et al. (2019) in hygromycin-resistant embryogenic lines with expression of the
Cry10Aa protein in coffee plants resistant to coffee berry borer. In C. canephora incorporated with
αA11 gene from common bean were produced via Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation,
and bioassays for imparting resistance against coffee leaf miner (Perileucoptera coffeella). The first
evidence of host plant resistance to coffee stemborer, in Kenya (2015) was seen on C. arabica variety
KP423. Apart from these they are also backed by natural host characteristics like high bark moisture,
thick sclerotic parenchyma cells, endogenous chitinase activity in tissues of the bark also deter borers
of coffee.
Keywords: Transgenic, pest resistant, transformation, host plant characteristics
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III-6
Interactive effects of elevated CO2 and temperature on plant-insect interactions
Merentoshi and Lanunola Tzudir
Depertment of Genetics and Plant Breeding, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development (SASRD):
Nagaland University; Medziphema (Nagaland)
Depertment of Agronomy, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development (SASRD): Nagaland University;
Medziphema (Nagaland)
Corresponding author email: merenmollier@gmail.com
Elevated CO2 and temperature is altering the interaction between plants and insects by
modifying the chemical composition of foliage and altering insect herbivory. However, the response
of folivorous insects to these changes is highly variable. Elevated CO2 in general increases the
concentration of leaf carbohydrates and in combination with elevated temperature the nitrogen (N)
content decreases. Such change lowers the nutritional value of foliage causing certain herbivores to
consume more to meet their nutritional needs. The response of allelochemicals that affect insect
performance also varies under elevated CO2 and tempetarure and is considerably less predictable.
Besides the changes in secondary metabolites, elevated CO2 and temperature also decreases the rate
of water loss from leaves, increases temperature, feeding rates, and alters nutritional content. Since
these responses are multifaceted and ecologically complex the affect by the ongoing global warming
on insects‘ sensitivity thus remains ambiguous.
Keywords: Global warming, Elevated CO2, Temperature, insect herbivory, plant secondary
metabolites
III-7
Population dynamics and relative host preference of Cucumber moth,
Diaphania indica
(Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) on different cucurbitaceous vegetable crops
A. T. Rani1, Jaydeep Halder, Pratap A. Divekar, Sujan Majumder, K. K. Pandey and Jagdish Singh
1Central Horticultural Experiment Station, ICAR-IIHR, Chettalli-571 248, Kodagu, Karnataka
ICAR-Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi-221 305, Uttar Pradesh
Corresponding author email: raniatgowda@gmail.com
Diaphania indica (Saunders) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is a serious polyphagous pest of
Cucurbitaceae in Asia and Africa and occasionally feeds on other plants belongs to the Fabaceae and
Malvaceae family. The field experiments were carried out to study the population dynamics and
relative host preference of cucumber moth, D. indica on different cucurbitaceous vegetable crops
during summer and kharif seasons in the year 2019 and 2020 in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Weekly observations on larval population of D. indica were taken on ten cucurbit crops through
random sampling method. The results of the study revealed, the maximum incidence of D.indica
larvae on cucumber, musk melon and sponge gourd during 22nd , 23rd and 25th SMW (0.73
larvae/plant/week) in summer 2019 while in kharif 2019, maximum incidence was observed on
cucumber (4.20/plant/week) and long melon (3.13/plant/week) during 43rd SMW followed by ash
gourd during 44th SMW (3.07/plant/week). In the year 2020, maximum incidence of D.indica was
observed on long melon (3.13/plant/week) during 24th SMW in summer. In kharif 2020, the highest
larval incidence was recorded on cucumber (7.27/plant/week) during 37th SMW followed by musk
melon (6.8/plant/week) during 42nd SMW. Among ten cucurbitaceous vegetables, the maximum
number of D.indica larvae was recorded mainly on sponge gourd, cucumber, long melon, musk melon
and bottle gourd during summer season whereas in kharif season maximum larval population were
recorded on ash gourd, cucumber, pumpkin, sponge gourd, long melon and bitter gourd during both
the year 2019 and 2020. Hence, these crops were found to be the most preferred crops as the larvae
of D.indica was highly favoured to feed on these crops under the field condition. This host plant
preference of the pest species can be exploited for the development of ecofriendly pest management
strategies against the pest.
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Keywords: Population dynamics, relative host preference, Cucumber moth, Diaphania indica,
Lepidoptera, Pyralidae, cucurbitaceous vegetable
III-8
Host plant association and incidence on the rate of infestation of Cerambycid beetles in
Manipur
Natasha Ayekpam, R. Varatharajan, Th. Johnson and Shyam Maisnam
Center of Advanced Study in Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal - 795003
Corresponding author email: natashayekpam@gmail.com and rvrajanramya@gmail.com
Cerambycid beetles are commonly known as longhorned or longicorn beetles of the order
Coleoptera and they are serious pests of crops, vegetables, timber, furniture etc. In the present study
nearly 12 species of cerambycids infesting on diverse species of plant hosts were collected, during the
survey undertaken in 2018 and 2019. Among the plants observed in the present study, species
belonging to Moraceae were found to be very common in terms of infestation, followed by Rutaceae,
Fabaceae, Fagaceae, Anacardiaceae, Verbenaceae Sapindaceae, Casuarinaceae, Malvaceae, Tiliaceae,
Burseraceae, Dipterocarpaceae and Poaceae. The infestation rate was more on Ficus religiosa L.,
Quercus serrata Murray, Shorea robusta Roth and Citrus trifoliata L., whereas minimum level of infestation
was observed on Albezia, Acacia and Aegle sp. The infestation rate was indicated and represented by
minimum, medium and maximum on the basis of observation i.e. out of 10 plants, if one or two
plants are attacked, then it is categorized as minimum; 4 or 5 plants out of 10 trees will be considered
as medium and more than 6 plants of the same species was ranked as maximum level of infestation
in the surveillance protocol. Out of 12 species of cerambycids, Stromatium barbatum (Fabricius, 1775)
was found to attack 9 species of plants belonging to 4 families. By and large, the infestation appeared
to be more during the summer months.
Keywords: Cerambycids, Beetles, Stromatium barbatum, host plant.
III-9
Sapota varietal deviation due to chiku moth [
Nephopteryx eugraphella
(RAGONOT)] under
normal and high density plantation
K. R. Solanki and K. D. Bisane
ICAR-AICRP on Fruits, Fruit Research Station,
Navsari Agricultural University, Gandevi – 396 360 (Gujarat) India
Corresponding author email: kdbisane@yahoo.co.in
Sapota is one of the important and delicious fruit of humid tropical and sub-tropical regions
in India. Its fruits are available almost throughout the year in South Gujarat circumstances due its
unique bearing pattern. Among them insect pests fauna, chiku moth, Nephopteryx eugraphella (Ragonot)
is major pest harbor on foliage, bud, flower and fruit and cause significant fruit yield loss.
Considering the significance of this pest, an exercise was framed to find out succession and peak
activity period in different varieties of sapota viz., PKM-1, PKM-3, PKM-4, DHS-1, DHS-2, Cricket
ball and CO-3 in comparison to Kalipatti under normal and high density plantation in view to follow
necessary preventive management practices at right time. The varietal screening study was conducted
at Fruit Research Station, Navsari Agricultural University, Gandevi during 2019-20. The results
revealed that the bud and flower infestation due to chiku moth was significantly maximum in
Kalipatti and Cricket ball and comparatively less in PKM-1and PKM-3. The fruit damage data
indicated that the fruits were not severely infested by chiku moth during the investigation period.
However, the maximum infestation was noticed in Cricket ball and Kalipatti and it was less in CO-3
and DHS-2. As well, the leaf damage due to chiku moth showed that the leaf infestation was
moderate during the research period and the maximum infestation was observed in Kalipatti, DHS-2
and Cricket ball. While, leaf damage was less in PKM-1, PKM-3 and CO-3. Among spacing, the bud,
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flower, fruit and leaf damage were reported higher under high density than normal spacing. The data
revealed higher damage of chiku moth during summer season than winter among all varieties.
Keywords: Sapota varietal deviation, chiku moth, Nephopteryx eugraphella, high density plantation
III-10
Biochemical changes in
Prosopis cineraria
due to infestation by
Eriophyes prosopidis
(Eriophyidae: Acarina)
Shiwani Bhatnagar, Sangeeta Singh, Ameen Ullah Khan, Neha Sharma, Tanmaya Kumar Bhoi and
Bundesh Kumar
Forest Protection Division, Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur
Corresponding author email: shiwani.bhatnagar@gmail.com
Prosopis cineraria (Khejri), a leguminous multipurpose tree of Rajasthan is also known as
―Golden tree‖ or ―Wonder tree‖ of the Thar Desert as it plays important role in the socio-economic
development of the farmers of arid region of India. It is indigenous to India and in many regions,
even protected as a sacred tree. Prosopis cineraria pods are used in the immature or ripe form to
prepare vegetables (panchkuta), pickles and various other dishes. Dried pods are used by rural people
on a daily basis. Inflorescence galls caused by Eriophyes prosopidis are the common feature that results
in obstruction in setting of fruits and declination in the yield of pods. Damage by the flower galls is
not only the aesthetic problem but it also lowers down the yield of pods. The feeding of
insects/mites on tree parts induces biochemical and physiological changes in the host plants,
affecting the life processes of host plants. In turn trees also respond to changes linked with
insect/mites feeding through various morphological, biochemical and molecular mechanisms.
Various compounds accumulate in trees in accordance with degree of damage to counter insects/
mites attack as defense mechanism. In the present study biochemical analysis of samples collected
from un-infested and flower galls infested Khejri tree was done for linking the infestation with
biochemical defense through activation of antioxidants in response to damage by the Khejri gall
mites, E. prosopidis. The levels of total soluble protein and phenol were found to be significantly
higher in flower gall infested khejri trees in comparison to healthy khejri trees. Insignificant
difference in the level of total soluble sugar was observed in infested trees as compared to healthy
trees. Increase in phenol and protein contents are common response of plant to counter the
insect/mites attack and inhibit the oviposition, population build up and unceasing existence of the
attacking insect. These findings demonstrate that biochemical compounds through activation of
antioxidant defense systems impart some kind of resistance to khejri trees against E. prosopidis. Thus,
these outcomes could be used in insect resistance breeding program. These studies could also be
useful for detailed understanding on metabolic pathways regulating biochemical defense and up- and
down-regulation of associated genes in plant defense against biotic stresses.
Keywords: Resistance, protein, phenol, sugar, defense
III-11
Screening of rapeseed and mustard (
Brassica
) germplasm and breeding material against
Erysiphe cruciferarum
causing powdery mildew under bastar plateau of Chhattishgarh
Vandana Chadar, R. R. Bhanwar and Rajesh Kumar Patel
AICRP on Rapeseed and Mustard, S. G. College of Agriculture and Research Station, Jagdalpur, IGKV,
Chhattisgarh, 494001
Corresponding author email: vandanachadar3@gmail.com
Powdery mildew of mustard caused by Erysiphe cruciferarum Opiz.ex Junell., is one of the most
important diseases in India as well as Chhattisgarh. It occurs regularly and caused considerable yield
losses in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern and Coss. In present investigation, screening of
sixty one germplasms of rapeseed and mustard group (Brassica species) were carried out during Rabi
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of 2018-19 under field conditions. Among the sixty one germplasms, the UDN-18-24, 18-34, 18-40,
18-44, 18-48, 18-50, 18-56 and 18-61 genotypes were found immune against disease with scale point
of zero. While, the genotypes 18- 25 was categorized as highly resistant with scale point of one
whereas, total thirty six germplasms were rated as moderately resistant to the disease with the scale
point of 5 in the year of 2018-19.
Keywords: Screening, rapeseed and mustard, germplasm and breeding material, Erysiphe cruciferarum,
powdery mildew
III-12
Antioxidant defense system in chickpea in response to gram pod borer,
Helicoverpa
armigera
(Hubner) stress
Su Htet San1, D. Sagar1, Veda Krishnan2, Monika Awana2, Archana Singh2 and Arpan Bhowmik3
1Division of Entomology and 2Division of Biochemistry, ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
3Division of Design of experiments, ICAR- Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi
Corresponding author email: garuda344@gmail.com
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the third most important pulse crop grown all over the world.
It suffers from both biotic & abiotic stress which results in extensive losses in yield, among which
Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) is a major biotic constraint accounting for the 80 per cent yield loss.
Infestation by herbivorous insects results in accumulation of defensive compounds through
physiological, morphological and biochemical changes in plant system. The present study was carried
out to understand plant defense system in selected chickpea genotypes viz., NBeG – 786, GL -13001,
ICC - 3137 (susceptible), ICCL - 86111 (resistant), GL - 13042 and RSG - 959. Investigations were
carried out on enzymatic (superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase and polyphenol oxidase), non-
enzymatic (hydrogen peroxide, malondialdehyde content), nutritional compounds (reducing sugar
and protein content), and anti-nutritional compounds (total phenols and tannins content) at four
intervals viz., 24, 48, 72 and 96 h after infestation by H. armigera in chickpea seedlings. Data were also
recorded on the leaf weight consumed, damage rating, pest susceptibility or resistance (%) and rating.
The activities of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase and the contents of hydrogen
peroxide, malondialdehyde, reducing sugar, protein, total phenols and tannins were increased while
the catalase activity was decreased in the H. armigera infested plants than the uninfested plants.
Present findings suggest that several biochemical compounds and their regulating enzymes especially
antioxidant defense system play an important role in plant defense against H. armigera in chickpea.
Keywords: Antioxidant enzymes, biotic stress, chickpea, defense system, Helicoverpa armigera
III-13
Ovipositional preference of potato tuber moth,
Phthorimaea operculella
(Zeller) on some
potato varieties and its management through some plant volatile oils
M.K. Gupta, Sheileja Thounaojam, Loganathan R. and K. Mamocha
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal, Manipur – 795004
Corresponding author email: sheileja.th@gmail.com
The Potato Tuber Moth, Phthorimaea operculella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is a
cosmopolitan dominant pest in sub-tropical and tropical areas and it is responsible for important
losses in potato production (Das et al.,1992). The moth has high reproductive potential and is
apparently developing resistance to some insecticides. It can cause damage to foliage and to tubers in
the field especially high potential to destroy potatoes in storage. The effect of five potato varieties on
fecundity and hatchability of PTM was studied and the descending order of fecundity with respect to
varieties was Kufri Kanchan (67.5 eggs)> Kufri Jyoti (62.5 eggs) > Kufri Himalini (53.75 eggs) >
Kufri Gridhari (53.75 eggs) > Kufri Sindhuri (43.75 eggs). Effectiveness of five plant volatile oils at
five different concentrations and their relative toxicity were evaluated against PTM which revealed
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that percent larval mortality decreases as the concentration of the plant volatile oil decreases. After
24 hours of treatment, 1.0% Patchouli oil gave highest mortality of 79.99% followed by Citronella oil
(70%) and Lemongrass oil (66.66%). After 48 hours of treatment, the highest larval mortality was
obtained in Patchouli oil (79.99%) followed by Citronella oil (73.33%) and Lemongrass oil (69.99%)
at the highest concentration of 1.0%. The larvae treated with Patchouli oil at the concentration of
0.8% and 1.0% and Citronella oil @ 1.0% failed to pupate showing suppression of pupation at
higher concentration. The lowest percentage of adult emergence of 8.34% was obtained when treated
with Lemongrass oil @ 0.4% concentration while the highest percentage of adult emergence
(96.66%) was obtained when treated with Citronella oil @ 0.2% concentration. The LC50 values of
Citronella oil, Lemongrass oil and Patchouli oil were 0.727%, 0.772% and 0.525% respectively after
48 hours of treatment. Patchouli oil showed the lowest LC50 value and proved to be the most toxic
plant volatile oil followed by Citronella oil. Lemongrass oil show the highest LC50 value and proved
to be the least toxic to the larvae of PTM. The descending order of toxicity of the plant volatile oils
with respect to LC50 value is as Patchouli oil (0.526%) > Citronella oil (0.727%) > Lemongrass oil
(0.772%).
Keywords: Potato Tuber Moth, Plant volatile oils, Ovipositional preference, LC50 value, Mortality
III-14
Influence of frass volatiles on oviposition behaviour of Fall armyworm,
Spodoptera
frugiperda
Prathiksh V1, Suresh M. Nebapure1, V. S. Rana2
1Division of Entomology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-12
2Division of Agricultural Chemicals, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-12
Corresponding author email: smnebapure@gmail.com
The studies were carried out to isolate and identify volatile compounds from frass of
Spodoptera fruziperda larvae influencing oviposition of conspesific females. Frass of larvae fed on
three different diets viz., maize, castor and artificial diet was extracted using solvent extraction
method. In first step the extraction protocol was standardized using three different solvents viz.,
hexane, dichloromethane and methanol at 4, 6, 8 and 10µl/mg. The GC-MS analysis of the frass
extracts revealed that a 4µl/mg of frass extract showed presence of maximum number of
compounds and their concentrations were higher than 6,8 and 10µl/mg extracts. Among different
solvents used, methanol was found to extract maximum number of compounds and among different
diets, maize fed larval frass was found to contain maximum number of compounds. The
Electroantennogram (EAG) behavioral studies on gravid female revealed significant higher response
(0.40±0.13 mV) to volatiles obtained from maize fed larvae. Further, this extract also showed
significant repellent effect not only on female moths but also on larvae (73.07% and 78.57%
respectively) through Y-tube orientation studies. The oviposition bioassay of three fatty acids methyl
esters viz., pentadecanoic acid, linoleic acid and oleic acid identified from frass extract at 1%
concentration revealed pentadecanoic acid methyl ester as the highest oviposition deterrent (82.31%)
followed by linoleic acid methyl ester (79.68%).
Keywords: Spodoptera frugiperda, oviposition deterrence, larval frass, fatty acids
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III-15
Host plant resistance in integrated pest management in cereals crop
Gajendra Singh1 and Archana Anokhe2
1Ph.D Department of Entomology, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Modipuram,
Meerut - 250110 (U.P.)
2Scientist Division of Entomology, IARI, New Delhi
Corresponding author email: gajendraentomo@gmail.com
Host plant resistance to insects (PRI) is an underutilized pest management strategy in cereal
production. Increased pressures to reduce pesticides and changes in technology now increase the
economic viability and probable role of plant resistance to insects in cereal crop pest management.
This is reflected in the relatively recent release of several insect resistant varieties and breeding lines.
The attention plant resistance to insects now receives in extension publications are also increasing.
There is room to improve research work documentation to assist producers in making better use of
the available resistance to insects in cereal crops. In the short term, existing varieties can be screened
more extensively and quantitative information provided to producers. In the long term, variety
specific recommendations for the use of chemical controls and other management tactics in
conjunction plant resistance to insects with will be beneficial. Awareness of varietal susceptibility to
insect pests will increase the incentives to private breeders to eliminate extremely susceptible material
from their breeding programs. Trends in these directions can already be seen in the industry. Support
for the research necessary to exploit plant resistance to insects in cereal crop will be required from
public sources, as part of the alternatives to pesticides, and from private breeders and producers who
stand to benefit from the development of variety-specific recommendations and impartial
comparison of varieties.
Keywords: Host plant resistance, integrated pest management, cereals crop
III-16
Pest resistance in acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle.) through mutation breeding
Deepak S. Kore, Aditi Chakraborty and M. Preema Devi
Department of Pomology and Post-Harvest Technology, Faculty of Horticulture, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India
Corresponding author email: deepaksujal.95@gmail.com
In India more than 250 species of insects and mites have been reported infesting different
species of citrus. Such as Citrus butterfly, leaf miner, black fly, psylla, scales, whitefly etc. are the
major pest that are causing severe damage to the citrus crop. Majority of them are known to cause
severe damage at new flush stage and the new growth will be hampered in growth and development.
Citrus or Lemon Butterfly (Papilia demoleus) caterpillars which voraciously feed on tender foliage at
nursery stage and also on new flushes of grown-up trees. Similarly Leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella)
which also causes damage in nursery and grown up plant, which infects tender leaves by feeding
epiderimal layer of leaf by making serpentine mines which shows silvery appearance. This attack of
pest encourages the growth of citrus canker disease. The experiment was conducted by treating
different dosage of chemical mutagens i.e. ethyl methanesulphonate (EMS) and colchicines in seeds
of acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle.) with different doses (control, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35,
0.4, 0.45 and 0.5 %). As acid lime is more prone to citrus butterfly, leaf miner etc. In the experiment
in M1 population showed that control plants were more prone to infection caused by pest while in
the higher concentration the infestation was reduced. With respect to both the chemicals EMS and
Colchicine showed a wide variation in the infestation. In higher concentration of colchicines showed
lesser infestation when compared to EMS.
Keywords: Citrus, lemon butterfly, leaf miner, EMS, Colchicine.
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III-17
Promising Pune selection lines for PRSV tolerance in Papaya
G. K. Mahapatro, Swati Saha and Abhishek Verma
ICAR - IARI Regional Station, Pune, Maharashtra
Corresponding autho email: swatisaha1980@gmail.com; gagan_gk@rediffmail.com
Papaya Ring Spot Virus (PRSV) is one of the major impediments in papaya cultivation, with
recorded yield loss range of 80 to 100%; and has threatened commercial cultivation across the globe.
It is transmitted by a number of aphid species in a non-persistent manner to a limited host range of
cucurbits and papaya. The various options for managing viral diseases are vector management,
planting in areas with negligible/less virus-inoculum, rogueing, and host-plant resistance. Vector
control for managing PRSV is not an economic viable option. The transient aphid-vector acquires
and transmits the virus within seconds. Till date, there is no conventional variety resistant/ tolerant
to PRSV. Our Regional Station has been working on this line since 2003, came up with few papaya
lines viz., PS-1, PS-2, PS-3 & PS-5. These lines were derived from a heterozygous population of local
cultivar ‗Madhubala‘ by selection and sib-mating. PS-1, PS-3 were registered in 2015, and 2014
respectively; and recently in 2020, PS-2 & PS-5 got registered with National Germplasm Registration
Committee, NBPGR, New Delhi. PS-3 is approved recently as variety ‗Pusa Madhu‘ in NCR Delhi
(2021). The PS lines are showing consistent tolerance to PRSV over the years. In experiment
(biennial crop data) conducted during 2019-20 and 2020-21 these lines performed well even under
severe abiotic stress condition when Pune recorded maximum precipitation (2019-20) and minimal
cropcare during Covid-19 (2020-21). The disease incidence was 33-42% in PS-lines even in second
year (with yields 20-35 kg/tree), in contrast comparison to other varieties. Under such severe stress
condition also PS-lines yielded ten times more than the commercial check ‗Red Lady‘. PS-lines can
well be used for biennial crop cycle; and harvest is for both table and vegetable purpose. In current
conference, we promote these lines for culinary and industrial purposes; and advocate farmers to take
up these lines and test in large scale in Northeast areas as well.
Keywords: Promising, Pune selection lines, PRSV, tolerance, Papaya
III-18
Breeding strategies for insect resistance: a roadmap for better future
Y. Sanatombi Devi, Th. Nepolian Singh, P. Manjunath
Ph.D. Student, College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur-795 004
Corresponding autho email: sana.yeng1990@gmail.com
Agricultural crop loss due to insect-pest infestation has been a major constrain to crop
production and productivity. The estimated average yield loss ranges from 10-20% in all potential
crops as worldwide and reaches up to 90% during severe insect attacks. Viewing socio-economic
impacts like the effect of insecticides on human health and non‐target species, either developing
insect-pest resistant genotype or exploiting natural mechanisms that restrict pest population in the
ecosystem are the two main important approaches. Breeding for insect-pest resistance becomes an
alternative long-term crop protection strategy of integrated pest management other than the short-
term plan of insect control by using chemical insecticides. Classical Breeding methods includes
Selection of a new source of resistance, hybridization and new breeding methods like construction of
genetic maps for identifying major QTL(s), introgression of resistance genes, introduction of
transgenics and high-throughput genotyping plays a potential role of releasing insect-resistant crop
cultivars. New insights to structural and functional aspects of genes conferring resistance to insect,
genome engineering/gene editing technologies such as CRISPR/Cas9 and rapid sequencing of
nucleic acids from infected plants provides an uncompromising effort toward the identification of
target gene(s) in insect pest management programme. Such plant protection technologies that focus
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on using modern biotechnological tools are proven to be most effective and efficient in pest
detection and diagnosis and more durable to mitigate biotic stresses on plants.
Keywords: Insect resistance, Quantitative trait loci (QTLs), Genetic map, CRISPER/Cas9
III-19
New distribution records of pollinator bees from Assam, India
Jyoti Falswal1, NS Haorongbam*, Romila Akoijam* and Debjani Dey1
1Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012
*ICAR-RC NEH Region, Manipur, Lamphelpat, Imphal-795004
Corresponding author email: romi.ak9@gmail.com
More than 75% of all flowering plants on the earth need pollinators. Pollinators are essential
components of almost all of the world‘s terrestrial ecosystems. The pollinators not only provide
pollination services, but are also excellent indicators of the state of terrestrial environments including
responses to global warming. Among all pollinators viz., hummingbirds, bats and insects, bees are
unique. Bees are excellent pollinators because most of their life is spent collecting pollen and nectar
and during their visits they also transfer pollen. They have specialized pollen-carrying structures
called scopa or corbicula made up of thick, plumose setae. Worldwide 20,000 species of bees under
Superfamily Apoidea are known. Solitary bees like sweat bees, leaf cutter bees and orchard mason
bees form 90% of the total bee population and are important pollinators. They gather pollen for
provisioning of their brood. An intensive survey was conducted in Assam during March 2020 for
recording the diversity of bee pollinators. Collections were made with yellow pan traps and sweep
nets. The collected specimens were brought to the lab, processed suitably and identified. Bees could
be segregated into 3 different families, viz., Apidae, Megachilidae and Halictidae. A checklist
compiled from all existing literature indicated that family Halictidae is represented by two sub
families i.e. Halictinae and Nomiinae with 7 Genera and 18 Species from Assam. Identification of the
collected material during survey resulted in establishment of four new records from Assam, viz.,
Halictus (Seladonia) propinquus, Halictus (Seladonia) lucidipennis, Lasioglossum (Ctenomia) vagnans and Genus
Homalictus (Quasilictus) sp.
Keywords: New distribution, records, pollinator bees
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Theme-IV
Priorities in biodiversity,
biosystematics and molecular
taxonomy for crop protection
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LIV-1
DNA Barcoding and its application in identification of agriculturally important insect
species
T. Venkatesan, T.R. Ashika, G. Ankita, N. Nishtha, R.S. Swathy, Venugopala, K.M., Swathy, R.S.
Mohan, G. and Gracy, R.G.
Division of Genomic Resources, ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru
Corresponding author email: Venkatesan.T@icar.gov.in; tvenkat12@gmail.com
Insects are the most abundant of all life on earth. The estimated world totals of described,
living species in the 29 orders of the class Insecta amount to 1,004,898 (Adler and Foottit, 2009). The
figure of 4 million has been accepted as being the most commonly cited figure based on recent
publications for the total number of species. India, with 2% of global space, is among the top ten
mega diversity nations in the world in terms of insect diversity, with about 7.10% of the world insect
fauna. Ghorpade (2010) provided an estimate of 54,346 described species of insects in 27 orders
from India, with nearly as many species yet to be discovered. Some other estimates by the Zoological
Survey of India and other sources are much higher, ranging from 62000 to 80000 described species.
According to Mayr & Ashlock (1991), it took nearly 200 years for taxonomists to describe 1.7 million
species which is only 10 per cent of the total number of species estimated. In this context
identification of insects has been a monumental task where it calls for availability of more number of
specialists and funding. But with the dwindling interest in taxonomy and fund availability,
classification and identification of various life forms particularly insects has been major challenge to
the scientific community. With the advent of molecular biology and molecular tools identification of
life forms including insects has become quick, precise and easy. Development of species-specific
markers enables even a non-specialist to identify insects to species level.
Difficulties in morphological identification
Further, we need about 15000 taxonomists working for centuries to complete the task of
classifying the remaining 90 per cent of the unidentified organisms. Economic development and
increased international commerce are leading to higher extinction rates and introduction of invasive
pest species. Therefore there is a need for faster species identification and information about their
biodiversity for conserving them before they vanish from the face of Earth. Contributions of
morphological taxonomy are enormous but have also some draw backs like. The task of routine
species identification has several limitations including incorrect identification due to both phenotypic
plasticity and genetic variability in the characters employed for species recognition and presence of
morphologically cryptic taxa in some plant groups. Further, unambiguous identification of species
requires the availability of complete plants at reproductive stages, which are generally not available
throughout the year. Moreover, the use of morphological taxonomic keys often demands a high level
of expertise that misdiagnoses are common. Thus the limitations in morphology-based identification
systems and the dwindling pool of taxonomists urgently require a new robust approach for taxon
recognition. Hence there is a need for an adjunct tool that facilitates rapid identification of species
where molecular identification popularly called ―DNA barcoding‖ becomes handy.
Advantages of DNA barcoding
A DNA barcode is a short sequence from standardized portions of the genome (a 648 bp of
mtCOI). DNA barcoding is technically a simple and rapid approach, in which a small DNA fragment
is amplified by PCR from total genomic DNA and PCR product is directly sequenced. The species
identification is done by comparing the query sequence with the reference database of DNA barcode
library. The current work worldwide is targeted to generate such reference barcode library.
DNA barcoding can be a tremendously useful and exciting new tool in our arsenal of species
identification methods, provided taxonomists are supported to discover and describe species that are
subsequently identified by the use of DNA barcodes (Wheeler, 2008). Insect biodiversity is a valuable
and vulnerable genetic resource. Abrupt changes in climate may endanger the survival of vulnerable
species and trigger the loss of unique gene pool in the populations. Reliable identification of species
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diversity and species inter-relationships within a genus is of paramount importance for
bioprospecting of species for alien-gene transfer and mining of genes for medicinally active
biomolecules. Microgenomic identification systems, which permit species discrimination through the
analysis of a small segment of genome, represent one extremely promising approach for the genetic
identification of biological diversity at species level. DNA barcoding is extremely useful for
unambiguous identification of biological specimens and more efficiently managing species diversity
in Gene Banks. DNA barcoding is being done for several organisms including insects and other
arthropods under various initiatives such as the Barcode of Life.
The main advantage of DNA barcoding is the rapid acquisition of molecular data.
Mitochondria are energy-producing organelles, found in nearly every cell in nearly every plant and
animal species. The mitochondrial genome in particular has turned out to be exceedingly useful in
tracing evolutionary history, as it is present in all eukaryotic organisms, evolves rapidly as compared
to nuclear DNA, and does not undergo meiosis and recombination, processes that scramble the
evolutionary lineages of nuclear genes. The generation of molecular data from the CO1 region was
based on accepted DNA bar-coding principles i.e. barcoding protocols developed by the Barcoding
of Life (iBoL) Initiative. A first International conference in this direction was organized at Munich in
the year 2002 by German Science Association (DFG). In this regard, Paul Hebert of University of
Guelph, Canada developed the use of one mitochondrial gene, mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I
(mtCOI) as Universal identification marker for identification of animal species which include insects.
The following are the set of Universal primers for the identification of species by Folmer et al.
(1994). Universal Primers LCO 1490 5‘-GGT CAA ATC ATA AAG ATA TTG G-3‘ LCO 2198 5‘-
TAA ACT TCA GGG TGA CCA AAA AAT CA-3‘. For identifying species a sequence length of
617 nucleotides is recommended and 669 nucleotides for phylum analysis. The sequence generated is
aligned and checked similarity with the help of NCBI nucleotide database. The barcode is then
generated by uploading the sequence with NCBI accession number.
While morphological data are usually time consuming and needs specialists. DNA barcoding
techniques are uniform, practical method of species identification of insects and can be used for the
identification of all developmental stages of insects, their food webs, biotypes and this may not be
possible with morphology based taxonomy. Fragments or damaged specimens identity can be
determined using DNA barcode (Pons, 2006). The COI gene has proved to be suitable for species
identification in a large range of animal taxa, including butterflies and moths (Hebert et al. 2004a;
Janzen et al., 2005; Burns et al., 2008); mayflies (Ball et al., 2005), spiders (Greenhouse et al., 2005),
mosquitoes (Kumar et al., 2007) and wasps (Smith et al., 2008). In USA, 25,000 DNA barcodes have
been generated for insects belonging to Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera and
Trichoptera. In Canada, 30,000 DNA barcodes have been developed for various groups of insects in
Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, etc. There are DNA barcodes available for mosquitos, honeybees, fruit
flies, ants (www.boldsystems.org).
DNA-based species identification will speed up analysis of known species and reveal cryptic
species within species by population genetic analysis. DNA bar-coding can play an important role in
studying the arrival of invasive species. DNA bar-coding can pinpoint the geographic source of an
invading species and measure the distances over which pest species can travel. DNA barcoding can
be advantageous for monitoring illegal trade in animal byproducts. DNA barcoding may lead to
discover new species by sampling biodiversity hotspots, unexplored regions. The COI gene has
proved to be suitable for species identification in a large range of animal taxa, including butterflies
and moths (Hebert et al. 2004a, Janzen et al. 2005, Hajibabaei et al 2006b, Burns et al. 2008); mayflies
(Ball et al 2005), spiders (Greenhouse et al., 2005), mosquitoes (Kumar et al., 2007) and wasps (Smith
et al., 2008). Development of automatable DNA chip-based approaches & protocols will be very
useful to identify and quantify species.
Overview of DNA barcoding
• 2003-Hebert et al., proposed the technique of using COI gene (648 bp).
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• 2004-Barcode of life project-initiated by CBOL (Canadian Barcode of Life) to promote
DNA barcode as a global std
• 2010- IBOL (International Barcode of Life)- 26 countries aims for automated identification
system based on DNA barcode library of all eukaryotes (5 million specimens of 500 000
sps.). Also aims for new protocols, informatics, equipment, extention methods etc).
• CBOL & IBOL started campaigns fish (Fish-BOL); birds, mammals, marine life and insects.
• Further, Europe (ECBOL), Norway (NorBOL), Mexico (MexBOL) and Japan (JBOLI)
started projects as part of IBOL
Work done at NBAIR
Protocols for DNA barcoding of insects were standardized and characterization of
cytochrome oxidase-I gene (COI) was done for parasitoids, predators and invasive insect pest and
DNA-barcode has been generated for the same (Table 1). Nearly 2000 DNA barcodes of parasitoids,
predators and invasive pests been generated. A barcoding of species of Trichogramma will form a very
important molecular aid for resolving the taxonomic problem in the identification of these important
egg parasitoids. Currently several biocontrol lab in India both public and private insectaries are
invariably mass producing and field releasing the Trichogramma of more than one species and very
often there is a problem of mislabeling and identification. Morphological identification remains
complex due to subtle difference in male genetalia, therefore alternative molecular techniques were
employed for rapid and reliable identification of this group of parasitoids. Furthermore, many of the
field collected specimens are females, which are not identifiable using morphological keys. This study
was carried out to unravel the discrimination success in the two molecular marker loci cytochrome
oxidase I (COI) and internal transcribed spacer-2 (ITS-2) region of trichogrammatids. Bayesian
inference phylogenetic analysis conducted with 84 and 76 sequences of COI and ITS-2 loci
respectively and studied discrimination among the different species. Based on trees in comparison,
we observed that there was a total of 10 and 6 out of 19 species correctly discriminate with COI and
ITS-2 respectively. Our result revealed that the ITS-2 gene was less divergent than the COI gene in
the majority of species and failed to differentiate all terminal clades. Therefore, we recommend that
COI is suitable as the primary DNA barcode locus in trichogrammatids. Overall, we suggest that
COI gene has higher discrimination power and can be considered as an appropriate molecular
marker for species identification in trichogrammatids.
Further DNA barcoding technique was used to identify and to see the variation in
Glyptapanteles sp., Microplitis sp.,m Bemisia tabaci and Trichogramma spp. The DNA barcoding of Brotispa
longissima, an alien invasive pest is a great significant for the rapid identification of the pest as soon as
the invasive pest enters in India. Very recently, the DNA barcoding helped to confer the
identification of the population of Acerophagus papayae an important parasitoid of invasive pest against
papaya mealybug Paracoccus marginatus, imported from Puerto Rico and fortuitously introduced and
observed in Pune.
Glyptapanteles Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Microgastrinae) is a cosmopolitan group
of hyperdiverse parasitic wasps. The genus remains taxonomically challenging in India due to its
highly speciose nature, morphological similarity amongst species and negligible host records. The
Indian fauna is one of the most diverse and also the least studied. Out of 60 populations reared from
35 host species, phylogenetic analyses were performed on 38 based on mitochondrial cytochrome
oxidase subunit I (COI) nucleotide sequences. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods
displayed three and four major discrete Glyptapanteles clades, respectively. In clade A very few Indian
species were grouped along with Neotropical and Thailand species. The other clades B and C
grouped the majority of the Indian species and showed considerable host specificity in both the trees.
The fall armyworm FAW, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), is a polyphagous pest indigenous to
Western hemisphere and is associated with significant damage to maize, rice, sorghum, millet, cotton
and other crops. For about 30 years, it has been known that S. frugiperda occurs in two
morphologically identical strains, designated as ‗rice strain‘ (R strain) and ‗corn strain‘ (C strain) that
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differ in host plant distribution and certain physiological features. In terms of host preference, rice-
strain is most consistently found in millet and grass species associated with pasture habitats while the
corn strain prefers corn, cotton and sorghum. Besides host specificity, differences were observed in
response of strains to insecticides, their developmental rates, pheromone composition and mating
behavior.
Owing to similar morphological phenotypes, the two strains of FAW are mainly classified on
the basis of genetic polymorphism in mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COIA) and a
nuclear gene marker triosephosphate isomerase (tpi). The association between both the markers and host
plant preference had been significantly consistent for FAW populations in Western Hemisphere, and
was sensitive to detect variants exhibiting different pheromone composition and mating preferences.
In this context, it is important to study the strain specificity of the populations in India to understand
the origin of FAW in India, assess the crops at risk and subsequently develop appropriate
management strategies to counter this pest. The two strains can be distinguished using DNA barcode
gene COI which show two distinct clusters that may have diverged 2 million years ago and now have
a mean sequence divergence of 2.09%. The adjacent COIB segment is amplified by CO1 primers
891F and 1472R and used to confirm host strain identity and determine the region-specific
haplotypes. Variants in the nuclear gene triosephosphate isomerase gene (Tpi) are also used to identify
host strain identity with results generally comparable with the CO1 marker but can exhibit plasticity
as well.
Thirty two different populations of FAW were collected from 23 different regions in India
and three regions in Nepal during the year 2018-19 and were subjected to molecular identification at
Division of Genomic Resources, ICAR-NBAIR, Bangalore. In total, seven populations each were
examined from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka; four each from Maharashtra, Telangana and Nepal;
three from West Bengal; two from New Delhi and one from Kerala. The COI region was amplified
using DNA barcode primers and the generated sequences showed 100% similarity to Spodoptera
frugiperda thereby providing molecular confirmation of FAW infestation. The sequences were then
deposited in NCBI GenBank database and accession number was retrieved for all the populations.
Further the sequences and the specimen details were submitted to the BOLD database and DNA
barcodes were generated. Further, on the basis of COIA haplotype, the populations were classified as
‗R‘ and ‗C‘ strains of S. frugiperda. Out of 32 populations, 28 were found to belong to ‗R‘ strain and 4
belong to ‗C‘ strain of S. frugiperda though variants of both rice and corn strains were also seen in the
populations. Phylogenetic analysis of COIA sequences from FAW populations in different regions of
India indicates trends of geographical patterning of FAW in India.
CO1B haplotyping was done for 24 populations of FAW in India. 22 of the tested
populations belonged to ‗R‘ strain while the rest two were ‗C‘ strain belonging to CSh4 haplotype
which is predominantly found in Florida and African populations. Further evaluation of nuclear gene
Tpi in 17 populations from different geographical regions in India revealed that all of these
populations belonged to TpiC or ‗corn strain‘ category. Different haplotypes of FAW were also
observed for Tpi gene marker in India corresponding to TpiCA1, TpiCA2a, TpiCA2b and
TpiCA1/CA2 hybrid haplotypes. Clearly, Tpi gene marker was found to correlate well with the host
strain preference in India as was the case in African populations. Based on the findings, we can
conclude that FAW population in India show considerable similarity to the population found in
Africa. More studies are currently underway to determine novel haplotypes specific to Indian
subcontinent and the differential effect of biocontrol agents on different strains of FAW.
Molecular identification of parasitoids emerged from the S. frugiperda was carried out. Based
on molecular identification, the specimens that had 99–100% similarity with GenBank sequences
were identified up to species level and were designated. The identity of all the parasitoids was
confirmed through molecular analysis, and obtained sequences were deposited in the NCBI database.
The obtained accession numbers of the parasitoid viz., Trichogramma chilonis (MN913333), Telenomus
remus (MN879314), Campoletis chlorideae (MN913336), Chelonus sp. (MN584896), Cotesia sp.
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(MT601948) and Exorista xanthaspis (MT007801) emerged from life stages of fall armyworm were
molecularly characterized.
Microplitis maculipennis Szépligeti is an important parasitoid of castor semilooper Acanthodelta
janata (L.) (Lepidoptera), a major pest of castor. Microplitis Förster shares remarkable morphological
resemblance with moderately diverse genus Snellenius Westwood. In this study, molecular
characterization of M. maculipennis was done using Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) to confirm its
generic placement in the respective genus. The Bayesian Inference (BI) and Maximum Likelihood
(ML) phylogenetic analysis performed with a total of 354 published BOLD database sequences (after
pre-processing of a total of 2257 COI sequences) of Microplitis and Snellenius species, representing 129
named species and 226 species determined only to genus raises doubts on the retention of both these
genera separately. Our studies reveal that COI gene could not discriminate Microplitis and Snellenius
species clearly
A bottle was received from a pharmaceutical company containing fragments of insect species
like antennae, two leg pieces, a portion of the abdomen and two intact wing pieces for the possible
identification of the insect specimen. Furthermore, DNA barcoding based identification was
employed to determine the identity by amplifying COX1 mitochondrial gene, which was 658 bp size
and GenBank accession number and barcode were generated, viz., KT368817 and VETIP006-15,
respectively. Our sequence matched 100% with GenBank accession nos. GQ409351 and JF439551
and identity were determined as Pollenia rudis (Fabricius) (Diptera: Calliphoridae). The present work
highlights that DNA barcoding based identification tool a powerful and imperative in determining
the identity of insect, even if a part or fragment of the specimen is available. This method can be
used for insect identification wherever fragments are available, which can lead to preventive
measures.
Next-generation DNA Barcoding: to enhance & accelerate DNA barcoding
Sanger sequencing (SA) technology is, inferior to NGS (capable of producing millions of
sequence reads simultaneously) and the technology is hampered by the need for high-target amplicon
yield, co-amplification of nuclear mt pseudogenes, confusion with sequences from intracellular
endosymbiotic bacteria & has intraindividual variability. NGS is of great value: Protocol simplicity,
greatly reduced cost/ barcode read, faster throughout & added information content. MiSeq can result
in 25 millions of reads with 2x300 bp : 15 Gb/run where as Sanger will give 96 reads with ~ 1000
bp : 0.0001 Gb/run
Other Applications:
• Identification of extinct species
• EPA-Identify insects in rivers & streams as critical indicators.
• Quarantine of fruit flies.
• Illegal trade of endangered or potected insects
• Monitoring disease vectors-Mosquitos
• FDA and CBOL- working on DNA barcodes for economically important fishes and can detect
economic fraud especially for trading tuna fish and bush meat.
• Partial (780 bp) mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidae subunit and near complete nuclear 18 S
rDNA (1780 bp) sequences were directly compared to assess their relative usefulness as markers
for species identification and phylogenic analysis of coccidian parasites (phylum Apicomplexa)
i.e. Eimeria spp. Infecting chickens.
• Used for identification of forensically important blowflies.
• Can be used to identify earhworms
• Can be used to identify bird species
I. Development of Linkages:
A. International Scenario in DNA Barcode
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The International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaborative is a partnership
among GenBank in the U.S., the Nucleotide Sequence Database of the European Molecular Biology
Lab in Germany, and the DNA Data Bank of Japan. They have agreed to CBOL‘s data standards for
barcode records.
Barcode of Life Database (BOLD) was created and is maintained by University of Guelph in
Ontario. It offers researchers a way to collect, manage, and analyze DNA barcode data.
The Data Analysis: Specimens are identified by finding the closest matching reference record in the
database. CBOL has convened a Data Analysis Working Group to improve the ways that DNA
barcode data can be analyzed, displayed, and used.
An automated DNA-based system will free taxonomists from routine identifications,
allowing them to direct their efforts to new collections, descriptions and assessments of taxonomic
relationships. In 2003, Paul D.N. Hebert from the University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada, proposed
the compilation of a public library of DNA barcodes that would be linked to named specimens. This
library would ―provide a new master key for identifying species, whose power will rise with increased
taxon coverage and with faster, cheaper sequencing‖. The goal of a DNA barcoding library is the
construction of an enormous, online, freely available sequence database. Participants in the DNA
barcode initiative come in many configurations, including consortia, databases, networks, labs, and
projects that range in size from local to global.
The largest consortia are:
The International Barcode of Life (iBOL) Project is a Canadian-led research alliance which spans
26 countries and brings together hundreds of leading scientists in the task of collecting specimens,
obtaining their DNA barcode records and building an informatics platform to store and share this
information for use in species identification and discovery. By 2015, iBOL participants will gather
DNA barcode records for five million specimens representing 500,000 species, delivering a highly
effective identification system for species commonly encountered by humanity and laying the
foundation for subsequent progress. iBOL's principal funding partners within Canada are the
Canada Foundation for Innovation, the Ontario Ministry of Research and Innovation, the
Government of Canada through Genome Canada in collaboration with the Ontario Genomics
Institute, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and the
International Development Research Centre.
CBOL, the Consortium for the Barcode of Life, promotes barcoding through conferences,
outreach activities, working groups and workshops, but does not generate any barcode data.
CBOL is the designated lead organization for iBOL's Working Group for Outreach and
Collaborations. CBOL is based at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural
History in Washington, DC.
ECBOL, the European Consortium for the Barcode of Life, was established as part of the
research infrastructure efforts of EDIT, the European Distributed Institute of Taxonomy.
Databases
There are two central DNA barcode databases. BOLD, the Barcode of Life Data Systems at
the University of Guelph, is a public workbench for barcoding projects. Researchers can assemble,
test, and analyze their data records in BOLD before uploading them to GenBank, EMBL, and DDBJ
which comprise the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration. They are the
permanent public repositories for barcode data records.
DNA Barcoding Software
The Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) is freely available to any researcher online with
registration. The results are displayed in tables showing the most closely related species and related
taxa. The BOLD is an online workbench that aids collection, management, analysis, and use of DNA
barcodes. It is an official informatics for the Barcode of life project (Ratansingham and Hebert,
2007), developed by the Canadian Centre for DNA Barcoding (CCDB). BOLD is open to the public.
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It consists of three components (MAS, IDS, and ECS) that address the needs of various groups in
the barcoding community.
BOLD-MAS (Management and analysis) provides a repository for barcode records coupled with
analytical tools. It serves as an online workbench for the DNA barcode community.
BOLD-IDS (identification engine) provides a species identification tool that accepts DNA
sequences from the barcode region and returns a taxonomic assignment to species level when
possible.
BOLD-ECS (external connectivity) provides web developers and bioinformaticians the ability to
build tools and workflows that can be integrated with the BOLD framework. BOLD-ECS
supplies REST services that allow access to public sequence and specimen data.
Integrated approach
Some taxonomists are concerned that DNA barcoding will compete with traditional
taxonomic studies. However, it is emphasized that DNA barcoding is inseparably linked to
taxonomy. The integration of various types of data such as morphological, ecological, physiological
and molecular data including DNA barcodes will improve species discovery and description
processes. Recently, multilocus DNA-barcoding approach (ITS region and 18S RNA) are
progressively emerging and is now commonly accepted (particularly in cases where COI is not
species specific). Hence it was proposed the combination of morphological and molecular characters,
which has the advantage of bridging the gap between the classical taxonomy and molecular
taxonomy and the DNA barcoding approach. This integrated approach based on the use of several
different markers to carry out combined releases has been suggested to deal with taxonomic
problems, such as species boundaries (Dayarat 2005, Will et al 2005, Roe & Sperling 2007).
II. Limitations of the Barcode: Gap areas
Maternal inheritance: mtDNA genes are maternally inherited which sometimes may result in
interspecific hybridization or endosymbiont infections that generate transfer of mitochondrial
genes outside the species (Hurst & Jiggins 2005, Dasmahapatra & Mallet 2006); the occurrence
of indirect selection on mitochondrial DNA arising from male-killing microorganisms and
cytoplasmic incompatibility incompatibility inducing symbionts (eg. Wolbachia) (Johnson &
Hurst, 1996; Funk et al., 2000; Whitworth et al., 2007).
Possible presence of nuclear copies of COI-in the nuclear genome (Nuclear mitochondrial
DNA‘s-NUMT‘s) (Williams & Knowlton 2001).
Different rates of genomic evolution of COI genes are also limitations, since they are not equal
for all the organisms.
The COI based identification sometimes fails to distinguish closely related animal species,
underlining the requirement of the other mitochondrial or nuclear regions (Sevilla et al. 2007).
Lack of monophyly of several groups studied. About 23% of animal species are polyphletic if
their mtDNA are accurate indicating that using a mtDNA to assign a species name to an animal
will be ambiguous or erroneous in 23% of the time.
For groups of species that diverged in the recent past, marker alone will not be enough to clearly
determine their taxonomic position or resolve specific limits, no matter the species concept used.
DNA barcoding raises analytical and statistical issues. Only few studies have compared
algorithms for species assignments and comparisons between the approaches are needed.
Identification constraints in BOLD commonly arise when the unknown specimens come from
the currently under-described part of biodiversity
References
Folmer, O., Black, M., Howh, W., Lutz, R. and Vrijenhoek, R. 1994. DNA primer for amplification
of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I from diverse metazoan invertebrates.
Molecular Marine Biology and Biotechnology, 3: 294–299.
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LIV-2
Insect whole genome sequencing and its relevance to pest management
M. Mohan, T. Venkatesan, M. Nagesh and R. Gandhi Gracy
Division of Genomic Resources, ICAR-NBAIR, Bangalore
Corresponding author email: Mohan.M@icar.gov.in
Introduction
Insects are the largest animal group in the world (75% of all species are insects) and are
economically and ecologically extremely important, because most flowering plants depend on insects
for their pollination. But insects can also be severe agricultural pests, destroying 30% of our potential
annual harvest, and can be potential plant and animal disease vectors. Insects can be both very
beneficial and harmful (pests) and that a few insect species are hampering the welfare of many
hundreds of millions of people especially in the developing countries of the third world. Insecticides
are also becoming less effective, as the insects‘ resistance to major insecticides is growing. As global
warming intensifies, researchers expect insect pests and vector species to pose a serious threat to
crops grown in the fields, as well as those housed under polyhouse. Thus, vast social benefits would
be gained, if one selectively could reduce the populations of these pest insects.
Project on insect structural and functional genomics will create tools and technologies to
control crop pests. One can use high-throughput genomic technologies to analyze plant resistance to
insect pests, and evaluate the consequences to the pests of eating resistant and susceptible plants. By
studying the interaction between pest genes and plant genes, it could be possible to insert pest-
resistant genes in plants so that they can resist /withstand insect pest attack. It is also possible to turn
off insect pest-specific genes, opening up a new tool for pest control, and will develop new strategies
to reduce the ability of these pests to reproduce. Creating this new, environmentally sound approach
will negate the use of chemical pesticides and decrease energy consumption in agriculture, by
employing this sustainable pest-control strategy.
The sequence data obtained from genomes and transcriptomes, together with their
expression profiles, will help to identify the genes determining different fitness attributes. These data
enable to unravel the regulatory mechanisms, and help to elucidate the complete pathway. Genome
information is very useful in understanding how the pest species can evolve so rapidly and such
knowledge can be used to predict population dynamics and spread, or develop more efficient control
strategies such as sprayable RNAi based gene products. The whole genome sequence information is
must for genome editing. Genome editing toward insect pest management is a new promising
approach in future and viewed as an alternative to current transgenic technology.
A high quality insect genome assembly is a prerequisite for whole genome analyses but further,
robust and complete annotations are essential for a genome to be fully utilized by the scientific
community. Genome annotation involves mapping features such as protein coding genes and their
multiple mRNAs, pseudogenes, transposons, repeats, non-coding RNAs, SNPs as well as regions of
similarity to other genomes onto the genomic scaffolds.
Present Global status
Till date, 1219 insect genome-sequencing projects have been registered with the National
Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI): 401 insect species have complete genome assemblies
with varied quality; the genome annotations of 155 insects have been publicly released; and over 100
insect genomes have been published in peer-reviewed journals (Li et al., 2019). Building on these
foundational resources, entomologists have generated copious functional-genomic data from insects,
including transcriptomes, proteomes, and metabolomes.
Table 1. Registered insect genome sequencing projects, assembled insect genomes and annotated
insect genomes based on National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)
Insect Order
BioProjects
Assemblies
Annotations
Acerentomata
1
0
0
Archaeognatha
1
1
0
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Blattodea
16
4
3
Coleoptera
137
22
15
Collembola
6
1
1
Dermaptera
4
0
0
Diplura
2
0
0
Diptera
168
132
45
Ephemeroptera
2
2
0
Grylloblattodea
1
0
0
Hemiptera
192
30
16
Hymenoptera
137
93
47
Lepidoptera
165
97
25
Mecoptera
2
0
0
Neuroptera
5
0
0
Odonata
5
2
0
Orthoptera
20
3
0
Phasmatodea
6
4
0
Phthiraptera
244
1
1
Plecoptera
4
3
0
Psocoptera
33
0
0
Siphonaptera
1
1
1
Strepsiptera
2
1
0
Thysanoptera
57
1
1
Trichoptera
5
3
0
Zygentoma
3
0
0
Total
1219
401
155
The 1219 insect NCBI BioProjects (project type: primary submission) cover almost all orders
of insects. Because many sequencing projects are not registered with the NCBI, there are likely many
more genome projects in progress for insects. The insect order with the most sequencing projects is
Phthiraptera, followed by Diptera and Lepidoptera. Insect species with assembled genomes are
found in 18 orders, including Archaeognatha, Blattodea, Coleoptera, Collembola, Diptera,
Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata, Orthoptera, Phasmatodea,
Phthiraptera, Plecoptera, Siphonaptera, Strepsiptera, Thysanoptera and Trichoptera. The greatest
number of assembled genomes is Diptera, followed by Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Hemiptera
(Table 1). Despite this diversity among assembled genomes, there are only 10 orders of insects with
annotated genomes, accounting for only 12.7% of all insect genome-sequencing projects, likely
reflecting the additional difficulties encountered in robustly annotating assembled genomes. At
present, poor assembly quality, typically due to the influence of high heterozygosity, is a common
and substantial obstacle for genome annotation in insect genomes.
Insect genome assembly
De novo genome assembly depends entirely on overlapping information between the reads,
whereas mapping assembly first determines the position of reads relative to the reference genome
and then assembles the reads into contigs or scaffolds. There are three broad categories of de novo
assembly algorithms. The first category is based on overlap/layout/-consensus between long
sequences (Carbone et al., 2014); this includes such assemblers as CABOG, NEWBLER, SHORTY,
EDENA, CELERA and many others. These software programs are suitable for assembling medium-
length reads generated by the Sanger sequencing method; though generally less useful for ‗short-
read‘ sequencing methods (eg Illumina), they have also proven useful for third-generation ‗long-read‘
sequencing technology such as PacBio and Nanopore sequencing. The second category of assembler
uses De Bruijn graph algorithms, which are well suited for short reads produced by second-
generation sequencing techniques such as the Illumina sequencing platform. These graph-based pro-
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grams include SOAPDENOVO, EULER, VELVET, and WTDBG. When using this method,
various K-mers size need to be tested, which is a time-consuming procedure. The third category
includes software implementing greedy graph algorithms, such as SSAKE, SHARCGS and VCAKE.
Many published insect genomes were assembled by CABOG, SOAPdenovo, ALLPATH-LG or
ABYSS. Recently, ALLPATH-LG has become increasingly widely used since it is unnecessary to set
the K-mer value, though it requires a high-performance computer and more time to finish the task.
Worth mentioning is a scaffolding method that can assist assembly: Hi-C technology. It is a
sequencing-based approach for determining how a genome is folded by measuring the frequency of
contact between pairs of loci (Dudchenko et al., 2017; Lieberman-Aiden et al., 2009; Rao et al.,
2015). It can assist genome assembly to the chromosome level without additional genetic map
information. Though it does not generate or improve existing contigs, this technology is useful for
obtaining information with chromosome length scaffolds. Based on recent insect genome papers,
this strategy will be widely adopted in future insect genome projects.
There have been recent efforts to develop methods explicitly designed to handle assembly of
substantially heterozygous genomes. At present, two programs, PLATANUS (Kajitani et al., 2014)
and REDUNDANS (Pryszcz and Gabal-don, 2016), are reported to improve the assembly quality of
heterozygous genomes. In addition, novel ‗long read‘ sequencing technologies, such as Pacific
Biosciences (PacBio) and Oxford Nano-pore, are also contributing to major advances in the quality
of genome assembly. At present, more and more insect genomes are assembled using the long, noisy
reads produced by PacBio and Nanopore. Therefore, to fully exploit the advantages of long reads,
some assembly programs such as FALCON, CANU and WTDBG have been developed.
The technologies and methods change for generating genome assemblies, it is still necessary
to carefully evaluate the quality of various insect draft genomes. Typically, this involves some or all of
the following metrics:
1. The size of the genome assembly
The size, or total length, of the genome assembly can be compared with other independent
estimates of genome size, such as from flow cytometry or K-mer analysis. Ideally, these two
methods are likely to get very similar results, but there is often some discrepancy. If the assembly
is smaller than expected, it is likely because it is incomplete or due to repeat collapse. If the
assembly is larger than expected, this often reflects the fact that independent assembly of
haplotypes has resulted in redundancies.
2. The correctness of the genome assembly
When large fragments of the genome have been previously assembled from independent data (eg
BAC sequencing), these can be used to evaluate the correctness of the assembled genome.
Additionally, examining the congruence of paired-end or mate-pair reads when mapped to the
assembly can inform the quality of genome assembly. Specifically, the distance between the
mapped reads should be consistent with the insertion size when constructing the library. This
congruence mapping approach has been implemented in software such as QUAST and REAPR.
3. N50 length statistic
N50 is the most widely used metric for measuring the quality of genome assembly. To calculate
the N50, all scaffolds or contigs are sorted from longest to shortest, then the sequence lengths of
each scaffold or contig are sequentially summed. When the accumulated value reaches half of the
total assembly length, the length of the corresponding scaffold or contig is defined as the N50.
Normally, the higher the N50 is, the better the genome assembly is. But in some special cases,
high N50 might be due to aggressive misassembly, which is worthy of further research.
4. Single-copy orthologues
The proportion and completeness of widely shared single-copy orthologous genes identified in a
genome assembly is a useful indicator of assembly quality. The Core Eukaryotic Genes Mapping
Approach (CEGMA) pipeline is one widely used method for implementing this approach (Parra
et al., 2007). CEGMA identifies 458 core genes that are highly conserved in eukaryotes and
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searches for these genes in the assembled scaffolds. The percentages of full-length or partial core
genes are provided as a metric of the genome assembly quality. Benchmarking Universal Single-
Copy Orthologs (BUSCO) is a more recently developed pipeline similar to CEGMA, but notably
extended beyond a few hundred genes, and it is more stringent. BUSCO uses different
orthologous genes sets for different groups of species, offering substantial flexibility and
increased information, depending on taxonomic focus. In particular, BUSCO uses a set of 2647
orthologous genes for arthro-pods lineage. The quality of genome assembly is reflected by the
percentage of these orthologous genes that can be found in the assembled scaffolds (Simao et al.,
2015; Water-house et al., 2018).
Genome annotation
Insect genome annotation is crucial for characterizing the functional elements in the genome.
It can be classified into two steps: structural annotation and functional annotation. Structural
annotation comes first, identifying which regions of the assembly correspond to specific features,
such as genes (including intron–exon boundaries) and transpos-able elements (TEs). Once the
structural features are delineated, functional annotation aims to infer the function and identity of
genes and other elements, based on sequence similarities, usually using BLAST software.
1. Identifying repeat sequence
Methods for identifying repetitive sequences can be divided into two categories: homology
searching and ab initio prediction. Homology searching identifies homologous repeat sequences
based on sequence similarity. The software REPEATMASKER is widely used for this task, in
conjunction with the RepBase collection of characterized TEs (Tarailo-Graovac and Chen, 2009).
The ab initio prediction method uses structural features of the repetitive sequence to identify
novel repeat sequences. This method has great advantages in predicting repetitive sequence with
distinct structural features, such as miniature inverted-repeat TEs and long terminal repeats.
Many widely used software programs exist for this purpose, including RECON, PILER,
REPEATSCOUT, LTR-FINDER and REPEATMODELER. For most insect genomes, both
homology searching and ab initio method are used, producing a comprehensive dataset of repeat
sequences (Liu, 2014).
2. Identification of noncoding RNA
Noncoding RNA is a class of RNA genes that do not produce protein products such as transfer
RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA, piwi-interacting RNA, micro-RNA (miRNA), small nucleolar
RNA, or repeat-associated small interfering RNA. Noncoding RNAs have important regulation
roles in a variety of biological processes (Huntzinger and Izaurralde, 2011). Accordingly,
identification of noncoding RNA is an essential task in genome annotation. A number of
software packages have been developed to identify various kinds of noncoding RNA, such as
MIRDEEP, TRNASCAN, INFERNAL and RNAS-TRUCTURE. Often, noncoding RNA
databases are also frequently used in finding noncoding RNA. Some such databases are RNAdb,
NONCODE, Rfam, miRBase and snoRNABase.
3. Prediction of protein-coding genes
The identification of protein-coding genes is the most important part of structural annotation.
There are three approaches to predict protein-coding genes from the genome: (1) identifying
homologues of known protein-
coding genes through sequence similarity; (2) de novo predicting the protein-coding genes with
software devel-oped via machine learning of protein-coding gene structures; and (3) determining
the exonic regions by direct transcriptome sequencing [eg RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) or
expressed sequence tags (ESTs)] and aligning to the assembled scaffolds. These three methods
have their own strengths and weaknesses: the protein-coding genes found by homologue
searching are typically robust to false positives, but only known protein genes can be found. De
novo prediction can find more candi-dates but may have high false-positive rates. Expression
evidence by RNA-seq data is typically the most definitive approach, but relies heavily on the
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quality and quantity of the transcriptome and the samples chosen for RNA-seq. At present, a
commonly used strategy to improve the accuracy of protein-coding genes is to combine these
three tiers of evidence into a single integrated inference of gene structure. Several different
software packages implement this integrated approach, such as AUGUSTUS,
EVIDENCEMODELER, GLEAN, EVIGAN, MAKER, JIGSAW and EVI-
GENE/EVIDENTIALGENE. In 2014, an optimized insect genome annotation pipeline,
OMIGA, was developed (Liu et al., 2014). In addition to integrating the three streams of
evidence, OMIGA identifies intact coding sequence (CDS) from the assembled transcriptome to
retrain the de novo prediction software. This step can significantly improve the accuracy of
prediction. In addition, NCBI‘s eukaryotic genome annotation pipeline is also widely used
(O‘Leary et al., 2016).
The challenges in insect genome sequencing
Agricultural pest control is an important concern in entomology, but genome sequencing of
agricultural pests has lagged behind that of other insects. At present, there are only about 28 species
of agricultural pests that have complete genomes sequenced and, unfortunately, some of these
genomes have low assembly quality, low scaffold N50 values and low gene integrity (Table 2).
Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle) was the first agricultural pest to have its genome sequenced, with
the assembly officially released in 2008. The complete genome of Acyrthosiphon pisum (pea aphid) was
published in 2010. The genome of diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella genome was sequenced in
2013 followed by many other insects in subsequent years.
Table 2. Genome details of some of the agriculturally important insects
No
Agrl. insect pest
Genome
size
(Mb)
Contig
N50
(Kb)
Scaffold
N50
(Kb)
No. of
protein
coding
genes
General comments
Order: Hemiptera
1
Pea aphid,
Achrithosiphon pisum
464
10.8
88.5
34,604
Extensive gene duplication of
detoxification genes /
families
2
Rice BPH,
Nilaparvata lugens
1140
24.2
356
27571
Frequent gene amplification,
few detoxification genes,
more ORs and OBPs
3
Rice white backed
planthopper,
Sogatella furcifera
720
70.7
1180
21254
High repeat content of
44.3%
4
Russian wheat
aphid, Diuraphis
noxia
421
12.5
397
19097
Highest A+T content 70.9%
5
Whitefly, Bemisia
tabaci
615
29
3200
15664
Expansion of genes related to
detoxification, virus
acquisition and transmission.
Horizontal transmission of
142 genes from symbiotic
bacteria and fungi into
whitefly genome
6
Cotton aphid, Aphis
gossypii
294
41
438
14694
Comparative analysis of gene
families related to
chemoreception and
detoxification
Order:
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Hymenoptera
7
Indian honeybee,
Apis cerana
238
21.7
1421
10651
Insights in to social insect
communication
8
Italian honeybee,
Apis mellifera
236
41
362
10600
High A+T content, absence
of transposons, slow rate of
evolution, greater similarity
to vertebrate genome
Order: Coleoptera
9
Red flour beetle,
Tribolium castaneum
204
152
160
16118
High repetitive sequence,
more conserved genes, more
gustatory receptors (GR),
odorant receptors ( OR), cyp
p450 and other detoxification
genes
10
Coffee berry borer,
Hypothenemus hampei
163
10
44.7
19222
Under representation of
repeated sequences
11
Colorado potato
beetle, Leptinotarsa
decemlineata
460
47.4
139
24671
Rapid expansion of genome
with high level of genetic
variation between population
Order: Lepidoptera
12
Rice stripped stem
borer, Chilo
suppressalis
824
29
1570
24360
Heterozygous, 1.5% (very
high)
13
Diamondback moth,
Plutella xylostella
394
24
737
18071
High heterozygosity, 1412
specific genes in
chemorecption and
detoxification
14
South American pin
borer, Tuta absoluta
677.2
26.3
112.8
-
SNP analysis for
identification of closely
related species
15
American Fall
armyworm,
Spodoptera frugiperda
(C- strain)
438
21.6
52.7
21700
Huge expansions of genes
associated with
chemosensation and
detoxification. Variation in
copy number and sequences
of detoxification and
digestion genes as compared
to R strain. contribute to
initiation of genetic
differentiation
16
American Fall Fall
armyworm,
Spodoptera frugiperda
(R- strain)
371
25.4
28.5
26329
Variation in copy number
and sequences of
detoxification and digestion
genes as compared to C
strain. contribute to initiation
of genetic differentiation
17
Silkworm, Bombyx
mori
432
29
3700
14623
High density linkage map,
high repeat content (43.6%)
Tobacco hornworm,
Manduca sexta
419.4
40
664
15451
High level of macro synteny
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There are two main factors that affect the quality of insect genome assembly: Repetitive sequences
and heterozygosity. A large number of repetitive sequences in the genome can cause substantial
ambiguity in the process of assembling contigs and scaffolds. Heterozygosity, or allelic variation in
the sequenced individual(s), also greatly complicates the problem of genome assembly. Ideally,
sequencing data for genome assembly can be obtained from inbred homozygous individuals (or
haploid males in the case of Hymenoptera) in order to avoid the additional data complexity created
by heterozygosity. However, since obtaining such samples is often difficult or impossible, there have
been recent efforts to develop methods explicitly designed to handle assembly of substantially
heterozygous genomes. At present, two programs, PLATANUS (Kajitani et al., 2014) and
REDUNDANS (Pryszcz and Gabaldon, 2016), are reported to improve the assembly quality of
heterozygous genomes. Unfortunately, insects have a particularly bad list of attributes for genome
assembly that compromise contig N50 sizes:
1. Often they cannot be reared in the lab – which precludes any breeding for genome
homozygocity - and instead must be collected on field trips necessitating the use of some
material for species identification. Even if research colonies are available, annual and longer
lifecycles can make inbreeding unrealistic
2. Insects are often physically small, such that very little DNA (nanograms) can be obtained from a
single individual, necessitating pooled polymorphic individuals to make libraries. In cases with
intermediate sized individuals, we prioritize a single individual for the majority of sequence, and
pooled individuals for larger insert libraries, where significant material is lost in agarose gel size
selection.
3. Due to the large species diversity within the arthropods, there are generally no high quality
genome assemblies of phylogentically close species to aid in assembly (with the possible
exception of the Lepidoptera
4. DNA preparations often have to be optimized for a new insect species due to high chitin
content and other pigments in the insect body
5. Although holometabolan insects often have small (~500Mb) genomes, outside the holometabola,
arthropods can have large genomes (1.5Gb spiders, 3Gb cockroaches, 5Gb mantis and
bristletails, 7Gb grasshoppers and cicadas, thus costs are variable (compared to the relative
stability of the 3Gb mammals) and larger than the 175Mb Drosophila experience would indicate.
Present status of insect whole genome sequencing in India
Genomic DNA isolated from Sf21 cells, derived from the ovary of American Fall armyworm,
S. frugiperda was used for isolation of DNA and genome sequencing (Kakumani et al., 2014). The sequencs were
assembled into 37,243 scaffolds of size, 358 Mb with N50 contig size of 7.8 kb, and an N50 scaffold
size of 53.7 kb. The role of important gene families related to host and mate finding, insecticide
detoxification etc were not validated using the genome information. At ICAR-NBAIR with funding
under CRP on Genomics, whole genome sequencing, assembly and annotation for two insect species
viz., brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and cotton leafhopper,
Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) completed and the functional aspects of
agriculturally important genes validated.
References
Carbone, L., Harris, R.A., Gnerre, S., Veeramah, K.R., LorenteGaldos, B., Huddleston, J. et al. 2014.
Gibbon genome and the fast karyotype evolution of small apes. Nature, 513, 195–201.
Dudchenko, O., Batra, S.S., Omer, A.D., Nyquist, S.K., Hoeger, M., Durand, N.C. et al. 2017. De
novo assembly of the Aedes aegypti genome using Hi-C yields chromosomelength scaffolds.
Science, 356, 92–95.
Galdos, B., Huddleston, J. et al. 2014. Gibbon genome and the fast karyotype evolution of small apes.
Nature, 513,195–20
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Kajitani, R., Toshimoto, K., Noguchi, H., Toyoda, A., Ogura, Y., Okuno, M. et al. 2014. Efficient de
novo assembly of highly heterozygous genomes from whole-genome shotgun short reads.
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worm, Spodoptera frugiperda. Genomics, 104: 134-143.
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LIV-3
Priorities in insect biosystematics and integrated taxonomy
V. V. Ramamurthy
Entomological Society of India
Division of Entomology, ICAR- Indian Agrl. Research Institute, New Delhi 110012
Corresponding author email: vvr_ento@iari.res.in
With the advancements in agriculture and food production, and the consequent enabling of
sustainability, the importance of protection research as an integral component of production research
is becoming more evident. Sustainability in agriculture and food production is feasible only with
giving due importance to the crop protection aspects ever than before due to the emerging
complexities in the biotic stresses, especially insects and other pests. Here it will be worthwhile to
remember the words of late Dr S Pradhan, who was advocating that the ―protection research is more
important than production research‖. The crop protection has now become a challenge especially in
view of the imminent and emerging tasks of encountering complexities due to invasive pests and
species complexes in the majority of insect pests. In this encounter for sustainability in agriculture,
the crop protection faces severe problems, and there is dire need for prioritizing our efforts. This is
becoming more apparent due to the shrinking resources for research and development in agriculture
on the one hand and calamities like pest flareups, locust epidemics, and invasive pests on the other.
In this task of prioritization, the IPM becomes an important component of crop protection. IPM is
an integrated approach and has to be dynamic in it practices to meet the emerging requirements.
Such an integrated approach will require strong and multifaceted fundamentals, especially in dealing
with pests. Insect science has advanced in its components, and is changing with the advancements in
the critical aspects of biological, physical and chemical sciences. With these changing dynamics, there
is a need to prioritize our efforts, in particular the fundamentals of insect science.
Taxonomy is one such fundamental, which is variously referred to often as systematics and
biosystematics and is a scientific discipline of biology concerned with naming, identifying and
classifying biological organisms. It is a real science that provides the philosophy and principle behind
all aspects of the handling of living organisms. It enables placing the material aspects of biodiversity
at different levels. Over more than three decades, tremendous developments had taken place and
taxonomy does not lag behind. In fact, in taxonomy the knowledge has become more accumulative
and inclusive rather than being exclusive as in many other areas of science. Taxonomy has not only
contributed through providing credibility in science with unique and distinct names but also through
enabling information retrieval and easy access to knowledge generated on living organisms. The
material and knowledge components of biodiversity exponentiated through taxonomy facilitate
exploiting the nature, and its processes. Thereby it provides the means of exploiting biodiversity
towards any aspect where biology is involved as the science behind. Crop protection is one such area
where the taxonomy has provided the means of exploring biological diversity and harnessing it for
mankind.
When a situation warrants exploring more than one trophic level/ biological interaction like
what happens in IPM, the credibility is wholly with the power of taxonomy, as it is the science giving
an understanding of living organisms and their interactions/ relationships. With taxonomy becoming
more rigorous with advent of integration with varied approaches and developments, there exists need
for changes. There is need to be more pragmatic with unraveling of history of evolution through
studies on speciation and phylogeny and reasonably integrating these as essentials of taxonomy.
Biodiversity essentially encompasses the varied aspects of living organisms from the level of their
core genetic or molecular diversity to the species diversity. This is cascading to the ecological
diversity in a living environment. If IPM needs to be meaningful and needs credibility in its patterns
and processes it is inevitable that biodiversity needs to be addressed in all its entirety and at all its
hierarchical levels simultaneously and comprehensively. Handling such essential aspects of biological
diversity will demand inclusion of strong fundamentals in taxonomy and ecology. Also, their
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integration at every level will be required. Harnessing biodiversity and its elements are more
demanding now than ever before especially with regard to insects and their associated biological
resources, in particular in dealing with species complexes and complex species. It is needless to
mention that such a handling will require integration of basic elements of biology, in particular
taxonomy, in any process where the biodiversity will require manipulation. The recent developments
in the concepts of push pull technology in human managed agroecosystems is yet another aspect that
must be relevant to IPM, only if the biological diversity is addressed in a manner as expected of
through a comprehensive approach. It is time that taxonomy reinvents itself in dealing with
complexities in pest species, and integrates with other aspects sooner than later.
Keywords: Priorities, insect biosystematics, integrated taxonomy
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LIV-4
Importance of host races of insect pests of agriculture importance: examples from aphids
(Homoptera: Aphididae) in northeast India
B. K. Agarwala
Department of Zoology, Tripura University, Suryamaninagar, Tripura 799022
Present address: Tripura State Pollution Control Board, Parivesh Bhavan, Agartala, Tripura-799006
Corresponding author email: bagarwala00@gmail.com
Insect herbivores show dynamic interaction with their food plants in space and time. Intra-
species variations in response to new environments, both biotic and abiotic, ha v e b e e n well-
documented in allopatric and sympatric populations of insects across different taxa. Phenotypic
plasticity, which is the ability of organisms to produce different phenotypes of the same genotype, is
the major cause of generating novelty in traits. As a result, diversifying evolutionary opportunities
become available to natural populations of insect herbivores as these explore new host environments.
Genes ‘expression is specific to unique environments. These accumulate greater variation within
species over time, providing the opportunity for faster divergence and diversification within and
between species. Insects with short life cycle and those with parthenogenetic viviparous reproduction
carry genetic diversity and translate them faster to new genotypes in ecologically diverse conditions.
Two very common and highly polyphagous aphid species, Aphis gossypii Glover and Myzus persicae
(Sulzer), are known by several biotypes and host races from geographical areas harbouring sexual
part of the life cycle of these species. In contrast, these and many other aphid species which
reproduce by parthenogenesis alone in the warm plains and sub-tropical parts of India, China, and
elsewhere in the world do not produce sexual forms. Proximate examination of several populations
of these species in the agroecosystem of Tripura in northeast part of India showed that several intra-
species host races of these aphids exist which are distinguishable in morphological, biological,
physiological differences. Records of a large number of host races in asexual clones in greenhouse
agriculture in temperate climate is testimony to the fact that genetic labile architecture in these
populations evolve new gene expressions in good measure as can happen in populations with sexual
reproduction. It is, therefore, important that insects that live in the agroecosystem of tropical parts
are evaluated for their intra-specific variations more closely to identify different phenotypes or
genotypes that show differences in performance and behaviour without genetic or biological
isolation. Such populations may then be evaluated for host-race specific efficacy to a suitable control
regime. Most of the known control methods, chemical or non-chemical, have their specific footprints
on physiological or behavioural or other biological attributes of intra-specific population isolates or
races. These are vindicated by several results that are now available across different geographical
parts of the world.
Keywords: host races, insect pests, aphids, northeast India
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IV-1
Characterization of viral disease complex in
Capsicum Chinese
, King chilli from North
Eastern Region of India
Ng. Taibangnganbi chanu*1, Susheel Kumar Sarma*2, Tourangbam Shantibala1, Oinam Priyoda2,
Konjengbam Sarda2, Sumitra Phurailatpam1, B.N. Hazarika1
1College of Horticulture and Forestry, Central Agricultural University, Imphal,
2ICAR RC NEHR Manipur centre
Corresponding author email: taibangngathem@gmail.com/ susheelsharma19@gmail.com
King chilli (Capsicum Chinense) also known by U-morok in Manipur, Naga Chilli in Nagaland,
bhoot Jolokia in Assam is a wonderful gift of nature as its fruit is one of the hottest chilies in the
World and at the same time it possess a pleasant and palatable aroma. It is also an important spice
crop in North East India. In spite of main crop, its cultivation is still limited due to numerous biotic
and abiotic factors. Among the biotic factors, the viral disease complex in king chilli has been the
most destructive constrain. In order to explore the disease occurrence, surveys were conducted at
different pockets of Manipur and others neighbouring states of North East India to record the
incidence of viral disease complex and to indentify the associated viruses in King chilli plants. During
the roving survey, various kind of symptoms were found in the infected plants like leaf mottling,
puckering, shoestring, vein banding, severe curling, yellow mosaic, smaller leaf lamina etc. All the
symptomatic plants were screen through RT-PCR using specific primers for different plant viruses
like cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), chilli veinal mottle viruses (ChiVMV), chilli leaf curl viruses,
capsicum chlorosis viruses. ChiVMV and CMV have been successfully detected using reverse
transcription PCR based method. ChiVMV has been detected in 12 locations while CMV has been
observed in 19 locations. Out of the 170 samples tested using specific primers targeting CP region of
each viral genome, 56 samples were found positive for CMV (32.94%) and 30 samples for ChiVMV
(17.64%). None of the above samples were found positive for chilli leaf curl (ChiLCV) and capsicum
chlorosis virus (CaCV). Further, it was noticed that four samples were found positive for mixed
infection of CMV and ChiVMV. Therefore, the study evidenced the existence of ChiVMV and CMV
in King Chilli plantation sites both in hill and plain regions of Manipur and other neighbouring
states, thereby creating havoc to the chilli plantations. Hence, RT-PCR based analysis proven as a
useful method in detection of the existence of both the viruses in King Chilli.
Keywords: Chilli veinal mottle virus, cucumber mosaic virus, Chilli leaf curl virus, King chilli
IV-2
Insect and non-insect pests of orchids and associated damage symptoms
Rumki Heloise Ch. Sangma 1, 2
ICAR-National Research Centre for Orchids, Pakyong-737106, Sikkim, India1
ICAR-Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam-793103, Meghalaya, India2
Corresponding author email: rumkisangma@gmail.com
Orchids belong to one of the largest family of flowering plants, Orchidaceae. Orchids are
fascinating, diverse and beautiful of all flowers and with the added advantage of longevity, these
flowers are becoming all the more popular. Of the several limiting abiotic and biotic factors, the
insects and other related pests are the major factor to decrease the quality and production of orchids.
Based on regular monitoring orchid plants were found to be infested by several insect pest and mites
during certain parts of the year at different levels of infestation. Two spotted spider mite, Tetranychus
urticae, few scale insects like Biosduval scale (Diaspis biosduvali), Cymbidium scale (Lepidosaphes
pinnaeformis), soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidium) and Lecanium scale (Lecanium sp.), aphids (Toxoptera
aurantii, Macrosiphum luteum), thrips (Dichromothrips nakahari) were found to infest several orchid
species and hybrids. Besides these, orchid shoot borer (Peridaedala sp.) long tailed mealy bug
(Pseudococcus longispinnus) and sap sucking beetle (Nitidulid sp.) are reported to damage orchids first
time in Sikkim Himalayas; hence it may receive great importance in orchid protection in near future.
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Mealybugs, scale insects thrips and aphids cause damage to the plants by sucking the cellsap from the
plants reducing overall vigor and health of the plant. Mealy bugs and soft scale insects also secrete
honeydew on which development of sooty mold takes place. Both the adults and the grubs of black
beetle causes the damage. The adults feed on the pollens and suck the cell sap from flowers while the
grubs bore within the floral tissue and eat away the tissue leaving the membranes which results in
lace-like appearance of the infested flowers. As for Peridaedala sp. the newly hatched larvae roam
about for few minutes and then bore inside the leaf for a short period. Mines on the leaves are the
first symptoms along with presence of small blackish regions with presence of excreta/frass. Later on
as the larva develops and continues to feed, blackish region which is almost rotting can be seen at the
junction of the two leafs. This leaf can easily be pulled out and represents the typical dead-heart
symptom caused by borers. The larva then bores inside the shoot and feeds on the central pith.
Masses of frass and excreta can be seen on infested shoots.
Keywords: Insect, non-insect pests, orchids, associated damage symptoms
IV-3
Isolation and identification of entomopathogenic nematodes and its efficacy against
lepidopteran and coleopterans larvae
Seema Rani1 and Jagpal Singh2
1Research Associate, ICAR - All India Network Project on Soil Arthropod Pests, Foundation for Agricultural
Resources Management and Environmental Remediation -Voluntary Center, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
2Secretary, Foundation for Agricultural Resources Management and Environmental Remediation
(FARMER), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
Corresponding author email: farmer.seema@gmail.com (correspondence author)
Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are commonly used as biological agent to control soil
arthropod pests. In the present study isolation, identification, multiplication of prevailing EPN
species in Uttar Pradesh, India and their efficacy against lepidopteran and coleopteran larvae was
evaluated. Out of 200 soil samples 28 samples were found positive (14%) for EPNs- four from
Ghaziabad district, one from Bulandshahar district and two from Amroha district. These EPNs were
identified on the basis of molecular characterization and belonged to genus Heterorhabditis and
Steinernema. Out of total 7 isolated strains; three were identified as Heterorhabditis indica, two as
Steinernema abbasi and two as Steinernema siamkayai. A comparative study of efficacy of EPN species
was also conducted in laboratory of Foundation for Agriculture Resources Management and
Environmental Remediation (FARMER), Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh. In laboratory bioassay studies all
three native EPNs were tested for their pathogenicity against fifth instar Galleria mellonella and second
stage grub of Holotrichia serrata, were estimated lethal dose (LD50) to observe for more virulent EPN
species isolate. All the native isolated EPN caused mortality. The lowest LD50 (IJs/larva) value was
recorded at 48h for H. indica (LD50 4.603) followed by S. abbasi (LD507.118) and S. siamkayai
(LD5010.663). Further the most effective EPN (H. indica) was tested against predominant species of
white grub H. serrata and LD 50 115.050 recorded. Native strains of EPN result more suitable for
inundative release against local soil pests because of adaptation to local climate and other population
regulators.
Keywords: Heterorhabditis indica, Steinernema abbasi, Steinernema siamkayai, Galleria mellonella, Holotrichia
serrata, bioassay, LD50
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IV-4
Molecular characterization of natural enemies in cucurbit ecosystem
Arensungla Pongen1, G.T. Behere2, B.Sharma2, D. M. Firake2 and T. Rajesh1
1School of Crop Protection, College of Post Graduate-Studies (Central Agricultural University), Umiam-793103,
Meghalaya, India
2Division of Crop Protection, ICAR Research Complex for NEH region, Umiam-793103, Meghalaya, India
Corresponding author email: arensungpon@gmail.com
The natural enemies also known as biological control agents are naturally occurring and aid the
farmers by keeping the harmful pests under check. They provide outstanding regulation in reducing
the level of pest populations below those causing economic injury level and hence the importance of
natural enemies in preventing insect pest outbreaks is well acknowledge. Besides insect pests, several
natural enemies also harbour in cucurbit crops which maintain its population by consuming their
hosts/prey (pests) and thus maintain a balance in nature. This work aims at providing the
biodiversity of natural enemies and to develop molecular database by developing DNA barcodes of
natural enemies in cucurbit ecosystem. From this research a total of 11 natural enemies were
collected, of which 6 species were predators and remaining 5 were parasitoids. The predators
consisted of 5 coccinellids and 1 predatory spider. The notable coccinellids were Oenopia kirbyi,
Coccinella septempunctata and Micrapis sp., these predators were found throughout the season in all
cucurbit crops feeding on aphids and soft bodied insects. The parasitoids recorded were larval
parasitoid viz., Hyposoter sp., Apanteles sp., Diadegma sp., Praon sp. and Diachasmimorpha sp. The
collected species were preliminary identified based on taxonomic keys and from taxonomists. DNA
was successfully extracted from multiple specimens of 11 insect species and also tested for Wolbachia
infection. The Wolbachia infected specimens were discarded and not used for further analysis. The
molecular identity of the insect species was established through NCBI BLAST search and DNA
barcodes were successfully developed for 6 insect species while the remaining insects were send for
further taxonomic identification. The comprehensive taxonomical and molecular database developed
in this study for a total of 6 species observed in cucurbit ecosystem could be used as diagnostic guide
at both morphological and molecular level.
Keywords: Vegetable; Biodiversity; Natural enemies and DNA barcodes
IV-5
Cultural and morphological studies of
Pyricularia grisea
isolates collected from major rice
growing areas of Telangana State
K. Aravind1, B. Rajeswari1, T. Kiran Babu2, S.N.C.V.L. Pushpavalli3 and K. Chakrapani4
1Department of Plant Pathology, 2Rice Research Centre, Agriculture Research Institute, 3Institute of Biotechnology,
College of Agriculture, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500030, Telangana State, India. 4 College of
Agriculture, CAU, Imphal, Manipur, India
Corresponding author email: aravindkarni@gmail.com
Rice blast incited by Pyricularia grisea became one of the most devastating disease in rice
growing regions of Telangana State because of its wide spread and destructiveness under favorable
conditions. However, recently released resistant rice varieties became susceptible to the disease due
to evolutionary changes in the pathogen population. Keeping this in view and constraint posed by
the pathogen, present investigation was carried out on cultural and morphological characteristics of
P. grisea isolates. A total of twelve blast infected rice samples collected from Telangana State were
studied for colony color, radial growth, growth pattern, texture, dry mycelial weight, time of
sporulation and sporulation index. Colony colour of P. grisea isolates varied from greyish white to
greyish black on three solid media tested. The highest radial mycelial growth of the fungus was
recorded on OMA (81.7 mm) followed by PDA (77.8 mm) and HLEA medium (72.5 mm). All the
isolates found circular form and varied with respect to mycelium elevation and texture. The highest
mycelial dry weight of the P. grisea isolates was recorded on PDB (225 mg) followed by OMB (214
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mg) and HLEB medium (164 mg). Time taken for sporulation of isolates was 7.9 days on OMA
medium followed by HLEA (8 days) and PDA (8.2 days). Sporulation index of twelve isolates were
differed from poor to excellent on rating scale of 1 to 4. Conidia of all the isolates were produced in
clusters on long septate, slender conidiophores and ranged from 18.9 to 28.2 μm in length and 6.1 to
9.3 μm in width. The shape of conidia in all the isolates was pyriform and hyaline to pale olive, 2
septate and 3 celled. Spore germination percentage was high in Karimnagar isolate (91.6 %) and least
in Nalgonda isolate (28.3 %).
Keywords: Cultural, morphological studies, Pyricularia grisea isolates, rice growing areas
IV-6
Indian isolates of entomopathogenic nematodes and indian agriculture sustenance
Ashok Kumar Chaubey
Nematology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Ch. Charan Singh University, Meerut
Corresponding author email: akc.nema@gmail.com
Increased awareness over the hazards caused by the continuous and indiscriminate use of
pesticides, there is an urgent need to find safe and eco-friendly means of insect pest management.
One such way is to use entomopathogenic nematodes. Entomopathogenic nematodes are insect
endoparasite and lethal to them. They are widespread and comprise the families Heterorhabditidae
and Steinernematidae which are represented by the prominent nemic genera, Heterorhabditis and
Steinernema respectively which having symbiotic association with pathogenic bacteria, Photorhabdus
(with Heterorhabditis) and Xenorhabdus (with Steinernema). These pathogenic bacteria are being released
into the insect hemocoel after nematode‘s entry either through the natural openings or through
breaking the cuticle of the insect hosts. EPN are potential bio-control agents and highly pathogenic
to wide range of insect pests. Entomopathogenic nematodes have been isolated from different
Indian states and Union Territories, viz., Assam, Andaman & Nicobar Islands; Andhra Pradesh;
central India; Gujarat; Haryana; Himachal Pradesh; Jammu & Kashmir; Karnataka; Kerala;
Meghalaya; New Delhi; Northeastern Part; Puducheerry; Rajasthan; Tamil Nadu; Uttaranchal and
Uttar Pradesh. Among the indigenous nematode isolates, 9 have been described as new species i.e.
H. indica; S. sayeedae; S. mushtaqi (and S. dharanii , of which most of the species have been
synonymised except H. indica. Some other indigenous isolates have also been identified and reported
from India i.e. H. bacteriophora; H. baujardi; S. bicornutum; S. riobrave; S. carpocapsae; S. bicornutum; S.
riobrave; S. siamkayai; S. pakistanse; S. masoodi; S. abbasi; S. dharanii; S. surkhetense; S. sangi; S.
cholashanense. In India, EPN are on trial tests in lab as well as in field condition against many serious
insect pests viz., rice leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis); tobacco cutworm (Spodoptera litura); brinjal
fruit borer (Leucinodes orbonalis); diamond back moth (Plutella xylostella); weevil (Diaprepes abbreviates);
silver-leaf whitefly (Bemesia tabaci) and sugar beet beetle (Psylliodes punctulata); cotton bollworm
(Helicoverpa armigera); potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella); spotted stalk borer (Chilo zonellus); rice
yellow stem borer (Tryporyza incertulas); rice ear-cutting caterpillar (Pseudaletia separate); red hairy
caterpillar (Amsacta albistriga); banana stem weevil (Odoiporus longicollis). A total 83 isolates of different
species of Steinernema (50 isolate) and of Heterorhabditis (33 isolate) have been isolated from the soils
of western Uttar Pradesh and are maintained in Nematology Laboratory, Chaudhary Charan Singh
University, Meerut. All the isolates of Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. collected so far from
the soils of western Uttar Pradesh, all are on trial for their efficacy against some of the major insect
pests especially S. lutura, H. armigera and white grub.
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IV-7
Molecular evidence for association of cymbidium mosaic virus with orchids from Manipur
Gayatri Khangjarakpam1, S.K Sharma2, Sumitra Ph1, Kh Stina1 and Jyotsana S2
1MTTC & VTC College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University
2ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal-795004, Manipur, India
Corresponding author email: gayatriflori@gmail.com
Cymbidium mosaic virus (CymMV) is one of the most prevalent and economically important viruses
of orchids. CymMV display severe disease symptoms that affect the quality of the flowers,
significant ones being chlorotic mosaic, floral and foliar necrosis, color-breaking of flowers
causing variation in petal color, size reduction, unpleasant leaf appearances, reduced vigor and
stunted growth. This disease significantly reduces the economic value of orchids. Surveys were
conducted in several regions for CymMV in Imphal west, Imphal East, Bishnupur,
Kakching,Thoubal and Ukhrul districts of Manipur. Total RNA was extracted from symptomatic
plants and RT-PCR was carried out by using a pair of coat protein (CP) gene primer of CymMV.
Amplicon of expected size (348 bp) were obtained from symptomatic orchid plants.Sequence
analysis of specific fragments revealed the identity as Cymbidium mosaic virus (CymMV). The
nucleotide sequences obtained were finally assembled to obtain the full-length sequences of
genomes.To the best of our knowledge, this is the first molecular evidence for the association of
CymMV with Orchids from Manipur.
Keywords: Molecular evidence, association of cymbidium mosaic virus, orchids, Manipur
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Theme-V
Priorities in integrated
approaches for pest and
disease management
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LV-1
Priorities in Integrated Pest Management Approaches for Insect Pest Management
Subhash Chander
ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi-110012
Corresponding author email: Subhash.Chander6@icar.gov.in; schanderthakur@gmail.com
Pest management is a complex system involving many interrelated components such as crop,
pests, natural enemies, beneficial organisms and non-target organisms subjected to man‘s production
oriented interventions under variable weather (Teng and Savary, 1992). IPM has been our national
policy for crop protection since 1980s and a lot of efforts have been and are being made in the
direction of its adoption by farmers. However, the results have not been very satisfactory. An
effective management of pest populations requires development of IPM algorithm in term of crop
loss assessment methodology, forewarning and surveillance tools, decision support tools and
management tactics. Pest management involves intensive decision making that requires effective
decision support tools for timely action. Assessment and extrapolation of yield losses are mandatory
for research prioritization and for taking timely action. Decision support tools such as economic
injury levels (EILs) play an important role in need-based application of pesticides. Simulation models,
and geo-spatial techniques such as remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) can play
an important role in pest surveillance and pest risk analysis. Empirical approach such regression
relationships has been used for assessment of crop losses but these do not explain the physiological
mechanism of yield loss due to pests and are thus location and time specific. However, mechanistic
approach of crop loss assessment involves use of simulation models and is based on the concept of
pest damage mechanisms. Damage mechanisms of the pest can be defined as plant physiological
process affected by the pest injury. These models enhance efficiency of field experiments greatly and
have great potential for applications in the field of pest management.
A generic crop growth model, INFOCROP (Aggarwal et al., 2004; Aggrawal et al., 2005a;
Aggarwal et al., 2005b) has been coupled with different pest damage mechanisms. Different
categories of damage mechanisms encompass reduction in germination, plant killing, competition for
resources (light, water and nutrients), reduction of assimilation rate, assimilate consumption, tissue
consumption and turgor reduction by hampering water and nutrient uptake (Rabbinge et al., 1994).
Remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) can play increasingly vital role in pest
surveillance, pest risk analysis and predictive pest zoning. Remote sensing of crop canopies involves
measurement of electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from plant parts. The amount and
quality of light reflected from crop canopies are strongly dependent on both the crop species and
condition of the crop. Plant pigments, leaf structure and total water content are three important
factors affecting spectral reflectance of vegetation. The spectral signatures for different damage
symptoms due to various factors need to be thoroughly differentiated and standardized for future
comparisons. Predictive pest zoning for delineation of pest hot spots can be done through
combination of pest population dynamics and GIS. The model is run with requisite weather data and
probability of pest outbreak for a site can be determined. Site predictions can then be extrapolated
through GIS to carve out the zones of equal outbreak potential for a pest as shown in case of rice
BPH, Nilaparvata lugens, where in Andhra Pradesh was divided into zones of differential pest zones
(Yadav et al. (2010). Knowledge of pest epidemic potential in different zones allows strategic
decisions with respect to selection of crop cultivars and appropriate management options.
Climate change is likely to impact insect pest populations as well as pest management tactics.
Climate change will have both direct and indirect effects on insect population. Indirect effects will be
through their host plants. Direct impacts of climate change on insects may include shifts in species
distribution with shift in geographic ranges to higher latitudes and elevations; changes in phenology
with life cycles beginning earlier in spring and continuing later in autumn; increase in population
growth rates and number of generations; change in migratory behavior; alteration in crop-pest
synchrony and natural enemy-pest interaction and changes in interspecific interactions (Sutherst,
Yield
loss
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1991). Probable impact of temperature rise on insect populations can be known by comparing
current and projected temperature conditions at a location with a species‘ favourable temperature
range. Impact of CO2 on insect population via host plants can be studied through open top chambers
(OTCs) and free air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE) facilities. Prasannakumar et al. (2012)
studied effect of elevated CO2 on BPH population in OTCs and observed its positive effect on the
pest multiplication that resulted in more than a doubling of its population.
Host-plant resistance, biological control, cultural control and chemical control are the major
pillars of IPM. These components are likely to be affected by climatic change and thus would need
appropriate modifications for sustaining their effectiveness. Breakdown of temperature-sensitive
resistance under increased temperature regimes may lead to more rapid evolution of pest biotypes
(Sharma et al., 1999). This calls for exploration of new sources of plant resistance against insects for
their efficient management. Global climate change would cause alteration in sowing dates of crops,
which may alter host-pest synchrony. There is thus a need to explore changes in pest-host plant
interaction due to sowing date in other crops.
Climate change can have diverse effects on natural enemies of pests. There is a need to breed
temperature-tolerant natural enemies of pests. Fungi such as Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana,
Baculovirus, nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), cytoplasmic virus and bacteria like Bt have great
potential for development as microbial control agents. There is a need to explore native strains of
microbes and develop efficient mass multiplication techniques. Further, rural youth and farm women
can be encouraged for creating entrepreneurship in mass production of biopesticides and bio control
agents. This will ensure availability of IPM inputs to farmers and also open avenues for employment.
All constituents of National Agricultural Research, Education and Extension System (NARES) such
Research Institutes, SAUs, KVKs, State Agricultural Departments and even NGOs and private
agencies need to form a concerted effort on a common platform for synergy for promoting IPM
among farmers through awareness creation and ensuring IPM imput availability to framers.
Climate change could affect efficacy of crop protection chemicals through changes in
temperature and rainfall pattern, and through morphological and physiological changes in crop plants
(Coakley et al., 1999). An increase in probability of intense rainfall could result in increased pesticide
wash-off and reduced pest control. In contrast, increased metabolic rate at higher temperature could
result in faster uptake by plants and higher toxicity to pests. Likewise, increased thickness of
epicuticular wax layer under high CO2 could result in slower or reduced uptake by host plant, while
increased canopy size may hinder proper spray coverage and lead to a dilution of the active
ingredient in the host tissue. Higher spray volume may thus be required for effective pest
suppression under climate change and pesticide application thus has to be modified according to new
situations.
Conclusion
Simulation models have been used for several applications in the area of pest management,
which helped to increase the efficiency of field research greatly. These will be of even greater
relevance in emerging research areas, such as climate change impacts on pest dynamics and crop-pest
interactions and pest forewarning. In view of fast changing pest scenario and invasive species, the
application of geo-spatial techniques holds promise for efficient pest surveillance and risk analysis on
‗Wide-Area‘ basis.
References
Aggarwal, P.K., Banerjee, B., Daryaei, M.G., Bhatia, A., Bala, A., Rani, S., Chander, S., Pathak, H.
and Kalra, N. 2005b. Infocrop: A dynamic simulation model for the assessment of crop
yields, losses due to pests, and environment impact of agro-ecosystem in tropical
environments. II. Model performance. Agricultural Systems, 89(1):47-67.
Aggarwal, P.K., Kalra, N., Chander, S. and Pathak, H. 2004. Inforcrop: A generic simulation model
for annual crops in tropical environments, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi,
p 132.
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Aggarwal, P.K., Kalra, N., Chander, S. and Pathak, H. 2005a. Infocrop: A dynamic simulation model
for the assessment of crop yields, losses due to pests, and environmental impact of agro-
ecosystems in tropical environments. 1. Model description. Agricultural Systems, 89(1):1-25.
Coakley, S.M., Scherm, H. and Chakraborty, S. 1999. Climate change and plant disease management.
Annual Review of Phytopathology. 37:399-42.
Craighead, F.C. 1921. Protection of mesquite cordwood and posts from borers (No. 1197). US Dept.
of Agriculture.
Frost, C.J. and Hunter, D. 2004. Insect canopy herbivory and frass deposition affect soil nutrient
dynamics and export in oak mesocosms. Ecology, 85(12): 3335–3347.
Graf, B., Lamb, R., Heong, K.L. and Fabellar, K.L. 1992. A simulation model for the population
dynamics of rice leaf folders and their interaction with rice. Journal of Applied Ecology, 29: 558-
570.
James, W.C. and Teng, P.S. 1979. The quantification of production constraints associated with plant
diseases. In: Applied biology (ed. Coaker, T.H.). Academic Press, New York, pp 201-267.
Prasannakumar, N.R., Chander, S. and Pal, M. 2012. Assessment of impact of climate change with
reference to elevated CO2 on rice brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal.) and crop yield.
Current Science 103 (10): 1201-1205.
Rabbinge, R., Rossing, W.A.H. and van der Werf, W. 1994. Systems approaches in pest management:
the role of production ecology. In Proceedings o the Fourth Int. Conf. on Plant Protection in the
Tropics, 28-31March 1994, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, eds A. Rajan and Y. Ibrahim, pp. 25-46.
Sharma, H.C., Mukuru, S.Z., Manyasa, E. and Were, J. 1999. Breakdown of resistance to sorghum
midge, Stenodiplosis sorghicola. Euphytica, 109:131-140.
Sutherst, R.W. 1991. Pest risk analysis and the greenhouse effect. Review of Agricultural Entomology, 79:
1177-1187.
Teng, P.S. and Savary, S. 1992. Implementing systems approach in pest management. Agricultural
Systems, 40:237-64.
Yadav, D.S., Chander, S. and Selvaraj, K. 2010. Agro-ecological zoning of brown plant hopper
Nilaparvata lugens incidence on rice Oryza sativa. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 69:
818-822.
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Ecological engineering for pest management
Nisha Patel
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur 342 003
Corresponding author email: npatelcazri@gmail.com
India is a developing nation and agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for a major
part of the population. About 58 percent of the country‘s population depends on agriculture as a
source of income (https://www.ibef.org/ industry/ agriculture-india.asp). Although many farmers
are using world class technology for food production, the majority (80%) of Indian farmers are small
and marginal farmers. Therefore, the future of sustainable agriculture growth and food security in
India depends on the performance of small and marginal farmers. The world population is expected
to reach an estimated 9.1 billion people by the year 2050 thus there is a need to increase food
production for the rapidly growing population of humans on earth. Various approaches viz., high
yielding varieties, better crop production and protection technologies have helped in enhancing yields
of many crops throughput the world. The judicious use of pesticides has and will continue to play an
important role in pest management and food production. Agrochemicals such as pesticides and
fertilizers have certainly helped in keeping the insect pests under control and preventing losses in
food crops horticulture and storage. However the indiscriminate use of pesticides has created several
undesirable side effects viz., residues and contamination of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
including coastal marine systems, and their toxic effects on humans and nonhuman biota. Pimental,
2005 investigated the complex of environmental costs of dependence on pesticides in USA and
estimated it to be $10 billion in environmental and societal damages as a result of pesticide impacts
on public health; livestock and livestock product losses; increased control expenses resulting from
pesticide-related destruction of natural enemies and from the development of pesticide resistance in
pests; crop pollination problems and honeybee losses; crop and crop product losses; bird, fish, and
other wildlife losses; and governmental expenditures to reduce the environmental and social costs of
the recommended application of pesticides.
The major challenges facing world agriculture in the twenty-first century are food security
and safety, rural livelihood, sustainability of agriculture and conservation of natural resources. The
pest management approaches being currently employed are presently unable to deal with all these
challenges. However ecological engineering for plant protection can meet these challenges as it is in
flow with natural mechanisms. Ecological engineering approach for managing pest populations relies
on cultural techniques for modifying the habitat in a manner which naturally enhances the population
of beneficial insects, microbes and other fauna. These cultural practices are based on ecological
knowledge rather than on high technology approaches such as synthetic pesticides and genetically
engineered crops (Gurr et al., 2004). The other pillar of ecological engineering is proper management
of soil health.
Ecosystem services provided by insects
Insects form almost half of the total faunal biodiversity (Speight et al., 1999) and provide
valuable major ecosystem services such as pollination, being important links in the food chain,
decomposition, nutrient recycling, herbivory etc (Noriega et al. 2018, Hillstrom and Lindroth, 2008).
Among all the ecosystem services, pollination service is of immense economic value linked to human
well-being through agricultural production and food security (IPBES 2016). Pollinators impact food
supply at a global scale, as pollinator-dependent crops contribute to about 35 percent of overall crop
production by volume (IPBES, 2016). Losey and Vaughan 2006, estimated the value of only four
economic services provided by ―wild‖ insects; dung burial, pest control, pollination, and wildlife
nutrition on the basis of losses that would accrue if insects were not functioning at their current level.
They calculated the annual value of these ecological services provided in the United States to be at
least $57 billion, which indicates that the conservation of services is indeed a valuable investment.
Estimated global values of the crop pollination service, adjusted for inflation in March/2020, range
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widely from US$195 billion to ~US$387 (US$267–657) billion annually — due to methodology,
input data and a historical increase in production costs of pollinator-dependent crops (Porto et al.,
2020)
Natural enemies
In any ecosystem every living organism has natural enemies, these natural enemies maintain
pest populations below economically damaging levels. This can also be termed as biological control.
Bio control in cropping systems can operate in three ways viz., natural, conservation and
augmentative biological control. When insect species are suppressed by naturally occurring organisms
with no human input, it is referred to as natural control. Conservation biological control involves
identification and modification of factors that limit or enhance the effectiveness of the natural
enemies. Augmentative biological control involves the supplemental release of natural enemies.
Natural enemies can be – predators, parasites or pathogens. The arthropod predators of insects and
mites include beetles, true bugs, lacewings, flies, midges, spiders, wasps, and predatory mites.
Predators, such as lady beetles and lacewings, are mainly free-living species that consume a large
number of preys during their lifetime. Parasitoids are species whose immature stage develops on or
within a single insect host, ultimately killing the host. Many species of wasps and some flies are
parasitoids. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill
or debilitate their host and are relatively specific to certain insect groups.
Requirements of natural enemies
Like any other living organisms, the basic requirements of natural enemies of insects are food
and shelter. Adults and larvae of ladybird beetles feed primarily on aphids. They also feed on mites,
small insects, and insect eggs. Lacewing larvae feed on aphids, small worms, insect eggs, mites, thrips,
immature whitefly, and other insects. The adult stages of many predators viz., lacewings and syrphid
flies feed on pollen and nectar. Even adults who are predatory feed on pollen and nectar when their
prey insects are not available. When primary hosts are not present, predators sometimes feed on
alternate hosts. The other requirement of natural enemies is shelter for safety and protection from
weather parameters, tillage and their own enemies, suitable microclimate, lekking sites, overwintering
sites. The presence of diverse types of flora in a farm can provide shelter to different types of natural
enemies. The major resource i.e. food, pollen, nectar, are provided by flowering plants to insects
(Baggen and Gurr 1998, Hickman and Wratten 1996 Wäckers, and van Rijn2012, Zong et al. 2012.
Physical refugia (Halaji et al. 2000), alternative hosts (Viggiani 2003) and lekking sites (Sutherland et
al. 2001) are also provided by flowering plants.
What is ecological engineering
Mitsch and Jorgensen (1989) have defined ecological engineering as ‗the design of human
society with its natural environment for the benefit of both‘. This concept used for pest management
utilizes habitat manipulation for encouraging the survival and population of natural enemies of
insects (Gurr et al. 2004). Habitat manipulation can provide a diversified ecosystem with diverse
microhabitats, food sources (prey, nectar, pollen), alternative hosts and shelter for natural enemies
thus ensuring their better survival, colonization and population build up. These cultural techniques
used in ecological engineering typically require relatively low inputs of energy or materials and
depend more on natural processes.
Ecological Engineering Strategies
In ecological engineering the habitat of the farm is managed in such a way that it becomes
more conducive to build-up of natural enemies rather than insect pests. Habitat changes are done
both above and below the ground. Use of cover crops, boundary plantations, trap crops, repellent
plants and crop rotation are some tactics to manipulate the above ground habitat. Whereas strategies
for soil nutrient management and compaction are done for making below ground conditions
conducive for beneficial flora and fauna.
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Above ground habitat manipulation
In a farm well planned plant diversity can be created to provide food and shelter to predators
and parasites. Increasing the numbers and biodiversity of flowering plants which attract beneficial
insects is the first step in this direction. Flowering plants can be raised on the field/ orchard
boundaries or as strips in main crops. While planting care should be taken that these plants are
themselves not attracting some pest insects. Plants which attract a variety of beneficial insects due ti
good amounts and quality of pollen and nectar are known as insectary plants. The plants belonging
to Leguminaceae, Graminaceae, Brassicaceae, Asteraceae etc. families are excellant insectary plants
and these can be planted in fields as companion plants or strips . The actual selection of flowering
plants however should be based crops, pest insects agro-climatic conditions etc.
The plants which are shorter should be planted towards main crop and taller plants towards
the border to attract natural enemies as well as to avoid immigrating pest populations. Some weeds
plants / shrubs such as Calotropis have been observed to harbour a sizeable population of predatory
insects viz., ladybird beetles and syrphids and also a small population of alternative preys. Retaining
some such weeds in the farm / orchard goes a long way in keeping pest populations at low levels. In
the arid region of Rajasthan several trees; Acacia senegal , Prosopis cineraria, Moringa oleifera have been
observed to support a good population of pollinators as well as hymenopteran predators parasites
and ladybird beetles. The shrubs of henna, Lawsonia inermis and Ber, Zizyphus rotundifolia also attract
sizeable population of friendly insects. Lucerne crop or plants are good refugia for beneficial insects
especially for cotton production system Wendy Harris and Mensah, Robert. 1996
Indiscriminate application of broad spectrum chemical pesticides should be avoided, as there are
hundreds of studies which attribute reduction in natural enemies to application of pesticides (Wasim
et al., 2009).
Below ground habitat manipulation
Soil is a living entity rather than a inert substance. A healthy soil contains hundreds of types
of microflora and fauna, earthworms and arthropods and algae apart from clay sand and organic
matter. Healthy soils are key to healthy plants which can tolerate disease and pest pressure more
effectively. Adequate moisture, good soil tilth, moderate pH, right amounts of organic matter and
nutrients and a diverse and active community of soil organisms all contribute to plant health. Soils
that are rich in organic matter have complex food webs and beneficial organisms. Proper soil
management leading to a healthy soil is conducive for ecological based pest management as various
types of entomo-pathogens are present in healthy soils of every type of ecosystem. The proportion
of nutrients in soil affects the pest density in many crops. High levels of nitrogenous fertilizers may
increase the incidence of outbreaks of sucking pests such as whiteflies, aphids and leafhoppers. Soil
health and functional diversity can be maintained by practises viz., maintaining soil cover wth no
tillage, use of cover crops, mulching etc. The natural enemies hiding in soil can be saved if tillage
intensity is reduced. For effectively promoting soil biological activity nutrient recycling should be
practised by regular supply of crop residues, vermicomposts, manure, Crop rotation and farming
systems with livestock components help in recycling of nutrient s. Application of biofertilizers.
mycorrhiza , rhizobacteria, bio pesticides (Trichoderma spp. , Pseudomonas fluorescens,
metarhizium etc) etc help in keeping soil in a healthy state.
References
Aktar Md. Wasim, Sengupta Dwaipayan, and Chowdhury Ashim. 2009. Impact of pesticides use in
agriculture: their benefits and hazards. Interdiscipinary Toxicology. 2(1): 1–12.
Baggen LR and Gurr GM. 1998. The influence of food on Copidosoma koehleri, and the use of
flowering plants as a habitat management tool to enhance biological control of potato moth,
Phthorimaea operculella . Biological Control 11 (1):9-17.
GM Gurr, SD Wratten and MA Altieri. 2004. Ecological engineering: a new direction for agricultural
pest . AFBM Journal. 1(1):28-35
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Hickman JM and Wratten SD 1996, ‗Use of Phacelia tanacetifolia strips to enhance biological control of
aphids by hoverfly larvae in cereal fields‘. Journal of Economic Entomology 89:832-840.
IPBES 2016 . The assessment report of the intergovernmental science-policy Platform on
biodiversity and ecosystem services on pollinators, pollination and food production. S.G.
Potts, V. L. Imperatriz-Fonseca, and H. T. Ngo (eds). Secretariat of the Intergovernmental
Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Bonn, Germany. 552 pp .
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3402856.
Noriega, J.A., Hortal, J., Azcárate, F.M., Berg, M.P., Bonada, N., Briones, M.J.I., Del Toro I., D.
Goulson, S. Ibanez, Landis, D.A., Moretti, M., , Slade, S.G., E.M., , J.C., Ulyshen, M.D.,
Wackers, F.L., Woodcock, B.A., and Santos A.M.C. 2018. Research trends in ecosystem
services provided by insects. Basic Appl. Ecol., 26. 8-23
Losey John E and Vaughan Mace.2006. The economic value of ecological services provided by
insects. BioScience 56 4) 311–323
Mitsch WJ and Jorgensen SE 1989. Introduction to Ecological Engineering. in Mitsch, WJ and
Jorgensen, SE (eds), Ecological Engineering: an Introduction to Ecotechnology, Wiley, New
York, pp. 3-19.
Pimentel David 2005. Environmental and economic costs of the application of pesticides primarily in
the United States. Environment, development and sustainability. 7: 229–252
Rafaella Guimarães Porto, Rita Fernandes de Almeida, Oswaldo Cruz-Neto, Marcelo Tabarelli,
Blandina Felipe Viana, Carlos A. Peres & Ariadna Valentina Lopes. 2020. Pollination
ecosystem services: A comprehensive review of economic values, research funding and
policy actions. Food Security. 12:1425–1442
S.P. Singh Kavita Gupta Sandeep Kumar Judicious use of pesticides in sustainable crop production
and PGR management E-Publication (NBP-14-02), National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources, New Delhi. 21 pp
Speight MR, Hunter MD, Watt AD. 1999. Ecology of Insects – concepts and applications. Oxford,
Blackwell Science, 340pp.
Sutherland JP, Sullivan, MS and Poppy, GM 2001. Distribution and abundance of aphidophagous
hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) in wildflower patches and field margin habitats. Agricultural
and Forest Entomology 3:57-64.
Viggiani G 2003, ‗Functional biodiversity for the vineyard agroecosystem: aspects of the farm and
landscape management in Southern Italy‘, Bulletin Oilb/Srop, 26(4):197-202.
Wäckers, F.L. and van Rijn, P.C.J. (2012) Pick and mix: selecting flowering plants to meet the
requirements of target biological control insects. Biodiversity and Insect Pests: Key Issues for
Sustainable Management (eds. G.M. Gurr, S.D. Wratten, W. Snyder & D.M.Y. Read) pp.
139–165, Wiley Blackwell, Oxford.
Wendy Harris and Mensah, Robert. 1996. Envirofeast IPM in Cotton: Part 2. Use of Lucerne as
Refugia for Beneficial Insects in Cotton. http:// www .insidecotton.com/ xmlui/ handle
/1/599.
Zhong‐Xian Lu Ping‐Yang Zhu Geoff M. Gurr Xu‐Song Zheng Donna M. Y. Read Kong‐Luen
Heong Ya‐Jun Yang Hong‐Xing Xu. 2012 Mechanisms for flowering plants to benefit
arthropod natural enemies of insect pests: Prospects for enhanced use in agriculture.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7917.12000
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LV-3
Priorities in soil health management for sustained ecosystem services in terms of crop
protection
M. Nagesh* and S. M. Haldhar**
Principal Scientist, Division of Genomic Resources, ICAR-NBAIR, PB No 2491, HA Fam Post, Bengaluru
560024.
**Associate Professor, Department of Entomolgy, CAU, Imphal, Manipur
Corresponding author email: nagesh.m@icar.gov.in
Biodiversity and soil biodiversity
The most unique feature of Earth is the existence of life, and the most extraordinary feature
of life is its diversity (Cardinale et al., 2012). Approximately 9 million types of plants, animals, protists
and fungi inhabit the Earth. So, too, do 7 billion people. Two decades ago, at the first Earth Summit,
the vast majority of the world's nations declared that human actions were dismantling the Earth's
ecosystems, eliminating genes, species and biological traits at an alarming rate. This observation led
to the question of how such loss of biological diversity will alter the functioning of ecosystems and
their ability to provide society with the goods and services needed to prosper.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines biodiversity as "the variability among
living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species
and ecosystems". Soil is one of the most diverse habitats on earth and contains one of the most
diverse assemblages of living organisms (Giller et al., 1997). Nowhere in nature are species so densely
packed as in soil communities (Hagvar, 1998). For example a single gram of soil may contain millions
of individuals and several thousand species of bacteria (Torsvik et al., 1994). Soil biota includes
Micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.), Micro-fauna (protozoa, nematodes, etc.), Meso-fauna (acari,
springtails, etc.) and Macrofauna (insects, earthworms, etc.). It also includes the roots that grow in
the soil and interact with other species above and below ground. Soil communities are so diverse in
both size and numbers of species, yet they are still extremely poorly understood and in dire need of
further assessment. Research has been limited by their immense diversity and by technical problems.
Groups such as viruses, algae, yeasts, myxomycetes, cyanobacteria, rotifers, aphids, gastropods,
tardigrades, turbellarians and others, have been little studied and in generally restricted environments.
Moreover, there is a large imbalance in the knowledge of tropical versus temperate species (Brussard
et al., 1997). Some of the available estimates on the number of species presently described of selected
soil biota that have been better studied are given. However, that these estimates are still preliminary
and much lower than the estimated total number of species within each group. For example, the
described number of soil dwelling fungal species ranges from 18-35,000, while the projected number
may be >100,000 (Hawksworth, 1991). Other organisms expected to be much more species-rich are
the nematodes and mites, with perhaps only 3 and 5%, respectively, of the total species presently
described (Walter and Proctor, 1999; Hawksworth and Mound, 1991). The estimates for bacteria and
archea species are particularly problematic because of the differences in opinion as to what criteria
should be used to define a species, and the present unculturability of many of these organisms
(Hawksworth and Kalin-Arroyo, 1995). Besides numbers of species, their biomass is also an
important consideration.
Soil biodiversity is the total community from genes to species that exist in a given natural
soil, and it varies tremendously depending on the environment and ecological situations. The
immense diversity in soil allows for a great variety of functional relationships among the diverse
groups of life that benefit the species that inhabit it, the species (including us) that use it, and its
surrounding environment. Biologically the soil functions include: primary productivity, carbon and
nutrient cycling, erosion control, the maintenance of a stable soil structure, and helping to mitigate
climate change. Soil biodiversity ensures a healthy soil system and is directly proportional with the
soil health that is necessary for the sustainable functioning of any natural ecological niche.
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Evidence is mounting that the immense diversity of microorganisms and animals that live
belowground contributes significantly to shaping aboveground biodiversity and the functioning of
terrestrial ecosystems. Our understanding of how this belowground biodiversity is distributed, and
how it regulates the structure and functioning of terrestrial ecosystems, is rapidly growing. Evidence
also points to soil biodiversity as having a key role in determining the ecological and evolutionary
responses of terrestrial ecosystems to current and future environmental change. Here we review
recent progress and propose avenues for further research in this field.
Soil biodiversity and their biota are in peril due to the global change factors, including
nitrogen deposition, land use change, climate change and other anthropogenic disturbances, overall
altering the function and critical services the soil provides for human well-being. Earth is
experiencing a substantial loss of biodiversity at the global scale, while both species gains and losses
are occurring at local and regional scales. However, the losses and gains in species can be estimated
unless a clear database with time scale is available for each region. One classical work was reported
on Soil invertebrates occurrences in European North-East of Russia (Konakova et al., 2020). The
European North-East of Russia is the territory which includes the Nenets Autonomous District,
represented by the East European tundra (from Kanin Peninsula to Vaigach Island), Komi Republic
with its taiga ecosystems and the Urals (Northern, SubPolar and Polar). Over 20 years of systematic
studies of soil fauna in the studied region has resulted in a huge amount of data being accumulated
that can be analysed from different positions. This study produced a dataset containing information
on occurrences on soil invertebrates (Lumbricidae, Chilopoda, Diplopda, Collembola, Elateridae and
Staphylinidae) in the European North-East of Russia. The dataset summarises occurrences noted in
natural and disturbed forests, tundra and mountain ecosystems. New information generated was the
data from 196 geo-referenced localities of European North-East of Russia (tundra, taiga and
mountains ecosystems) have been collated. A total of 5412 occurrences are included in the resource.
The current project surveys 13 species of earthworms, 20 species of millipedes, 246 species of
springtails, 446 species of rove beetles and 60 species of click beetles. The diversity of soil
invertebrates in the European North-East of Russia has not been fully explored and further
exploration will lead to more taxa.
Further, Despite the key role played by soil organisms in the functioning of terrestrial
ecosystems and provisioning of ecosystem services (Barrios 2007, Bardgett and Putten 2014),
available open data on soil biodiversity are incongruously scarce (Eisenhauer 2017, Cameron 2018).
In Russia, soil zoological research and large volumes of data that were collected during the second
half of the 20th century for the territory of the former USSR. Last year, 41,928 georeferenced
occurrences of soil-dwelling arthropods Collembola were digitised and published through GBIF.org.
This work continues these activities. presented descriptions of three new sampling-event datasets
about the various types of anthropogenic load on the diversity and the abundance of Collembola,
small arthropods involved in the destruction of organic residues in the soil:Collembola of winter
wheat fields in the Kaluga Region: conservation treatment versus conventional one (Kuznetsova et
al. 2020). These datasets contribute to filling gaps in the global biodiversity distribution of the
Collembola. All datasets present new information about effects of agricultural treatments,
urbanisation and clear cutting on springtail diversity and abundance in ecosystems of the European
part of Russia.
The influence of these nonrandom changes in species distributions could profoundly affect
the functioning of ecosystems and the essential services that they provide. In a classical work, Nico
Eisenhouer et. al., (2019), Using a novel, synthetic combination of field observations, field
experiments, lab experiments, and meta-analyses, for the first time systematically examined the
earthworm effects on (1) plant communities and (2) soil food webs and processes. Further, (3)
effects of a changing climate (warming and reduced summer precipitation) on earthworm
performance will be investigated in a unique field experiment designed to predict the future spread
and consequences of earthworm invasion in North America.
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Another important aspect is the topic of aboveground-belowground linkages has seen much recent
activity, resulting in several conceptual advances regarding plant-soil feedbacks, multitrophic
interactions, and how organisms drive ecosystem processes (Kardol and Wardle, 2010). Although
restoration ecology has been rapidly evolving as a scientific discipline, the principles that have
developed regarding aboveground-belowground linkages have yet to be thoroughly integrated into it.
In this review, we conceptually integrate the role of aboveground-belowground linkages with the
principles of restoration ecology through a framework that transcends multiple levels of ecological
organization, and illustrate its application through three examples: restoration of abandoned land,
reversal of biological invasions, and restoration of natural disturbances. We conclude that this
integration can greatly assist restoration ecology, through aiding identification of effective invention
practices and prediction of ecosystem recovery.
Ecological linkages between aboveground and belowground biota (Wardle et al., 2004). All
terrestrial ecosystems consist of aboveground and belowground components that interact to
influence community- and ecosystem-level processes and properties. Here we show how these
components are closely interlinked at the community level, reinforced by a greater degree of
specificity between plants and soil organisms than has been previously supposed. As such,
aboveground and belowground communities can be powerful mutual drivers, with both positive and
negative feedbacks. A combined aboveground-belowground approach to community and ecosystem
ecology is enhancing our understanding of the regulation and functional significance of biodiversity
and of the environmental impacts of human-induced global change phenomena.
Further, the soil microbes as drivers of plant diversity and productivity in terrestrial
ecosystems was reported (van der Heijden et al., 2008). The authors explored the various roles that
soil microbes play in terrestrial ecosystems with special emphasis on their contribution to plant
productivity and diversity. Soil microbes are important regulators of plant productivity, especially in
nutrient poor ecosystems where plant symbionts are responsible for the acquisition of limiting
nutrients. Mycorrhizal fungi and nitrogen-fixing bacteria are responsible for c. 5-20% (grassland and
savannah) to 80% (temperate and boreal forests) of all nitrogen, and up to 75% of phosphorus, that
is acquired by plants annually. Free-living microbes also strongly regulate plant productivity, through
the mineralization of, and competition for, nutrients that sustain plant productivity. Soil microbes,
including microbial pathogens, are also important regulators of plant community dynamics and plant
diversity, determining plant abundance and, in some cases, facilitating invasion by exotic plants.
Conservative estimates suggest that c. 20 000 plant species are completely dependent on microbial
symbionts for growth and survival pointing to the importance of soil microbes as regulators of plant
species richness on Earth. Overall, this review shows that soil microbes must be considered as
important drivers of plant diversity and productivity in terrestrial ecosystems.
Indian subcontinent with a surface area of 328 mha is blessed with unique climatic and
habitat diversity, ranging from temperate in north, subtropical and tropical towards south and east;
arid, semiarid to humid; and estuarine, mountainous, ravine, plains, arid in the West. Notably, the
landscape is dominated by a high plateau south, surrounded by a narrow strip of coastal plains in east
and west. Climatic conditions are therefore largely dependent on the altitude of the area in question
and its proximity to either the Indian ocean (East) or Arabian sea (West).
In Indian sub-continent 11 major soil groups have been described and the biological nature
of soils were discussed (Bhattacharyya et al., 2013). Major observations on soil microbial diversity
include - higher microbial population was recorded in surface soils compared to sub-surface soils in
all the ecosystems studied; rainfed, followed by hill and mountain systems, recorded significantly
higher microbial population compared to other ecosystems; though coastal system indicated lesser
microbial population, its diversity (H′) was higher compared to other ecosystems (Hill et al., 2003).
While higher dominance index (D) and evenness (E) were observed in hill and mountain systems;
diversity index (H′) was the lowest among the ecosystems indicating the dominance of bacteria over
other microbial groups. Although arid ecosystem showed lesser microbial population and diversity
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index (H′), its evenness (E) index was good. Besides these references on soil biology from ecosystem
services point of view there is limited information.
Role of EPN in soil ecosystem services and status in India
Entomopathogenic nematodes are soil-inhabiting, lethal insect parasitoids that belong to
the phylum Nematoda, commonly called roundworms. The most commonly studied genera are those
that are useful in the biological control of insect pests, the Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae
(Gaugler 2006). Entomopathogenic nematodes are highly successful for they are ubiquitous in
nature. The entomopathogenic activity of Steinernematid and Heterorhabditid species has been
documented against a broad range of insect pests in a variety of habitats. These nematodes are
especially efficacious against insect in soil and cryptic habitats (Lacey et al., 2001). Many species of
Steinernema and Heterorhabditis have been commercialized as biopesticides because they have wide
host range, ability to kill the host within 48 h, capacity for growth on artificial media, amenable for
storage, lack of host resistance and safety to the environment. EPNs invade their hosts through
natural openings (mouth, spiracles, anus) or wounds and penetrate into the haemocoel. Bacteria in
the genera Xenorhabdus or Photorhabdus are released and kill the host quickly.
Global biodiversity in entomopathogenic nematodes and their taxonomic status
Nematodes belong to the Phylum Nematoda and are next to insects in diversity, number,
trophic habits and distribution. More than 30 nematode families are known to host taxa that
parasitize or are associated with insects (Nickle, 1972; Poinar, 1975, 1983, 1990; Maggenti, 1981;
Kaya and Stock, 1997). However, because of their biocontrol potential, research has concentrated on
seven families: Mermithidae, Allantonematidae, Neotylenchidae, Sphaerularidae, Rhabditidae,
Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae, the latter two currently receiving the most attention as
control agents of soil insect pests (Lacy et al., 2001). Besides insect hosts, the Phasmarhabditis
hermaphrodita (Schneider), a member of the family Rhabditidae, is reported to suppress several slug
species, and has been developed as a biological molluscicide (Wilson et al., 1993; Glen and Wilson,
1997; Wilson and Gaugler, 2000). Moreover, several predatory mononchids, dorylaimids,
nygolaimids, diplogasterids and the fungal-feeding nematode (Aphelenchus avenae Bastian) studied as
potential biocontrol agents of plant-parasitic nematodes and plant pathogens (Kasab and Abdel-
Kader, 1996; Lootsma and Scholte, 1997; Choudhury and Sivakumar, 2000; Matsunaga et al., 1997).
De Ley and Blaxter (2002) listed major groups in the Phylum Nematoda with biocontrol potential.
Nematode diversity in India
The initial research with entomopathogenic nematodes in India was conducted primarily
with exotic species/strains of S. carpocapsae, S. glaseri, S. feltiae, and H. bacteriophora imported by
researchers. India, as is the case with many other parts of the world, has a rich biodiversity resource
because of its varied geographic, climatic, and weather conditions. It is divided into 15 agro-climatic
and agro-ecological zones, which for the most part consist of tropical and subtropical areas.
Therefore, a search for indigenous species/strains resulted in a number of nematode isolates from
different parts of India. Among the indigenous nematode isolates, two have been described as new
species, H. indica (Poinar et al., 1992) from Tamil Nadu and S. thermophilum Ganguly. S. thermophilum
was also isolated different states of India Delhi, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Assam, West Bengal, Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh, Kerala and Jammu and Kashmir (Ganguly et al., 2010). Other species identified as
indigenous isolates include S. carpocapsae (Hussaini et al., 2001), S. bicornutum (Hussaini et al., 2001), S.
riobrave (Ganguly et al., 2002), S. feltiae (Ganguly and Sosamma, unpublished data) and H. bacteriophora
(Sivakumar et al., 1989). Hussaini et al. (2001) also identified some of the native populations of
Steinernema by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis and analysis of the PCR-
amplified ITS-rDNA region using 17 restriction enzymes. These results showed that S. abbasi
Elawad, Ahmad and Reid, and S. tami Luc, Nguyen, Reid and Spiridonov were present in India. EPN
isolates like S. abbasi, S. siamakayai, S. asiaticum, S. cf. Tami, S. cf. eapokense, S. cf. monticolum, S. cf.
scaptarisci, H. cf. bacteriophora and H. indica were isolated from districts of Western Uttar Pradesh (Khan
and Haque, 2010). In addition, surveys have revealed natural occurrence of several species/strains of
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Steinernema and Heterorhabditis in Andeman and Nicobar islands (Prasad et al., 2001), Gujarat (Vyas,
2003), Kerala (Banu et al., 1998), New Delhi (Ganguly and Singh, 2000), and Tamil Nadu (Bhaskaran
et al., 1994).
Not only do entomopathogenic nematodes affect their host insects, they can also change the
species composition of the soil community. Many familiar animals like earthworms and insect grubs
live in the soil, but smaller invertebrates such as mites, collembolans, and nematodes are also
common. Aside from EPNs, the soil ecosystem includes predatory, bacteriovorous, fungivorous and
plant parasitic nematode species. Since EPNs are applied in agricultural systems at a rate of 1,000,000
individuals per acre, the potential for unintended consequences on the soil ecosystem appears large.
EPNs have not had an adverse effect on mite and collembolan populations (Georgis et al. 1991).
Agricultural practices have significant positive and negative impacts on soil biota including
on EPN. Therefore, an integrated approach to agriculture should enhance the biological efficiency of
soil processes, in order to maintain soil fertility, productivity and crop protection. This may be useful
in modern commercial agriculture, and it is of major importance in marginal lands to avoid
degradation, in degraded lands in need of reclamation and in regions where high external input
agriculture is not feasible. Finally, conservation and augmentation of natural nematode populations
through proper management practices and periodic nematode releases offer possibilities for in situ
natural suppression of insect pests. Before envisaging this ideal natural suppression of insect pests
using EPN in different cropping systems in the country, there is a need to address and realize the
following objectives more pragmatically and with focus.
Region-wise cataloguing the biodiversity of insect associated nematodes more specifically EPN
Molecular profiling and declaring the GI status for CBD requirements
Database on region-wise EPN and their Bioinformatics
Characterization of isolates for performance attributes to enhance uptake in rainfed and arid crop
conditions
Frequent disturbance often perturbs agricultural habitats and the response to disturbance
varies among EPN species. In traditional agricultural systems, tilling disturbs the soil ecosystem,
affecting biotic and abiotic factors. For example, tilled soils have lower microbial, arthropod, and
nematode species diversity (Lupwayi et al., 1998). Tilled soil also has less moisture and higher
temperatures. In a study examining the tolerances of different EPN species to tillage, the density of a
native nematode, H. bacteriophora, was unaffected by tillage, while the density of an introduced
nematode, S. carpocapsae, decreased. The density of a third nematode introduced to the system,
Steinernemariobrave, increased with tillage (Millar and Barbercheck, 2002). Habitat preferences in
temperature and soil depth can partially explain the nematodes‘ different responses to disturbance. S.
carpocapsae prefers to remain near the soil surface and so is more vulnerable to soil disturbance than
H. bacteriophora, which forages deeper and can escape the effects of tillage. S. riobrave may have
responded well to tillage because it is better at surviving and persisting in hotter and drier conditions
created by tillage (Millar and Barbercheck, 2002). The data showed that Steinernema sp. found on
some Indonesia region showed high adaptation capability when applicated on another region or
condition (Anton Muhibuddin, 2008) The response of EPNs to other forms of disturbance is less
well defined. Nematodes are not affected by certain pesticides and are able to survive flooding. The
effects of natural disturbances such as fire have not been examined.
Global Soil Biodiversity Atlas
Global Soil Biodiversity Atlas shows that mismanaging soils could exacerbate the effects of
climate change, jeopardise agricultural production, compromise the quality of ground water and
worsen pollution. It also proposes solutions to safeguard soil biodiversity through the development
of policies that directly or indirectly target soil health, leading to a more sustainable use.
(www.globalsoilbiodiversity.org). Dataset on distribution of microbial soil carbon developed by
Serna-Chavez and colleagues (2013) is acting as a proxy for soil microbial diversity, while, dataset on
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distribution of the main groups of soil macrofauna developed by Mathieu (unpublished data). This
was used as a proxy for soil fauna diversity.
Priorities for research in soil ecology
Nico Eisenhauer et al., (2018) listed research priorities and were compiled based on an online
survey of 32 editors of Pedobiologia – Journal of Soil Ecology. These editors work at universities and
research centers in Europe, North America, Asia, and Australia.The questions were categorized into
four themes: (1) soil biodiversity and biogeography, (2) interactions and the functioning of
ecosystems, (3) global change and soil management, and (4) new directions. The respondents
identified priorities that may be achievable in the near future, as well as several that are currently
achievable but remain open. While some of the identified barriers to progress were technological in
nature, many respondents cited a need for substantial leadership and goodwill among members of
the soil ecology research community, including the need for multi-institutional partnerships, and had
substantial concerns regarding the loss of taxonomic expertise.
http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-WV0-NHQ_Qxc/Uas2F4sNA7I/AAAAAAAAC2E/
YgQiNNaD3yE/s1600/20130602_UNEP_soil_degradation_map.gif
Last but not least, the efforts of several eminent visionaries across the globe drafted and
presented a classical reference compilation on soil biodiversity through FAO Report 2020. The
introductory note is replicated here - There is increasing attention to the importance of biodiversity
for food security and nutrition, especially above-ground biodiversity such as plants and animals.
However, less attention is being paid to the biodiversity beneath our feet, soil biodiversity, which
drives many processes that produce food or purify soil and water. This report is the result of an
inclusive process involving more than 300 scientists from around the world under the auspices of the
FAO‘s Global Soil Partnership and its Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils, the Convention
on Biological Diversity, the Global Soil Biodiversity Initiative, and the European Commission. It
presents concisely the state of knowledge on soil biodiversity, the threats to it, and the solutions that
soil biodiversity can provide to problems in different fields. It also represents a valuable contribution
to raising awareness of the importance of soil biodiversity and highlighting its role in finding
solutions to today's global threats.
Acknowledgements
Authors thankfully acknowledge the ideas and presentations of the Eminent scientists and
visionaries whose papers and information are referred to, in this article and not intended to claim any
originality.
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V-1
Synthesis and characterisation of ZnO nanoparticles and its exploitation for management
soil borne plant pathogens
Pranab Dutta1, H. Kaushik3, Gitashree Das3, Arti Kumari2 and Madhusmita Mahanta2
1School of Crop Protection, CPGSAS, CAU (Imphal), Umiam, Meghalya
3Department of Plant Pathology, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam
Corresponding author email: pranabdutta74@gmail.com
Nanoscience and nanotechnology is a cutting edge technology with having diversified use in
industries like in electronics, agriculture, biotechnology, medical science, aerospace engineering as
well as in agricultural sciences. Nanomaterials- the building block element of this new science are the
particles of dimension between approximately 1 to 100 nm in at least one dimension. Out of the
different nanoparticles ZnO nanoparticles has versatile use in agriculture. It can be used as nano-
fertilizer, nano-herbicides, nano-pesticides, as antimicrobial agents, as biopriming agents and many
more. In a study, we synthesised ZnO nanoparticle through chemical approaches and characterized
by UV-Vis spectrophotometer, Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Zeta-sizer, Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), EDX analysis and Fourier
Transmission Infrared spectrophotometer (FTIR). Our synthesized materials were found to have
average size of 33.4 nm with PDI of 0.697, with negative zeta potential value of -20.7 mV, spherical
in shape with zinc and oxygen as elemental composition. The synthesized nanoparticles were tested
at different doses and found effective against plant pathogens, viz., Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Fusarium oxysporum, Colletotrichum capsici, Xanthomonas campestris pv. oryzae
etc. It was also observed that with increasing concentration of the synthesised nanoparticles, its
inhibitory effect increased with highest per cent inhibition at 225 ppm. The nanoparticles were also
found to have inhibitory effect on sclerotia production and germination of soil borne plant
pathogens like R. solani, S. sclerotiorum, and S. rolfsii. While studying the mode of action, we found
cellular internalization, deformation, mycelial break down, ROS production, reduction of non
enzymatic glutathione, hyphal melanisation etc as the main mechanism of antipathogenic activity of
ZnO nanoparticles. The seed treatment was found to have positive effect on plant growth
parameters and yield attributing parameters of the targeted crop plants. Treated plants were also able
to defend themselves against pathogen attacks by triggering enzymatic responses. Further study was
also done on ZnO NP as nanopriming agents with a hypothesis that ZnO NP as priming agents will
enhance the storage life of chickpea with enhancement in Plant growth parameters.
V-2
Effect of botanical insecticides against
Coccinella septempunctata
(Linnaeus) on rapeseed
in Manipur
N. Sunita Devi1, K.I.Singh1, Rimamay Konjengbam2 and Takhellambam Julia3
1- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University
Iroisemba, Imphal-795004, Manipur
2- Department of Plant pathology, College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University
Iroisemba, Imphal-795004, Manipur
3- Department of Genetics and plant breeding, College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University Iroisemba,
Imphal-795004, Manipur
Corresponding author email: nameirakpamsunitad@gmail.com
Present study was undertaken at College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University,
Iroisemba, Imphal during Rabi season of 2012-2013, to study the effect of botanical insecticides viz.
Pestoneem (Azadirachtin 1500 ppm), Multineem (Azadirachtin 300 ppm), Achook (Azadirachtin
1500 ppm), Shakti (Azadirachtin 300 ppm), Margosom (Azadirachtin 300 ppm), Uroinsecticide (Cow
urine + Artemisia nilagirica), Fipronil 5 SC, against predator population (Coccinella septempunctata)
on rapeseed in Manipur. It was observed that among the seven test insecticides achook @ 1500
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ml/ha proved to be the safest insecticide to predatory beetle, Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus
with a record of highest beetle population of 1.14 per plant as against 3.30 recorded in untreated
check. The safetyness of achook was closely followed by Margosom (0.97/plant) and multineem
(0.87/plant) each sprayed @ 2500 ml/ha and had no significant difference from each other. The
lowest beetle population (0.41 beetles/plant) was recorded from fipronil 5 SC @ 1000 ml/ha treated
plot. However, all the insecticidal treatments recorded significantly lower beetle population as
compared to that of untreated control.
Keywords: Coccinella septempunctata, botanical insecticides, fipronil, rapeseed
V-3
Present outline of eco-friendly management of plant diseases and insect pests in Manipur
Rimamay Konjengbam1*, Takhellambam Julia2, N Sunita Devi3, Thokchom Nepolian Singh3, LNK
Singh4, Sobita Devi4 and Bireswar Sinha4
College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal West, Manipur
Corresponding author email: rimamay24@gmail.com
Eco-friendly management strategies is a latest trend in the management of plant diseases and
insect pests as it specifically highlights environmental friendly practices and promotes feasible organic
agriculture. Survey in the valley districts of Manipur disclosed the use of microbial pesticides, plant
based pesticides, plant oil, semiochemicals and organic plant growth promoter with exceptional
preference to plant health and environment. Commercial formulation of Trichoderma harzianum,
Trichoderma viride, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis are widely used for managing crop diseases.
Commercial formulation of Beauveria bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopliae, Verticillium lecanii and Bacillus
thuringiensis are commonly employed for managing insect pests of food crops. Neem cake is used
extensively by farmers in Manipur as it provides both essential nutrition and protect the crops against
diseases and insect pests. Among plant based pesticides, commercial formulation of neem are widely
used because of its antimicrobial and insecticidal properties. Aqueous and boiled plant extracts of
neem are also employed in several small scale farming sites. The use of pheromone trap for luring
economically important insect has been in practiced in Manipur since the last few recent years.
Pheromone Bacu Lure with Flight T trap were used for managing melon fruit fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae),
Luci Lure and water pheromone trap were used for managing brinjal shoot and fruit borers
(Leucinodes orbonalis) and Heli Lure with funnel pheromone trap for managing pod borer (Helicoverpa
armigera) in bean. Some farmers had also resorted to age old cultural and mechanical practices such as
collection and burning of disease infected and insects infested crops, hand removal of insect‘s eggs
and larvae, deep ploughing and crop rotation. The concept of eco-friendly management has opened
the path for development of disease and insect resistant crop varieties and cultivars, promotes the
utilization of promising locally available parasitoids and exploitation of locally available botanicals for
disease and insect pests management of economically important crops in Manipur.
Keywords: Microbial, plant based pesticide, plant extract, pheromone
V-4
Integrated Pest Management in stored grains to strengthen food security in India
Th. Anupama Devi, Tabuiliu Abonmai, Ksh. Manishwari Devi and Kh. Monika Devi
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal, Manipur
Corresponding author email: anupamathoudam1234@gmail.com
Losses resulting from poor post-harvest management of grains are among the key constraints
to improving food and nutritional security in India. This is because poor storage systems make grains
vulnerable to attacks from insect and rodent pests, which lead to a considerable amount of losses.
Reducing the postharvest losses could be a sustainable solution to increase food availability, reduce
pressure on natural resources, eliminate hunger and improve farmers‘ livelihoods. Integrated pest
management are required to lower the damage in storage food grains. Monitoring of insect
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populations and quality deterioration over a particular period of time will be a valuable tool to
determine economic thresholds in storage. Control of stored-product insects in bulk containers,
warehouses and other large storage structures/areas requires fumigation. Fumigants help to kill the
insects in hidden places that may later become a problem. Infestations of stored-grain insect pests
can also be controlled by non-chemical methods like heat and cold treatments, as heat kills some
pests while cold blocks their development. Entry of insects that are not found in a particular area can
be prevented by the imposition of laws, such as the Destructive Insects and Pests Act 1914 in India.
Some desiccants such as earth, silica gel and non-silica and diatomaceous earth can be combined with
stored grains to provide protection against insect damage. Hermetic storage (HS), also known called
as ―sealed storage‖ or ―airtight storage‖ creates an automatic modified atmosphere of high carbon
dioxide concentration using the sealed waterproof bags or structures, and significantly reduces insect
infestation losses. The existing postharvest system has to be improved to cut postharvest losses at
the farm level where about 70% of grains are stored and consumed as food and feed and for seed
purposes. Using better agricultural practices and adequate storage technologies can significantly
reduce the losses and help in strengthening food security, and poverty alleviation, increasing returns
of smallholder farmers.
Keywords: Postharvest losses, stored grains, food security, Integrated Pest Management
V-5
Eco-friendly management of root rot pathogen of
Prosopis cineraria
Sangeeta Singh, Bindu Nirwan, Shiwnai Bhatnagar, Vipula Vyas, Kuldeep Shrama and Sunil
Chaudhary
Forest Protection Division, Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur
Corresponding author email: shiwani.bhatnagar@gmail.com
Root rot disease caused by G. lucidum (Curtis Ex. Fr.) Karst is the one of the most dreaded
since long back. The pathogen has wide host range and has been observed in several tree species
such as Dalbergia sisso, Acacia tortilis, A. nilotica, Albizia labbek and Azadirachta indica and Prosopis cineraria
etc. Treating with chemical pesticides is often the least desirable and often last-implemented
management approach due to their negative impact on environment. Viewing the problem of pest
resistance and other environmental issues of chemicals, one of the method of management now in
practice is, the use of antifungal and antifeedant/repellant compounds which is environmentally safe
as well as very effective. In the present study 20 different extracts of plant were tested in vitro to
investigate their antifungal activity against the test fungus, G. lucidum. Although, 11 extracts out of 20
tested extracts were found to inhibit the growth of fungus to different extent but four of them had
shown significant result. The ethanolic extract of A. excelsa roots significantly inhibited the growth of
test pathogen at the tested concentrations of 5, 10, 15, 20 mg/ml, indicated its broad range of activity
as compared to other plant extracts. The extracts of leaves of P. juliflora showed maximum reduction
of growth (74.81%) of test fungus at concentration of 20 mg/ml. The fruit extracts of B. aegyptiaca
showed 47-61.9% , growth inhibition while that of D. stramonium fruits also showed significant
growth retardation of test pathogen 34.4 -60.4% at different concentrations.
Keywords: Ganoderma lucidum, botanicals, plant extract
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V-6
Synthesis and validation of IPM strategy in maize for fall army worm management in farmer
participatory mode
M. K. Khokhar1, Anoop Kumar1, Suby SB2, S.L. Jat2, P.L. Soujnya2, Richa Varshney3 and D.
Sreelatha4
1ICAR-National Research Centre for Integrated Pest Management, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110012
2ICAR-Indian Institute of Maize Research, Ludhiana 141004
3ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru 560024
4PJTSAU, Hyderabad Telangana 500 030
Corresponding author email: E-mail: khokharmk3@gmail.com
Recently invasion of Fall army (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), in maize created
havoc among farmers in various maize growing states. Since the pest introduced in the country in
2018 and we had no validated IPM technology to tackle this pest in maize. Therefore, IPM strategy
was formulated and validation trial in winter maize was carried out in farmer participatory mode at
village Damera in Warangal district of Telangana during 2019-2020. The FAW infestation was
recorded 15-22% in IPM field whereas, 33 per cent in FP. Natural enemies population were
dominant in IPM field (1.28 to 2.0 predators/50 plants) in comparision to FP (<0.30/50 plants). The
data on yield and economics indicated that the yield in IPM and FP was not significantly different, as
both recorded yield of 28q/Acre. IPM fields recorded Benefit:Cost ratio of 1:2.27 where as in FP the
ratio was 1:2.21. From this study it appears that FAW infestation upto 30% do not cause significant
crop loss if managed by IPM intervention at early stage and IPM also helped in reducing pesticides
application.
Keywords: Synthesis, validation, IPM strategy, maize, fall army worm, management
V-7
Role of IPM in combating okra fruit and shoot borer (
Earias vittella
) and maximizing yield
attributes
Viswanadha Raghuteja Puvvala1*, N. Emmanuel2 and C. P. Viji3
1. Ph.D Research Scholar, Dept. of Entomology, Dr. YSR Horticultural University, Venkataramannagudem.
2. Associate Professor, Dept. of Entomology, College of Horticulture, Venkataramannagudem.
3. Associate Professor, Dept. of Entomology, College of Horticulture, Venkataramannagudem.
Corresponding author email: Viswanadharaghuteja@gmail.com
Studies on the influence of IPM and non-IPM practices were carried out during rabi season
2018-19 at College of Horticulture, Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari district, Andhra
Pradesh with an objective of examining their impact against the management of okra fruit and shoot
borer (E. vittella) and evaluating the yield attributes. IPM practices include Deep Summer Ploughing,
Maize as border crop, Reflective Plastic Mulch (Sheet gauge), Marigold as trap crop, installation of
yellow sticky, installation of light traps, installation of sex pheromone traps, erection of bird perch
and need based application of botanicals and bioagents was carried out viz.,NSKE 5%, Neem oil @ 3
ml/l, Sweet flag Aqueous extract 5 %, imidachloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.3 ml/l, Beauveria bassiana @ 5 g/l
and Bacillus thuringiensis @ 1 g/l. Whereas, in non-IPM plot of okra application of chemicals was
carried out on sequential basis viz., imidachloprid 17.8 SL@ 0.25 ml/l, lambda cyhalothrin 5 EC @
1ml/l, thiomethoxam 25WG @ 2ml/l, flubendiamide 480 SC @ 1ml/l, buprofezin 25 SC @ 1ml/l
and chlorantraniliprole 18.5 % SC @ 0.25ml/l. The results revealed that the mean number of E.
vittella larvae was 0.43 and 0.61 numbers per fruit in okra grown in IPM and non IPM plots
respectively, while in control plot of okra the number of E. vittella larvae was 1.64 numbers per fruit.
The mean per cent fruit infestation in okra grown in IPM plot was 7.54 per cent, while in the non-
IPM plot it was 15.05 per cent. Whereas, in control plot of okra the mean per cent of fruit infestation
was 32.82 per cent. The total fruit yield was 64.35 + 2.59 kg in IPM plot of okra, while in non-IPM
plot it was 57.63 + 1.69 kg, whereas the lowest fruit yield of 46.87 + 1.43 kg was recorded in control
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plot. The mean marketable fruit yield was 60.42 + 2.53 kg in IPM plot of okra which was more than
that of non-IPM and control plots with mean marketable fruit yield of 46.67 + 1.49 kg and 25.01 +
1.26 kg respectively. The observations on benefit cost ratio of okra plots showed that the highest
benefit cost ratio was recorded in IPM plot with 2.11, whereas in non-IPM plot of okra it was 1.23 and
the lowest benefit cost ratio of 0.95 was recorded in control plot of okra.
Keywords: IPM, okra fruit and shoot borer, maximizing yield attributes
V-8
Evaluation of organics against arecanut mite,
Oligonychus indicus
Hirst (Acarina:
Tetranychidae) under field condition
Indhusri Chavan, S. Pradeep, S. Sridhara and H. Narayanaswamy
University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shivamogga, Karnataka
Corresponding author email: indushree8036@gamail.com
An investigation was carried out at farmer‘s field in two locations viz., Shivamogga and
Hosadurga taluk of Karnataka during 2016-17 and 2017-18 to evaluate the efficacy of organics
against arecanut mite, Oligonychus indicus viz., Beauveria bassiana 2.6 x 108 conidia / ml, Metarhizium
anisopliae1.4 x 108 conidia / ml, Lecancillium lecanii 2 x 108 conidia / ml, NSKE 5%, Cow dung slurry +
Cow urine 5%, Chilli-Garlic extract 3%, Dicofol 18.5 EC 2.5 ml/lt and untreated control. To
evaluate the efficacy organics, three to four years old plants were selected with a spacing of 2.7 m ×
2.7 m. The Size of the experimental area was 235 sqm with 40 plants. Five plants in a row were
considered as a plot for imposing the treatment. For recording observations from each palm three
fronds was sampled (bottom, middle and top) and from each frond, three leaflets were used to count
the mite population per square cm area by using 10x hand lens. The population was computed as the
mean number of active stages per leaflet. The pre-treatment counts were recorded one day before
spray and post treatment observations were recorded on 3, 7 and 11 days after spraying. Data was
subjected to square root transformation and analyzing using analysis of variance technique
(ANOVA) of Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Pooled data of two year experiment
indicated that among eight treatments evaluated against mites, L. lecanii 2 × 108 conidia / ml had
significantly higher efficacy in reducing the mite population with highest per cent reduction of (80.71
% in Shivamogga and 81.21 % in Hosadurga taluk). The cow dung slurry + cow urine 5 per cent
showed 72.83 and 69.74 per cent reduction of mite population, in respective taluks. Dicofol 18.5 per
cent EC @ 2.5 ml / litre recorded lowest mites count at 3 and 7 DAS, was on par with NSKE 5 per
cent and chilli garlic extract @ 3 per cent during both the years. The two years study results have
confirmed that L. lecanii @ 2 × 108 conidia / ml followed by cow dung slurry + cow urine @ 5 per
cent can act effectively to combat the mite problem in arecanut.
Keywords: Evaluation, arecanut mite, Oligonychus indicus, field condition
V-9
Evaluation of different IPM modules against ber stone weevil,
Aubeus himalayanus
in hot
arid region of India
S. M. Haldhar1&3, A. K. Singh2, D. Singh31 and D. K. Sarolia1
1ICAR-Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Sri Ganganagar Highway, Beechwal Industrial Area, Bikaner
(Rajasthan) 334006
2Central Horticultural Experiment Station (ICAR-CIAH), Godhra-Vadodara Highway, Vejalpur (Gujarat) –
389340, India
3(Present Address: Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture (CAU), Iroisemba, Imphal, Manipur
795004)
Corresponding author email: haldhar80@gmail.com
The ber stone weevil, Aubeus himalayanus Voss (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) appeared to be an
emerging pest reported from various region of India. The stone weevil is an emerging threat for ber
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production in India especially in Northern India. A significant difference in stone weevil population
was observed under different modules. The results showed that organic IPM module-II registered
significantly lower stone weevil population (11.93 % on retained fruits & 14.95% in dropped fruits)
followed by module-I (21.13 % on plant fruits & 26.05% in fallen fruits). The highest stone weevil
population was observed under control module (49.13 % on retained fruits & 54.73% in dropped
fruits). The marketable yield of ber fruits differed significantly under different modules. The fresh
fruit yield of ber was observed in the order of organic IPM module-II (82.50 kg/ plant)> module-I
(78.90 kg/ plant)> module-IV (73.43 kg/ plant)> module-III (64.13 kg/ plant) and least under
control module (56.55 kg/ plant) in year 2016-17. It can be inferred from the results that organic
IPM module-II (Moderately resistant genotype (Umran), deep summer ploughing after pruning of
plants, neem oil spray @ 5 ml per litre of water in October month, hand picking of damaged fruit
and adult in November month and spray of spinosad 46 SC @ 0.4 ml per litre of water in December
month) was highly effective and gave higher yield of marketable ber fruits.
Keyword: Ber, stone weevil, Aubeus himalayanus, IPM modules, hot arid region of India
V-10
Mass trapping for integrated management of pink bollworm,
Pectinophora gossyipiella
Saunders (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) in cotton
M. S. Maha Lakshmi and N. V. V. S. Durga Prasad
Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University
Regional Agricultural Research Station,
Lam, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh- 522034
Corresponding author email: msmlaxmi@gmail.com
The pink bollworm (PBW), Pectinophora gossypiella Saunders (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is a
most injurious pest of cotton worldwide causing enormous monetary loss both in terms of quantity
as well as quality. It is known to cause upto 35-90 per cent reduction in seed cotton yield. Mass
trapping and disruption of mating communication are the two major methods of achieving insect
pest population suppression by using pheromone beside monitoring of pest population. To be
successful, mass trapping must remove enough males from a population to significantly reduce
mating success, thus reducing the next generation population level and delaying the pest population
buildup during later generations. Keeping the points in view, a field experiment was conducted at
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam, Guntur for two successive seasons i.e. Kharif 2016-17
and 2017-18. The variety, Suraj was sown in July second fortnight at 105 X 60 cm spacing in large
plots. The trial was laid in a randomised block design with seven treatments which were replicated
thrice. Three different traps such as delta traps with sticky liner, funnel traps and sleeve traps were
selected with two different densities such as 50 and 20 traps/ha. The lures such as PCI pectino lure
and Phero sensor PBW lures were used for the study. The season long pectino lure was used with
low trap density i.e. lure with 120 days long capacity was used in low trap density (i.e 20 traps/ha) in
both delta and funnel traps. The phero sensor PBW lure with a changing period of 45 days was used
in sleeve traps at both the densities. The moth catch was recorded daily from all the traps and the
larval incidence and locule damage from green bolls was recorded through destructive sampling at
weekly interval from all the treatments. The mean moth catch was highest from sleeve traps when
compared to funnel trap and delta traps with sticky liners irrespective of trap densities. The mean
trap catch was significantly high from sleeve trap at high trap density of 50 traps/ha with Phero
sensor PBW lure with 45 days lure changing period when compared to funnel trap and delta trap
with PCI pectino lure at high trap densities. The data clearly showed the influence of lure that was
used in traps besides the type of the trap. Though there were significant and wide differences in trap
catch, numerically there was no much variation regarding larval incidence of pink bollworm and
locule damage in green bolls among the different treatments. The mean number of larvae and locule
damage was significantly low coupled with high seed cotton yield from the plots with sleeve traps at
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both the trap densities i.e. 50 and 20 traps/ha when compared to all the other treatmental plots. The
next best treatment was standard funnel trap with phero sensor PBW lure at a density of 10 traps/ha
which recorded significantly superior yield over the delta and funnel traps at higher densities with
PCI pectino lure. The experimental results showed that there are some significant differences in
capture efficacy of different traps. Sleeve traps captured extremely higher number of moths, while
funnel and delta traps fail to capture adult moths to considerable extent. Secondly, different trap
designs can provide completely different information about the seasonal abundance of the pink
bollworm. As a result, the population fluctuation is likely to vary significantly depending on the
trapping device used and on the lure, and hence, traps are often poor indicators especially for
estimating the pink bollworm population densities. In general, the main drawback of the use of
adhesive traps is that the sticky surface is often overloaded with moths, dust or wing scales, which
reduces trapping efficacy. Though the control rates are not very high enough to take up as a single
strategy, mass trapping using sex pheromones has the potential to become an ideal tool in integrated
pest management for successful control of pink bollworm in cotton.
Keywords: Mass trapping, integrated management, pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossyipiella, cotton
V-11
Strategies of pest management in organic farming
Yumnam Somi Singh
Department of Horticulture, North-Eastern Hill University, Tura Campus, Chasingre-794 002, Meghalaya
Corresponding author email: somiyumnam@gmail.com
The principle of pest management in organic farming is prevention. Organic farming aims at
enhancing soil health by accumulating soil organic matter through the use of cover crops, compost
and biologically based soil amendments. Farmers in an organic farming system also rely on a diverse
population of soil organism, insects, birds and other organisms to contain the pest problems. When
pest population get out of control, the growers can employ a variety of strategies such as the use of
parasites and predators, mating disruption, traps and different kind of barriers. As a last resort,
botanicals or other non-toxic pesticides may be applied under restricted conditions. Pest
management in organic farming is a holistic (whole-farm) approach that largely depends on the
ecological processes and biodiversity in the agro-ecosystem. Accordingly, most integrated pest
management tactics, principles, and components match with organic farming systems. The factors
that render crop habitat unsuitable for pests and diseases include limitation of resources,
competition, parasitism, and predation. These factors play an important role in maintaining
equilibrium of the agro-ecosystem and suppression of harmful pests. Faunal and floral diversities play
a substantial role in pest management in organic farming system. Under organic farming systems, the
fundamental components and natural processes of ecosystems, such as soil organism activities,
nutrient cycling, and species distribution and competition, are used directly and indirectly as farm
management tools to prevent pest populations from reaching economically damaging levels. Soil
fertility and crop nutrients are managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, and
cover crops and supplemented with manure, composts, crop waste material, and other allowed
substances.
Keywords: Pest management, organic farming, holistic approach, sustainability, equilibrium
V-12
Eco-friendly management of biotic stresses in cucumber in Mid Hills of Meghalaya
Sandip Patra, A. Ratankumar Singh, D. M. Firake and V. K. Verma
ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya-793103
Corresponding author email: sandippatra47@gmail.com
Pest infestations in cucurbits bring about heavy losses through reduction in yield, lowered
quality of produce, increased cost of production. The extent of losses varies between 30 to 100%,
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depending on the cucurbit species and the season. Therefore, an experiment was conducted at ICAR
Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya to evaluate the eco-friendly management
modules against major biotic stresses in cucumber during kharif season of 2019. Cucumber (Variety:
Malini) seeds were sown in the plot size of 12 m2 area with randomized block design. Different
modules comprising of neem oil, Beuveria bassiana, fruit fly trap, Trichoderma viridae, Pseudomonas
fluorescens and Ampelomyces were tested against major pests and diseases of cucumber (Cultivar: Malini)
under field condition. Among the bio-pesticide modules tested, combination of neem oil and
Trichoderma /Pseudomonas based modules were effective for reducing biotic stresses in cucumber.
Trichoderma (Seed treatment + Foliar spray + soil drenching) + neem oil + fruit fly trap (Module-I)
showed less red pumpkin beetle and fruit infestation with 0.64 beetle/plant and 14.24% fruit damage
in cucumber, respectively. In case of powdery mildew (Podosphaera xanthi) of cucumber, the minimum
severity (18.02%) was recorded in Module-5 i.e. combined treatment of Pseudomonas + Ampelomyces
(Foliar spray) + Beauveria bassiana + fruit fly trap.
Keyword: Cucumber, biotic stresses, neem oil, Beauveria bassiana, Trichoderma, Pseudomonas
V-13
Effect of different combinations of feed on the time of emergence of rice moth,
Corcyra
cephalonica
(Stainton)
Lovepreet Kaur and Deepika Kalkal
Department of Entomology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University-Hisar
Corresponding author email: luvpreet7198@hau.ac.in
Rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) is one of the major factitious hosts for most of
natural enemies. C. cephalonica is being utilized in various bio-control research, developmental and
extension units for mass production of number of natural enemies in several countries of the world.
The nutritional suitability of the host is an important aspect taken into consideration in mass
production programmes. The study aimed to evaluate the effect of different feeds on time of
emergence of rice moth, C. cephalonica during October, 2020 under laboratory conditions at
Department of Entomology, CCSHAU, Hisar. C. cephalonica was reared in wooden rearing cages (41 x
22 x 12 cm3) with seven treatments comprising different combinations of feed T1 [Bajra (100%)], T2
[Maize (100%)], T3 [Wheat (100%)], T4 [ Bajra (48.5%) + Sorghum (48.5%) + Groundnut (3%)], T5
[Maize (48.5%) + Sorghum (48.5%) + Groundnut (3%)], T6 [Wheat (48.5%) + Sorghum (48.5%) +
Groundnut (3%)], T7 [Mix Bajra (32.33%) + Maize (32.33%) + Wheat (32.33%) + Sugar (3%) ]
under three replications of each treatment. Results revealed that rice moth firstly emerged in T1.
Based upon the above results it is concluded that Bajra was the most preferred feed whereas wheat
was the least preferred feed. Also, its life cycle was completed in 50 days on Bajra and 56 days on
Wheat.
Keywords: Bajra, emergence, factitious host, rice moth, wheat
V-14
Eco-friendly management of potato blight – a review
Prajna Samal, L. Nongdrenkhomba Singh, Bireswar Sinha
Department Of Plant Pathology, College Of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal – 795004
Corresponding author email: prajna.doc98@gmail.com
The potato is grown as a major crop in countries in different climatological zones, including
temperate regions, the sub-tropics and tropics, under very different agro-ecological conditions,
lowlands and highlands and in very different socio-economic environments. Currently, the crop is
grown on a significant scale in about 130 countries. Late blight of potato caused by fungus
Phytophthora infestans responsible for Irish famine in the year 1845, is one of the most dramatic
episode caused by plant pathogen in human history. One million people died due to famine in
Ireland. It is transmitted by sporangia that are readily detached and disseminated by wind and rain
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splash. Infection may spread from early potato crops to nearby main crops. Tubers are contaminated
by sporangia washed into the soil from blighted haulms or on exposure at lifting. The fungus
overwinters in tubers. Seed tubers, tuber refuse from clamp sites and volunteer plants provide
sources of new infection. So eco-friendly management of potato late blight disease is a necessary goal
to be accomplished. During last many years, management strategies solely relied upon the application
of fungicides due to rapid development of late blight epidemics. However, indiscriminate use of
fungicide possesses a serious threat to the environment and human health. It is also responsible for
built up of resistance in the pathogen and have adverse effect on beneficial organisms such as
nitrogen fixers, resident antagonism and mycorrhizal fungi. So to minimize the fungicide use,
biological control for late blight management is required on a priority basis. Biological control of
Phytophthora infestans was investigated using four other microorganisms viz., B. subtilis, P.
fluorescens, T. harzianum and T. viride. In the in vitro tests, T. harzianum and B. subtilis highly
restricted the growth of the late blight pathogen by 83.3 and 84.4 %; respectively over the control in
agar assays. While T. viride and P. fluorescens restricted the growth of P. infestans by 75.1 to 77.6 %,
respectively. In a field experiment, foliar spray of all bioagents suspensions significantly protected
potato plants from late blight disease during the two growing seasons. The highest reduction in late
blight severity was obtained with foliar spray of B. subtilis suspensions.
Keywords: Potato tuber late blight, Phytopthora infestans, biological control, bio-agents
V-15
Effect of chickpea sowing dates on of pod borer
Charnjit Kaur, H S Randhawa and Damanpreet
Pau Regional Resdarch Staion Gurdaspur
Corresponding author email: harpals_randhawa@pau.edu
Pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera is major constraint in production of chickpea crop due to
development of insecticide resistance. The sustainable and environment friendly protection practices
has highlighted the need to develop alternative management strategies. Information on pest
population across sowing dates can be used to assess the effect of different climatic variables on pest
population and grain yield (Singh et al 2002). Therefore, present study was formulated to determine
effect of different sowing dates on H. armigera in chickpea. The cv. PBG 7 was sown at 25th October,
05, 15 and 25th November 2019 at this Station. The crop was raised without plant protection
measures. The larval population was recorded from 17th December to onward at weekly intervals
from central three rows of each plot. The significant differences were observed in larval population
with sowing dates and decreased with delay in sowing. The crop sown on 25th October and 25th
November had significantly higher (3.61) and lower (2.45) larval population, respectively. At
harvesting the maximum yield (17.89 q/ha) was recorded with sowing 15th November. The present
finding was at par with finding of Singh et al. (2008). It revealed that the pod filling ability in
chickpea varied with sowing dates and exhibited a definite trend with pod damage.
Keywords: Effect. Chickpea, sowing dates, pod borer
V-16
A review on phytomicriobiome and their importance in food quality maintainance and
security
Trishanku Kashyap1, Athokpam Herojit Singh2, Hiren Das3, Subhadip Sen4
1,2,3Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, 4Department of Entomology,
College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur-795004
Corresponding mail: ktrishanku@gmail.com
Global demands for food and fibre will increase up to 70% by 2050 and due to lack of much
arable land, declining soil and water quality and changing climate, the productivity of crops need to
be increased in presence of the available resources but also maintaining the quality simulteneously.
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Moreover pest and disease outbreaks compromise the quality of the produced foods. Fertilizer and
other chemical advancements have aided in increasing productivity but at the same time deteriorating
quality and food contamination. Ensuring the food and nutritional demand of the ever-growing
human population is a major sustainability challenge for humanity. Crop yields and fitness are related
to phytomicrobiomes. The phytomicrobiome acts as an essential modifying factor in plant root
exudation and vice versa, resulting in better plant health and crop yield both in terms of quantity and
quality. These microbiomes with less resource inputs helps in increasing quantity of crop yields and
better quality of food for less chemical contamination. Identification of core microbiomes, their roles
in resilience against biotic and abiotic stresses and their ability to match supply with crop demand
for nutrient and protection are the main focus points of studying microbiomes.
Keywords: Food security, food quality, phytomicrobiome
V-17
A review on management of Soil fertility for controlling insect pest
Hiren Das1, Trishanku Kashyap2, Subhadip Sen3, Trishangni Saikia4 and Jinamoni Lahkar5
1,2Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, 3 Department of Entomology, 4,5Department of Horticulture
College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur-795004
Corresponding author email: thehirendas@gmail.com
Decline in soil health is a serious worldwide problem that decreases complexity and stability
of agricultural ecosystems, commonly making them more prone to outbreaks of herbivorous insect
pests. Cultural methods such as crop fertilization can affect susceptibility of plants to insect pests by
altering plant tissue nutrient levels. Evidence suggests that adopting soil conservation techniques
often increases mortality and decreases reproductive output for the major insect pests of these
important vegetable crops. Known mechanisms responsible for such an effect include increases in
density and activity of natural enemy populations, enhanced plant defenses, and modified physical
characteristics of respective agricultural habitats. Research shows that the ability of a crop plant to
resist or tolerate insect pests and diseases is tied to optimal physical, chemical and mainly biological
properties of soils. Soils with high organic matter and active soil biology generally exhibit good soil
fertility. Crops grown in such soils generally exhibit lower abundance of several insect herbivores,
reductions that may be attributed to a lower nitrogen content in organically farmed crops. On the
other hand, farming practices, such as excessive use of inorganic fertilizers, can cause nutrient
imbalances and lower pest resistance. More studies comparing pest populations on plants treated
with synthetic versus organic fertilizers are needed. However, most research efforts focused on
mulches and organic soil amendments, with additional research needed on elucidating effects and
their mechanisms for conservation tillage, cover crops, and arbuscularmycorrhizae.
Keywords: IPM; insect populations; pest management and soil fertility
V-18
Intregrated pest management in oilseed crops
Kh. Monika Devi1, Edwin Luikham2, Bijeeta Thangjam3, Th. Anupama Devi4, S. Bijyaluxmi5, Y.
Premica6
1,2,4,5Department of Agronomy ,College of Agriculture , CAU , Imphal-795004
3,6Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture , CAU , Imphal-795004
Corresponding author email: khomdramoni@gmail.com
Oilseed crops have been grown all over the world and are considered important crops due to
their economic value. India is one of the major oilseeds grower and importer of edible oils. India‘s
vegetable oil economy is world‘s fourth largest after USA, China & Brazil. The oilseed accounts for
13% of the Gross Cropped Area, 3% of the Gross National Product and 10% value of all agricultural
commodities. Global edible oil supply regularly faces severe pressure, as the total demand for edible
oils is expected to increase globally by 33% in 2015 and a large variety of pests damage oilseeds and
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cause significant losses in the farms or storages. Among which insect pests are a significant factor in
the economics of oilseed production. There are also several vertebrate pests such as rats, slugs and
birds. Pests account for 50% reduction in their productivity. India‘s per capita consumption has been
increasing and is projected at around 24 kg by 2025. Protection of the crops from pest‘s infestations
and keeping the pests under proper control has become in consideration due to the importance of
the crops. Management of pest problems and using possible control techniques could increase the
quality and quantity of the products. Management tools such as crop rotation, soil management,
resistant cultivars or biocontrol are ineffective or not available, insect control largely relies on
insecticides. Pests attacking oilseed crops are generally controlled by synthetic pesticides. The misuse
of the broad spectrum insecticides or the sublethal doses have led to several undesirable side effects
such as, development of resistance in insect populations, pest resurgence, destruction of natural
enemies, changes in dynamics of pest population and contamination of environment. So, pest
management is done by different methods such as cultural control, biological control, physical
control, host plant resistance and assessing the economic thresholds to determine the need to apply
pesticides (chemical control). This well designed Integrated pest management program prevent pests
from causing significant losses, encouraging natural enemies, saving money while producing a high
quality product, enhance the agricultural productivity and usually has the highest probability of cost
effectiveness.
Keywords: Oilseed, integrated pest management, environmentally friendly
V-19
A review on the impact of organic amendments on suppressing soil-borne diseases
Nakeertha Venu, N. Surbala Devi, Hiren Das and T. Sanahanbi Devi
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur-795004
Corresponding author email: venunakeertha30@gmail.com
Changes in agricultural practices with time have led to a decline in soil structure and an
increase in soil-borne plant diseases. Agricultural practices such as incorporating organic
amendments and managing the type and quantity of crop residue, have a direct impact on plant
health and crop productivity. Soil management practices involving tillage, crop rotation and
application of organic amendments will impact the amount and quality of organic matter that is
returned to the soil and the management of diseases caused by soilborne pathogens. These practices
influence pathogen viability and distribution, nutrient availability, and the release of biologically
active substances from crop residues, organic amendments and beneficial soil microorganisms.
Preventive measures against soil-borne diseases need to be implemented before cultivation because
very few countermeasures are available after the development of diseases. It may be possible to
reduce the labour and cost associated with excessive disinfection practices. Some soils suppress soil-
borne diseases despite the presence of a high population density of pathogens. This review work
reports and discusses the most reliable findings in relation to a comprehensive understanding of soil
microbiota and its manipulation by adding Organic Manure and crop residues. The application of
organic amendments, manures and composts that are rich in nitrogen, may reduce soil-borne diseases
by releasing allelochemicals generated during product storage or by subsequent microbial
decomposition. Developing disease suppressive soils by introducing organic amendments and crop
residue management takes time, but the benefits accumulate across successive years by improving
soil health and structure. In conclusion, our review study indicates that the addition of organic
amendments and crop residues to agricultural soils enhances the diversity and activity of plant-
beneficial microorganisms which helps in reducing soil borne pathogens.
Keywords: Organic amendments, soilborne pathogens, beneficial microorganisms and
allelochemicals
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V-20
Effective microorganisms (EM) and Jeevamrutha for sustainable production and pest
management in horticulture – A review
Laishram Hemanta, M Jangyukala1, A Sarkar2 and Mutum Preema Devi3
1 & 2Department of Horticulture, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Nagaland University,
Nagaland – 797106
1Department of Pomology and Post Harvest Technology, UBKV, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal -736165
Corresponding author email: hemanta.horti@gmail.com
Modern farming is associated with the heavy use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
resulting in degradation of soil and environmental pollution. Many scientists working in the field of
agriculture have expressed their concern that any more efforts to persist with this chemical farming
model will only prove counterproductive and cause irreparable damage to soil health and
environment. The indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides immensely harm biological activity
of the soil in vast areas rendering it almost lifeless. Pesticides which are not easily degradable have
entered the food chain and pose a number of health hazards.These pesticides secrete into soils and
groundwater ending up in drinking water. For achieving sustainability, the need of the hour is to
reduce or replace with some non-chemical alternatives. Many organic inputs are utilized as substrate
media in horticulture like cocopeat, vermicompost, FYM, panchgavya, biofertilizers, livestock waste
manures etc. Recently, use of effective microorganisms (EM) and jeevamrutha in agriculture as
organic inputs has been gaining momentum and many researchers have reported its usage can
improve the quality of soil, plant health, growth and yield. EM is a fermented live mixed culture of 83
bacterial and fungal strains of different species naturally isolated from the soil. The use of EM as an
addiction to manure or as a spray directly in the field increase the micro-fauna biodiversity of the soil,
leading to an improvement in field production. Jeevamrutha is a fermented microbial culture of
water, desi cow dung, desi cow urine, jaggery, flour of any pulse and handful of soil from farm which
promotes biological activity in the soil and makes the nutrient available to the crop. Though the
names are different but both EM and Jeevamrutha have similar mode of action and can be used as an
alternative for chemical fertilizers and pesticides in horticultural crops.
Keywords: Effective microorganisms (EM), Jeevamrutha, sustainable production, pest management,
horticulture
V-21
Role of indigenous plant products in the sustainable management of major insect pests of
cabbage under Imphal valley agroecological situations
K.I. Singh, P.S. Devi and S. M. Haldhar
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture
Central Agricultural University, Lamphalpat, Imphal-795004(Manipur)
Corresponding author email: singhki_ento@yahoo.com
A field experiment was conducted at the College of Agriculture, Iroishemba, Imphal during
Rabi, 2020-21 to study the bio-efficacy of certain aqueous indigenous plant extracts against the
Diamond back moth(DBM), Plutella xylostella Linnaeus,the Cabbage butterfly(CB), Pieris brassicae
Linnaeus and the Cabbage aphid (CA), Brevicoryne brassicae Linnaeus and their toxic effect on the
population of predatory coccinellid beetle, Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus in cabbage crop var.
―Pride of India‖. There was moderate incidence of P. xylostella, P. brassicae and B. brassicae in the
experimental crop var. ―Pride of India‖. The insects maintained mean incidence of 14.42 to 22.80 %
leaf damage, 9.51 to 16.14% leaf damage and 37.33 to 77.35 aphids/plant, respectively. Thus, these
pests were considered as the regular and major pests of cabbage during the investigation. The results
on the efficacy of bio-rational insecticides against P. xylostella, P. brassicae and B. brassicae revealed that
all the insecticidal treatments resulted in significantly suppression of both the pests‘ incidence. The
pooled results based on three applications of insecticide indicated that Margosom (Azadirachtin 300
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ppm) @ 0.3% spray conc. followed by Melia azedarach, extract applied at the spray conc. of 5.0% were
quite effective in reducing the population of the insect pest of cabbage with a record of lower mean
leaf damage of 6.92 and 7.61 per cent, respectively and did not differ significantly between them.
Against P. brassicae also Margosom (Azadirachtin 300 ppm) @ 0.3% spray conc. registered
significantly the lowest mean leaf damage of 7.65 per cent as against 14.73% in untreated check,
closely followed by Melia azedarach extract @ 5.0% spray conc.(8.10% LD) and Artemisia nilagirica
extract@ 5.0% spray conc.(8.37 % LD) which had none significant difference one another. The
significantly highest mean leaf damage incidence (12.33% LD) was noticed in the plots treated with
aqueous extract of Solanum conyzoides when applied @ 5.0% spray conc. Of the aqueous indigenous
plant extracts field evaluated against the butterfy, M. azedarach proved the most effective treatment in
suppression the pest incidence with minimum mean leaf damage. The results on the effectiveness of
various insecticidal treatments against B. brssicae, further showed that Margosom (Azadirachtin 300
ppm) @ 0.3% conc. also maintained its superiority to other treatments in suppression of the aphid
population recording the lowest mean population of 9.43 per plant as against 36.46 aphids/plant in
untreated control. It was at par with the mean population recorded in the treatments with Ageratum
conyzoides (11.97 aphids/plant), Solanum xanthocarpum (12.01 aphids/plant), Mariandra bengalensis
(12.46 aphids/plant) and Artemisia niligirica (12.69 aphids/plant). While, M. azedarach extract exhibited
its inferior performance in controlling aphid with highest mean population of 14.04
per plant. The plots treated with Margosom (Azadirachtin 300 ppm) recorded maximum cabbage
yield of 22.38 t ha-1 follower by M. azedarach extract treated plots (19.93 t ha-1) with increase yield
over control of 6.50 t ha-1 and 40.93 per cent, and 4.05 t ha-1 and 25.50 per cent, respectively but
deferred significantly from each other as per the yield harvested from the plots of these insecticides is
concerned. The minimum mean yield (18.00 t ha-1 ) was obtained from the plots treated with A.
nilagirica with increase yield of 2.12 t ha-1 and 13.35 per cent over control ,but, did not differ
significantly from that of rest insecticidal treatments except yield of Plectralthus ternifolius extract.
However, it is amply clear that all the plant extracts were superior in controlling DBM, CB and CA in
comparison to untreated control. The extent of avoidable yield loss due to the incidence of P.
xylostella, P. brassica and B. rassicae was estimated to be 29.04 per cent in untreated control which was
reduced to 10.95- 19.57 per cent. Minimum being recorded in M. azedarach and maximum in Artemisia
nilagarica extract. Further, the pooled mean data of three observation periods‘ revealed that among
the test insecticides M. azedarach @ 5% A. nilagirica, Cinnamomum tamala and Aralia armata each
applied at the spray concentration of 5.00%, proved to be the safer extracts to the predatory beetle
C.septempunctata with their corresponding mean beetle population of 1.56, 1.41, 1.32 and 126 per plant
as against 3.27 in untreated control which did not show significant difference from one another. The
lowest beetle population (0.79/plant) recorded in the plots treated with Margosom (Azadirachtin 300
ppm) @ 0.30% conc. closely followed by Solanum xanthocarpum and Meriandra bengalensis extracts @
5.00% conc. with the mean beetle population of 0.89 and 0.92 per plant, respectively.
Keywords: Cabbage, major insect-pests, indigenous plant, insecticides, efficacy
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Theme-VI
Priorities in traditional vis-a-
vis eco-friendly pesticides on
crop pest management
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LVI-1
Overview: Changing scenario of diseases and their management in agricultural ecosystems,
nutritional and biosecurity
SC Dubey1, Jameel Akhtar2, BR Meena2, Pardeep Kumar2, Raj Kiran2, Ravinder Pal Singh2 and
Aradhika Tripathi2
1Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Bhawan, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Road, New Delhi, INDIA
2Division of Plant Quarantine, ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, INDIA
Corresponding author email:
The sound health of plants is a prerequisite for food security, and humans as well as animals
health. The food chain that provides nutritional requirements for most of the world‘s population is
plant-based, primarily, rice, wheat and maize. Diversification in food basket helps in nutritional
security. There are several threats to plant systems that put plant biosecurity, nutritional security as
well as environmental safety at risk including climate change resulting global warming. Climate
change caused by natural or anthropogenic activities including drought, hail storms and floods are
the real threat and concern for agricultural productivity globally (Gautam et al., 2013; Velasquez et
al., 2018). As a result, several pathogens/ diseases which were of minor importance have emerged as
major threats under changing climate and crop cultivation practices (Tripathi et al., 2020). Besides,
the impact of climate change could be influential in spread of the pathogens to new crops/areas,
survival of the pathogens, emergence of new virulent pathotypes/biotypes, loss of virulence in
current pathotypes, changes in vector development patterns, host-pathogen-biocontrol interactions
and overwintering or over-summering of pathogens/ vectors. The liberalization of exchange of
agricultural commodities including seeds also enhanced the risk for introduction of exotic pathogens
and recently several economically important pathogens introduced in the country. Understanding of
host-pathogen interactions under diverse environment conditions is helpful in designing the effective
management strategies (Lamichhane et al., 2014). The information on molecular phenomena behind
host resistance and pathogen virulence are lacking in majority of the cases, which hampers the
development of appropriate management strategies against the most devastating plant diseases. In
order to address the twenty-first century‘s challenge in global context, there is an urgent need for
strengthening future research activities on regular survey and surveillance, host-pathogen-biocontrol
interactions, promote beneficial stress tolerance microbes, molecular diagnostics, genetic variability,
mapping of resistance genes, marker assisted pyramiding of disease resistance genes, transgenics,
application of genomics and RNA interference, post-transcriptional gene silencing, nanotechnology,
robust forewarning systems, plant quarantine/regulatory measures and new generation fungicides,
etc. to increasingly use under dynamic environmental conditions and develop integrate novel disease
management strategies at agro-ecosystem level. Awareness among stakeholders on climate change
impacts and adaptation strategies should also be focused.
Climate change is expected to impact agriculture globally, by influencing the stability of crop
yield, information on the real consequences is lacking and studies in this regard remain in their
infancy (Chakraborty et al., 2000). Our inability to make confident predictions highlights a need for
new research on several fronts. Policies are needed to fill this uncertainty gap by considering a wide
range of possible scenarios. Hence, research based on a broader collaborative approach should be
made in order to develop anticipatory adaptive strategies resulting in more resilient cropping
strategies and stabilized yields. Toward this ultimate aim, enhanced interregional, transnational, and
global networking of stakeholders and researchers at all levels across the plant health/crop protection
spectrum, considering the scale and increasing pressures on crop production, is an effective way to
better use the limited resources in order to address this twenty-first century challenge in an ever-
increasing integrated global context.
Climate Change and Plant-pathosystems
The continuous rise in temperature and CO2 concentration has great impact of climate
change and it has been projected that temperature and CO2 concentration may increase by 3.4°C and
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1250 ppm by 2095, respectively. In general, increased plant density will tend to increase leaf surface
wetness duration and regulate temperature, and so make infection by foliar pathogens under high
CO2 concentration.
a) Effects of rising temperature: Temperature is one of the most important factors affecting the
occurrence of bacterial diseases, as bacteria could proliferate in areas where temperature-dependent
diseases have not been previously observed. Change in temperature will disturb the critical stages in
the life cycle of a pathogen like infection, reproduction, dispersal, survival, etc. It will also lead to
activation or evaluation of new racial forms of pathogens which may cause the appearance of sudden
epidemic. For example, pathotype of Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici originated post 2000 in the USA are
well adapted to elevated temperature and more aggressive on wheat. Fusarium wilt of chickpea will
aggravate due to increased temperature in areas with enough soil moisture and increased evapo-
transpiration resulting in humid microclimate. Minor diseases like Karnal bunt and common bunt of
wheat may emerge as major diseases in changing climatic conditions. Apart from effect of
temperature on pathogen directly, host resistance is also affected. For example, black shank
(Phytophthora nicotianae) in tobacco, leaf rust (Puccinia recondita) in wheat and bacterial blight
(Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) in rice possess temperature sensitive resistance. With increase in
temperature wheat and oats plants become more susceptible to rust diseases whereas some forage
species become more resistant to fungi with increased temperature. Fusarium head blight reemerged
as a disease of global significance, causing yield loss with an estimated loss of $2·7 billion in the
northern great plains and central USA from 1998 to 2000. Stem rust resistance due to Sr31 under threat
of Ug99 race of stem rust caused by Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici due to this climate change. Even the
incidence of virus and other vector-borne diseases also alter as mild and warmer winters make aphids
easy to survive thus spreading Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV) and also increase viruses of potato
and sugar beet.
b) Effect of rising CO2 level: Factors that affect plant growth, such as elevated levels of CO2 will
deeply alter the colonization of host tissues by biotrophic pathogens. The effect of increased
CO2 concentrations on a particular pathogen depends on the interaction between the effects of
elevated CO2 on the pathogen and the effects of this change on the specific plant under specific
environmental conditions. Some basic researches on plant–pathogen interactions under the effect of
high atmospheric CO2 concentrations have received some attentions (Table 1).
Table 1. Summary of recent studies assessing the effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on plant
patho-systems.
Effect on disease severity ⁄ disease systems
Effects on host/pathogens
The germination rate of conidia of C.
gloeosporioides were determined
Spore germination was reduced and extended
incubation period was at 700 ppm, and
anthracnose severity was reduced.
Three diseases. downy mildew, Septoria leaf
spot and sudden death syndrome in soybean
were determined in the field.
Changes in atmospheric composition altered
disease expression, reduced severity of downy
mildew, increased brown spot severity and without
effect in sudden death syndrome.
Pyricularia oryzae and Rhizoctonia solani were
evaluated in rice
Found more susceptible to leaf blast than those in
ambient CO2.
Development of root rot (Phytophthora
parasitica) of tomato was evaluated
The extra CO2 completely counterbalanced the
negative effect of the pathogenic infection on
overall plant productivity
Disease severity or incidence of Downy
mildew in soybean
Some changes in cuticular wax structure
Disease Late blight of potato were assessed
Increased levels of -1-3 glucanases
Phyllosticta leaf spot of maple were assessed
Reduced/ altered leaf chemistry; reduced nutritive
quality of leaf tissue (elevated C:N ratio)
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Increased disease severity or incidence of
Powdery mildew in Arabidopsis
More stomata on resistant varieties and fewer on
susceptible varieties; resistant varieties become
more susceptible
Disease brown spot of soybean was assessed
Increased plant height and canopy density
Rice blast disease was evaluated
Lower silicon concentrations in leaf tissues under
elevated CO2
Disease sheath blight of Rice
Increased number of tillers per plant under
elevated CO2
Crown rot of wheat
Increased plant biomass under elevated CO2
Disease severity leaf rust on aspen was
assessed
Increased plant growth and some difference in
cuticular wax deposition under elevated CO2
Disease Pyrenopeziza betulicola on silver birch
was assessed
Reduced stomatal conductance under elevated
CO2, but no changes stomatal density or stomatal
index
Powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis) and spot
blotch (Bipolaris sorokiniana) on barley were
evaluated.
Elevated CO2, O3 and temperature, when applied
in isolation, gave different effects on the two
diseases Unexpected interactions between elevated
CO2 and temperature
Yellow dwarf virus on Barley
Elevated temperature increased symptoms in
barley
Fusarium verticillioides on maize was assessed.
Elevated CO2 increased maize susceptibility and
fungal biomass mycotoxin levels unaltered
Fusarium crown rot (Fusarium
pseudograminearum) of wheat
Elevated CO2 increased disease severity, whereas,
elevated temperature reduced disease severity
(Source: Eastburna et al., 2011)
c) Effect of moisture and relative humidity: High moisture and temperature is favorable for
disease development, germination and proliferation of fungal spores of diverse pathogens. Though
temperature, relative humidity (RH) directly regulates production and germination of propagules and
pathogen growth and the leaf wetness is required to infect the host plant. Free water or the impact of
raindrops facilitates the liberation and dispersal of many fungi and nearly all bacteria which is an
important step in pathogen‘s life cycle. Many dry spores of fungi are liberated by the force of impact
of raindrops. However, excessively heavy rain may wash spores from the air, reducing their dispersal
distance. Conidia of powdery mildew have the ability to germinate even at 0% relative humidity.
Decreased levels of rainfall may lead to low incidence of downy mildew infections of grape. Similarly,
under drought stress conditions plant may not express more symptoms.
The drought conditions are more favorable like post-flowering stalk rot of maize are
prevalent under high soil temperature and drought stress condition. High humidity encourages the
crops to produce healthier and larger canopies that retain moisture as leaf wetness and RH for longer
periods as a result the condition become conducive for pathogens and diseases such as late blights
and vegetable root diseases including powdery mildews. High moisture favours foliar diseases and
some soil borne pathogens such Phytophthora, Pythium, R. solaniand Sclerotium rolfsii. Drought stress
affect the incidence and severity of viruses such as maize dwarf mosaic virus and beet yellows virus.
d) Change of habitat: As temperature increases, there will be a pole ward shift of agroclimatic zones due
to which many pathogens will spread into new geographic areas, where they will come into contact with
new potential hosts. More aggressive strains of pathogen with broad host range, such as Rhizoctonia,
Sclerotinia, Sclerotium and other necrotrophic pathogens can migrate from agricultural crops to natural
vegetation. There might be a northward shift in the area with heavy damage from Cercospora leaf spot of
sugar beet disease due to increase in annual mean temperature by approximately 0.8°C–1.0°C between
1900 and 2000 in Germany. Geographical range and severity of Phoma stem canker of oilseed rape in the
southern United Kingdom is also affected with climate change.
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e) Emerging trend of seed-borne pathogens of crops: Data of indigenous rice germplasm since
2014 (five years) were analysed under seed health programme. More than 17000 indigenous rice
germplasm were found that the predominant pathogens i.e. Bipolaris oryzeae, Fusarium verticilloides and
Altenaria padwickii are in in decreasing trend.
Bipoalris rostrata, a pathogen of millet crops, are now increasing during last 4-5 years. Sheath blotch
(Pyrenochaeta oryzae) diseases earlier reported as minor pathogen but now it is major in rice in India.
In addition Giberella zeae from Uttarakhand, Diaporthe sp. from Kerala, Sclerotinia sclerotium
from Chhattisgarh have been reported for the first time in rice seeds. Detection of these seed
infection highlights the impact of climate change in seed-borne scenario of fungal diseases of plants
(Shekhar et al., 2019). Phoma sorghina, a new pathogen associated with Phaeosphaeria leaf spot on maize
in Brazil. More aggressive pathogens with wide host range viz., Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, Sclerotium and
other necrotrophic pathogens migrating from agroecosystems to natural vegetation, and less
aggressive pathogens start causing damage in monocultures of nearby regions.
Need of novel disease management strategies
There is a need to focus on development of integrated novel disease management strategies
at agro-ecosystem level under dynamic environmental conditions. Specific areas of research on
disease management using various technologies as mentioned below should draw attention.
Strengthening of survey and monitoring activities of pests to contain them from spreading over a
large area,
Development of new tools to identify potential/unknown pathogens for a new region using
molecular diagnostics.
Development of biosensor-based diagnostic protocols applicable in the field for microorganisms
which produce various harmful volatile compounds.
Pest risk analysis to create awareness about the risk of introducing pathogens from other parts of
the world
Analysis of genetic variability in plant pathogens using different molecular markers such as
RAPD, SRAP, SCAR, RFLP, AFLP, SSR/ISSR, ITS.
Use of molecular mapping of disease resistance genes for direct selection of resistance genes for
their use in disease resistance breeding programmes.
Use of marker assisted pyramiding of disease resistance genes to manage the pathogen which
recurrently and rapidly develop their new virulence.
Need to enhance development of disease resistance through transgenic research, which is yet at
primitive stage in India.
Use of RNA interference, which has emerged as a powerful tool for battling some of the most
notoriously challenging diseases caused by viruses, bacteria and fungi.
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Use of RNA silencing mechanism, which is also a powerful tool to develop crop varieties resistant
to viruses.
Use of nanotechnology, which offers an imperative role in improving the existing crop
management techniques.
Use of biological control of plant diseases due to the increased reflection on environmental
concern over pesticide.
Enhanced utilization of plant disease forecasting and monitoring systems to provide early
information about the probable occurrence of a disease to facilitate prophylactic treatment at
appropriate time.
Implementation of stringent plant quarantine/regulatory measures to facilitate safe exchange of
plants/planting material, which is otherwise a very potential source of introducing exotic pests.
Development and application of new generation fungicides representing major advances in
technology, potency against target diseases, selectivity, safety and rate reduction.
Yet an integrated strategy for global plant biosecurity is lacking. So, current strategies need to
be developed/ modified and validated (Grace et al., 2019). In order to address the twenty-first
century‘s challenge in global context, there is an urgent need to initiate strengthening future research
activities on regular survey and surveillance, host-pathogen-biocontrol interactions, promote
beneficial stress tolerance microbes, molecular diagnostics, genetic variability, mapping of resistance
genes, marker assisted pyramiding of disease resistance genes, transgenics, application of genomics
and RNA interference, post-transcriptional gene silencing, nanotechnology, robust forewarning
systems, plant quarantine/regulatory measures, new generation fungicides, etc. to be used under
dynamic environmental conditions and develop integrate novel disease management strategies at
agro-ecosystem level. Further, awareness among stakeholders on climate change impacts and
adaptation strategies should also be focused.
References
Chakraborty S, AV Tiedemann and PS Teng (2000) Climate change: potential impact on plant
diseases. Environmental Pollution 108:317–326.
Eastburn DM, AJ McElrone and DD Bilgin (2011) Influence of atmospheric and climatic change on
plant-pathogen interactions. Plant Pathology 60: 54-69.
Gautam HR, ML Bhardwaj and R Kumar (2013) Climate change and its impact on plant diseases.
Current Science 105(12): 1685–1691.
Gupta S, D Sharma and M Gupta (2018) Climate change impact on plant diseases: Opinion, trends
and mitigation strategies In: Microbes for Climate Resilient Agriculture, First Edition. (eds.) PL
Kashyap, AK Srivastava, SK Tiwari and S Kumar. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp 41-56.
Lamichhane JR, M Barzman, K Booij, P Boonekamp, N Desneux, L Huber, P Kudsk, SRH Langrell,
A Ratnadass, P Ricci, JL Sarah and A Messéan (2014) Robust cropping systems to tackle
pests under climate change. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. (DOI 10.1007/s13593-014-0275-9).
Tripathi AN, BR Meena, KK Pandey and J Singh (2020) Microbial bioagents in agriculture: current
status and prospects In: New Frontiers in Stress Management for Durable agriculture(eds.) A Rakshi
et al. Springer Nature Singapore Pvt. Ltd. pp. 331-368.
Velasquez AC, CDM Castroverde and SY He (2018) Plant–Pathogen warfare under changing climate
conditions. Current Biology 28: R619–R634.
Shekhar M, J Akhtar, P Kumar, R Kiran and SC Dubey (2019). Dynamic changes in pathogen under
climate change scenario on important crops. International Journal of Agriculture, Environment and
Sustainability 1(2): pp-pp.
Grace MA, TFE Achick, BE Bonghan, ME Bih, NV Ngo, MJ Ajeck, GTB Prudence, FC Ntungwen
(2019) An overview of the impact of climate change on pathogens, pest of crops on
sustainable food biosecurity. International Journal of Ecotoxicology and Ecobiology 4(4): 114-124.
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LVI-2
Termites in horticultural crops and their management
G. K. Mahapatro
Division of Entomology
ICAR – Indian Agricultural Research Institute Regional Station, Pune – 411 007, Maharashtra
Corresponding author email: head_pune@iari.res.in, gagan_gk@iari.res.in
Abstract
Though termite fauna of India includes 261 species, few attacks in agriculture or indoor.
Termites especially those belonging to taxon Macrotermitinae (higher termites like Odontotermes,
Microtermes spp.) along with the lower termites (Copteotermes, Heterotermes spp.) causing varying degree
of damage in horticultural crops including tree-crops. But control measure of termites in horticulture
is lesser known area of research. Present paper enlightens on various aspects of termite managements
in different horticulture crops viz. vegetables (cole-crops, tomato, brinjal) and tree-crops like mango,
guava, coconut etc. using cultural, physical, chemical and mechanical methods. Termite mound being
the source of problem in field, authors have scrutinized diverse ways of termitaria elimination.
Prevention of termite attack on the field structures of horticulture orchards and measurement
methods adopted for the same has been a prime focus including usage of chemicals, barriers, baits
and borate. ITK based management of termites remained a major recommendation for
environmentally sustainable termite control in orchards against usage of harmful pesticides.
Keywords: Cole-crop, ITK, Macrotermitinae, Termitaria, Tree-crops, Vegetables
Introduction
With a bravura diversity including 3,100 species in the world, the termite fauna of tropic
stands the richest with regard to species-spectrum and abundance. India shares a small portion of the
same by presenting 261 species of termites reported (Mahapatro and Kumar 2014,
www.termitexpert.in). They are detrivores, xylophagous (cellulose feeders), usually common species
that inflict economic damage on field crops, trees and wooden structures are the Macrotermitinae,
under higher termite group. Lower termites also attack the tree-crops. It is usually known that,
termite damage is most prevalent where plants/crops are under stress and vigorous; well-grown
crops and trees with proper care are found seldom attacked even though termites are present in the
vicinity. However, collapse of even large trees (with neglected care) by termite is not a rare case.
Control measures are meant, in general:
avoid termites gaining access to the crops
reduce termite population in the vicinity of the crop-land
render the crop-plants less susceptible to termite infestation
Problems with termites can be categorized according to the site where they occur, namely, in the
field and tree nurseries and tree cultivation. Therefore, control methods are presented accordingly.
Solutions to these can either apply for both problem areas or be specific to one of these.
Termites causing economic losses in horticulture, belong to the following families and genera:
Hodotermitidae Anacanthotermes and Hodotermes), Kalotermitidae (Neotermes), Rhinotermitidae
(Copotermes, Heterotermes, and Psammotermes), and Termitidae (Amitermes, Ancistrotermes, Cornitermes,
Macrotermes, Microcerotermes, Microtermes,Odontotermes, Procornitermes, and Syntermes). The extent to which
termites are problem to agricultural crops, the nature of damage are often very much related to the
geographic regions concerned. Termites threaten key horticultural crops, which form the basis of
economic output on our nation (Table 1).
Horticultural crops and termites: attack vis-a-vis counter measures
Various important horticultural crops viz. potato, tomato, brinjal, cabbage etc.; a few fruit
crops like banana, mango, coconut and guava etc. and the ornamentals (rose, chrysanthemum,
marigold etc.) are found to be attacked by termites occasionally. The degree of infestation in crops
ranges according to the maturational stages of the target crop concerned ranging from seed to
matured plants.
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General feature of termite damage in horticulture plants
Damage to seedlings: Various species of termites build large mounds under/above ground
often containing thousands of individuals. Termites construct shallow subterranean foraging galleries
radiating from the nest for distance of up to 50m. The main galleries ramify to a network of smaller
galleries from which foraging workers exploit potential food resources over extensive areas. Termites
forage directly on underground plant material. Seedlings are either cut just below or above the soil
surface. In the later case termites gain access from soil-covered galleries impinging on the base of the
plant. Usually, the seedlings are completely severed, resulting in lowered plant stand.
Table 1. Termite injuries to the horticulture crops in India (as per Roonwal 1979)
Termite species
State from where reported
Crop damaged
Family: Kalotermitidae
Neotermes bosei (Snyder)
Uttar Pradesh
Mango
Bifiditermes beesoni (Gardner)
North west India
Apple, Ber
Family: Hodotermitidae
Anacanthotermes macrocephalus (Desneux)
North west India
Mulberry, Eucalyptus
Faminy: Rhinitermitidae
Heterotermes indiciola (Wasmann)
Punjab
Mulbery
Coptotermes hemi (Wasmann)
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
Mango, Mulbery,
Sugarcane
Family: Stylotermitidae
Stylotermes fletcheri Holgram and
Holgram
Tamil nadu
Mango
Family: Termitidae
Microcerotermes minor Holgram
Karnataka
Eucalyptus
Odontotermes feae (Wasmann)
Uttar Pradesh
Eucalyptus
Odontotermes horni (Wasmann)
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil
nadu
Eucalyptus
Odontotermes malabaricus Holgram and
Holgram
Tamil nadu
Coconut, Palm
Odontotermes obesus (Rambur)
Assam
Mango
Gujrat
Fruit trees
Madhya Pradesh
Mango, citrus
South India
Coconut, palm, grape-
vine, citrus
Odontotermes redemanni (Wasmann)
South India
Coconut, palm
Microtermes mycophagus (Desneux)
India
Peach
Microtermes obesi Holgram
Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan
Chilli
Uttar Pradesh
Mulberry
Grallototermes grallatoriformes Holgram
and Holgram
Tamil nadu
Mango
Nasutiterems indicola Holgram and
Holgram
Karnataka
Coffee
Trinervitermes biformis (Wasmann)
Uttar Pradesh
Fruit trees
Bihar
Grasses
Damage to maturing and mature plants
Subterranean termite species enter and consume the root system, which directly kills the
plant or indirectly lowers yield through decreased translocation of water and nutrients. Attack to the
root system can also lead to increased susceptibility to pathogens, or lodging of mature plants. When
the grain in lodged plants touches the ground, soil fungi such as Aspergillus may invade it (eg.
Groundnut). Crop-wise details of termite attack and management measures (source: various)
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224
Fruit and horticultural crops
Mango
About 20 spp. (major – Odontotermes obesus, O. wallonensis, & O. horni) were reported in mango,
and documented 66% trees infested by O. wallonensis in UP, similar attack in Karnataka (cross ref.
Veeresh et al. 1988). Tree trunks and branches were often found with termite mud tunnels. Earthen
sheeting was made on branches of small trees by Odontotermes spp. In earlier days, copper sulfate,
Paris green, lead arsenate, sodium arsenate with lime were recommended, but now they are obsolete
(Veeresh et al. 1988).
Mud tunnels are to be removed, affected portions are to be cleaned and applied with termiticides.
Tree-basin may be drenched with soil-insecticides (chlorpyriphos or imidacloprid) suitably.
Swabbing tree trunk with coal tar admixed with termiticides.
Termite mound around the mango orchard to be eliminated.
Traditional practices in Samastipur (Bihar) suggest planting turmeric around the tree basin as an
effective method for termite avoidance.
Painting the tree trunk with
224
honolog was reported to be a better tactic to keep termite away
from mango trees. Phenyl was found to be beneficial. It showed an added benefit over kerosene,
being harmless to foliage and good against mealy bug. Recommendation of using corrosive
sublimate along with flooding of plantation dated back 1893 when the said treatment was found
good for preventing termite attack in mango orchard (Gamble 1893). In large mango orchards farm
mechanization can be adopted like pouring termiticidal solution into the mound holes by hose pipes
after raging/removing the aboveground mound portion (Fig1a and fig. 1b).
Fig.1a Fig. 1b
Fig.1a and 1b. The
224
honolog mound in a mango orchard was poured with termiticidal water
solution
Citrus (
Citrus
spp
.
)
Odontotermes obesus and Microtermes obesi were found as major attacker of citrus plants. Termites
were found feeding on roots and stem bases near the ground level. The severely infested trees often
dry. Mud galleries on tree trunk should be scraped off and dusted with lindane powder or
chloriphyriphos @ 3-5 ml/liter of water should be well mixed with soil around the tree basins using
hand hoes.
Grapes (
Vitis vinifera
L
.
)
This fruit crop was also found suffering from termite problem. To control termites in
nursery beds at periodical intervals, soil should be treated with termiticide. The rooted cuttings would
be ready for planting in about three months. Dead and diseased vines should be removed from the
vineyard. All exposed areas should be painted with preservative coating and the base s of trellis
should be soaked with coal- tar creosote before being used in field (Snyder, 1948).
Guava
Guava planting is done in June – July or October- November months depending on rainfall
and its distribution and the type of soil. The land should be thoroughly ploughed. Pits of 60 x 60 x
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225
60cm are to be dug at a spacing of 5-6m distance in summer season. The pits should be filled with
20-25kg FYM, 500g SSP, 1kg Neemcake, and 50g Lindane powder (banned now, take alternative) to
control termites with top soil. Layers/grafts obtained from good pedigree plants should be planted to
obtain good crops.
Pomegranate
Odonotermes obesus was reported as pest of pomegranate in India (Balikai et al., 2011).
Management measures include well decomposed organic manuring, removal of dead decaying matter
or dry stubbles from the field, soil-application with quinalphos 1.5% or methyl parathion 2% dust
@25 kg/ha before planting.
Tapioca/Cassava (
Manihot esculenta
)
During preparatory cultivation land should be ploughed 4-5 times to a depth of 30-35 cm. Apply
FYM 12.5 t/ha, in the last ploughing along with 375 kg super phosphate (60kg P2O5) and 50kg
Lindane dust (to control termites) and incorporate in the soil by ploughing. Prepare the land into flat
beds with good drainage channels.
Coconut
Coconut is one of the major trade/cash crops of the entire coastal India, being grown in
cultivated and uncultivated lands. Odontotermes spp. Are the cause major harm to this crop, although
three major families of termites, namely, Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae are held
responsible for major damage of coconut worldwide. In India most coconut trees are found to be
attacked by subterranean termites which depict a far opposite scenario compared to the island
nations, where the arboreal termites do maximum harm to it. Seedlings are attacked through the nut
or at the base of the young shoot, older palms through trunk to crown; affected seedlings wither and
die.
Management measures include elimination of termitaria. Adoption of field sanitation by
disposal of organic matter in nursery soil and covering germinating nuts with a layer of river sand,
drenching the nursery with 0.05% chlorpyriphos twice at 20-25 days interval, swabbing affected
trunk with the same chemical – are suggested. Readers may refer a review paper on termites of
coconut (Mahapatro and Sachin 2015).
Banana
Banana pseudo-stems are often attacked by termites. We have documented infestation in
Delhi-NCR, Odisha and Jharkhand etc.
Cole crops
Cole crops are often found attacked by a prominent termite species, namely, Odontotermes
obesus in southern India (David and Ananthkrishnan 2004).
Brinjal
As many as seven species of termites viz. Microtermes obesi , M. Anandi , Odontotermes obesus, O.
Assumthi , O. Taprobenes , Eremotermes nerapololis and Trinervitermes biformis were recorded as pest of
termites in India (AESA based IPM- Brinjal 2014). In IARI farm (Delhi) brinjal seedlings were found
infested with termites in 2010-11. Destruction of crop residues is highly recommended to eradicate
the source of infection.
Bitter gourd
Bitter gourd is reported to be attacked by Heterotermes indicola (Rhinitermitidae) but the effect
is beyond the protected cultivation, infecting the vegetable crop in field condition (Roonwal 1979).
In our extensive field work, authors have come across the problem of termite infestation in the
floriculture fields and in avenue trees also. As these are not in the focus of current research, a
glimpse of field observation based report is presented below:
Rose, chrysanthemum, marigold and avenue trees
Major damaging termite species in rose is Microtermes obesi. Termites which inhabit beneath
the soil are menace to rose plants. The attack starts under dry soil conditions. They mainly feed on
the roots and spread to stem and damage bark in case of severe infestations. Affected plants wilt, dry
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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226
and die consequently. Recommended control measures involve deep ploughing destroys termite
colonies. Timely irrigation prevents pest buildup. Drenching soil with chlorphyriphos 0.05% or
Malathion 0.1% or soil may be mixed with fipronil granules (0.3%) @ 25kg/ha, even methyl
parathion 2% dust can be tried in severe infestation. A serious termite infestation was observed at
IARI farm in the protected cultivation. Most of the avenue trees inclusive of even neem are
subjected to varying degree of termite attack. Ornamental trees like palm trees were also reported to
be infested by termites.
Management and controlling methods of termite infestation in horticulture fields
In plantation crops, debris, dead woods has to be removed. Pruning has to be done carefully;
clean cuts should be given so as to minimize the area of exposure. The pruned areas and wounds
should be painted with copper-oxychloride to avoid termite attack and dieback. Destruction of
termite infested trees and dead trees before the next rainy season helps to prevent release of
swarmers from the infested trees. Care should be taken while establishing the orchard, avoid growing
in sandy / red sandy loam soil. Treating pits with soil insecticide before transplanting seedlings,
removal of mud galleries on infested tree trunk and then swabbing with kerosene oil, drenching
infected tree-basin with soil insecticide – are recommended.
Cropping pattern/rotation: Crop rotation is not possible in tree-crops. But in annual vegetable
crops rotation especially including fallow periods is recommended. The fallowing helps the soil to
regain its fertility and it also helps the subsequent crop to grow healthy and thereby helps the crop to
develop some tolerance towards termite attack. In tree crops like lichi and mango, planting turmeric
around the tree-basin is said to repel the termites.
Soil management: Termites favour red and sandy soils, and are less of a problem in post-rice
groundnut crops and in clayey soils. Deep summer ploughing is recommended before the onset of
monsoon. Well decomposed FYM is to be applied to the field. Pre-planting tillage also destroys the
tunnels built by termites and restricts their foraging activities and also reduces their damage to crops.
In vertisols termite is not a problem due to frequent occurrence of gilgai microreleif (small cracks
and crevices) which prevents maintenance of runways, galleries & mounds. Both in open and
protected cultivation, termite activity can be reduced considerably by deep ploughing. This helps in
altering the soil structure up to 20-25 cm depth and the termite galleries formed during the post-
harvest period. In heavily termite infested soil/land, possibility of tillage by sub-
soiler/cultivator/chisel plough (with simultaneous soil-application of termiticides by tractamount
multi-nozzle on boom system) may be explored.
Fig. 2a. Fig. 2 b.
Fig. 2a. Bed preparation for initial orchard establishment with soil insecticide application
Fig. 2 b. A polyhouse, rose plants severely infested with Odontotermes termites (2010-11, polyhouse in
IARI farm)
Soil-tillage and chemo-irrigation:
Normally it is the practice of cultivating by tractor only the effecting planting/sowing area.
The border/bunds on perimeter are often left uncultivated and unattended for years together. These
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227
areas should essentially be made clean of weeds, and cultivated with tractor, and soil drenched with
insecticides (fig.3-4). Though in older literature, and even in some existing recommendations (Central
and State) offer utilizing termiticides (mostly chlorpyriphos) in the irrigation channel, this crude
method should be avoided.
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
Fig. 3 & 4. Termiticidal treatments for the borders and bunds of orchard – manual and mechanical
Tillage, stubble and Stover (mulch) management
This suggests that improvement of the soil, particularly greater use of compost and green
manure, which may not reduce termite population, but will reduce crop damage by providing an
alternative source of food. Since it is cumbersome to combat termites, the reflection is directed much
towards adapting ―how to harmonize (=co-exist) with termites. For effective non-chemical
protection from termites it is indispensable to understand their cryptic biology, eg. Dry-wood,
subterranean, mound-building, soil-feeding, surface-foraging termites and etc. In contrast to chemical
control, non-chemical control of termites demands a greater understanding of the biology of the
particular genera and species. There are very few general rules for non-chemical termite control.
Most recommendations can be contradicted by other reports, eg. On management of organic matter
and mulches. Depending on the type of manure/mulch/debris, and local termite species, the effects
may vary in nature (fig. 5).
Fig.5 Crop residue – a controversial topic vis-à-vis termite infestation
Field sanitation, well rotten manure application, avoiding crop residues, dry sticks, stubbles,
bamboo sticks etc. in the field – are suggested to be removed carefully. Bamboo sticks for use as
labeling pegs/boards etc. may be substituted with plastic ones. If bamboo pegs are to be used in
orchard, treating them (dipping & soaking with 1% of chlorpyriphos) is advocated. Coal-tar coating
is good for long-term protection. Treating fence posts with hot coaltar creosote (3-coat brushing); or
soaking for few hours in the open tank over a slow fire followed by air-drying for few days is
advocated.
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Termite mound treatment:
Termitaria elimination at community level in villages and in the whole orchard for
horticultural farms is advocated. Practically it is not fruitful in field crops, but can be useful in
orchard and agro-forestry environment. Quick and complete extermination of the mound-colony at
low cost can be achieved by treating the mounds by pouring in, through a funnel, water suspension
of insecticides, through two or three holes in the mound. For sub-cylindrical mounds, as in O. obesus
following height-liquid ratio is maintained in table 2. (Roonwal, 1979).
Table 2. Termiticide dose based on mound height
Mostly, the growers take measures in managing the crop field against termites, they often
neglect the border areas, fence zones – such unattended zones serve as the safe haven for termitaria,
and these are though remote, are persistent source of termite infestation (fig. 6). In tropical countries
termite nests made above ground or carton nests on trees on the ground or below can be destroyed
by fumigation with methyl bromide. Sodium cyanide, calcium cyanide were used in olden days to
eradicate termite carton nests. Termite galleries/nests were blown by 20% calcium cyanide and
arsenical dust or DDT into the galleries and nests (Snyder 1948). In the present context, available
insecticidal dusts (like chlorpyriphos, fenvalerate, carbaryl etc.) may be tried-and-tested.
Fig. 6. Unattended termite mound at the fence zone of an orchard
Chemical control
Approved insecticides (Insecticides Act, 1968) with label claims like chlorpyriphos,
imidacloprid and bifenthrin are to be used for prevention of termite attack (table.3) (fig. 7). Boric
acid is one of the safest chemical ways to manage termites, but inadequate research and
recommendations is the bottleneck in Indian context.
Table 3. Insecticide dosage for anti-termite treatments
S. N.
Insecticide
Dose
(in 5 litre of water)
1
Chlorpyriphos 20% EC
250 ml
2
Chlorpyriphos 50% EC
100 ml
3
Imidacloprid 30.5% SC
10.5 ml
4
Bifenthrin 2.5% EC
100 ml
Height of mound
Dosage of liquid insecticide (Liters of water)
1-2 ft
2-4
3 ft
4-5
4 ft
20-25
5 ft
45-50
6 ft
80-85
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Physical barriers: A layer of sand under forestry or tree crop nursery beds might provide some
protection. The trunk can be painted/ smeared with coaltar along with termiticidal suspension or
dust to breast height or so as per the need (fig.8).
Fig. 7. Commercial termiticides available in the common marketplace
Termite management in protected horticulture
This depicts the cumbersome complicacies in termites in protected cultivation practices.
Grower has to pay dear, if not followed requisite pre-construction measures in making his
glass/green house, polyhouses, farm offices etc. Preventive measures to be taken while constructing
green houses/ glasshouses in field as followes:
Fig. 8 Painting (pesticide+lime) tree trunks for prevention of termite attack
Pre- & post-construction: Bifenthrin 2.5% EC shall be applied at 0.05% a.i. conc. i.e. 20ml
formulated product diluted in 1 liter of water for the control of termites in building during pre and
post construction. Treatment should be as per IS 6313 (Part-2): 2001 for pre construction chemical
treatment and IS 6313 (Part-3): 2001 for post construction treatment of the existing building. For,
chlorpyriphos 20%EC, recommendation is @1% a.i. (pre- & post-construction treatment). It is the
most popular, as cheaply available. Chlorpyriphos 50%EC is used @ 0.5% and 1.0% for protecting
structures from termite attack at pre- and posts-construction stages, and for wooden works in the
structures, wood protection is suggested by chlorpyriphos @2% (w/w basis). A non-repellant
termiticide imidacloprid is used for protecting building from termite attack at pre- and post-
construction stages, apply Imidacloprid 30.5% SC @ 0.075% a.i. concentration. Barriers, Baits and
Borates – these 3B‘ are best for protecting building setups related to farm/orchard. Other
precautions such as no soil-wood contact, proper drainage, and relevant construction standards for
foundation – are to be followed scientifically (Mahapatro and Debajyoti, 2016).
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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Barrier Technology
Physical barrier: Sand or stainless barrier is effective in new construction, not for remedial
measures. Sand bed (treated with chlorpyriphos 4%D) is preferred to pile/arrange the potted plants
on this bed. The earthen post may be painted with red earth (termiticide-treated) or lime.
Barrier-chemicals
Non-repellant: Chloranthraniliprole, Imidacloprid*, Chlorfenapyr, Fipronil etc.
Repellent: Chlorpyrophos*, Bifenthrin*, Permethrin etc. (* recommended).
Bait-technology – ait-chemicals such as Hexaflumuron, Sulfluramid, Noviflumuron etc.
Baits have the disadvantage that they work slowly and are not 100% reliable, these are used for
indoor termite-pests. Boric acid can be tried-and-tested in baits.
Wood-protection – Treated wood may be combined with either chemical barriers or termite
baits, woodworks in crawlspace can be treated with borates.
Nothing is certain. But both baits and barriers can be made effective with careful planning and
execution for green/glass/poly-houses. In areas of average termite pressure and moderate
rainfall, they should last at least 5 years.
Biological control
Needless to cite, current age demands that the pest management studies be biointensive.
Naturally we expect also successful control strategies in termite management for a environment
friendly, safe and compatible approaches and tactics for integrated management. Unfortunately it is a
great failure in termite control. A recent paper cites summarizing >200 paper, around 400-450
experiments across the globe (Chouvenc et al. 2011). One ITK (in Odisha) is that poultry birds
prefer chasing and devouring termites. In protected cultivation, hens can be released for trying this
aspect. In Uttarakhand, mound soil is used to construct houses, assumption is it prevents termite
invasion of other colonies. Such things should be scientifically manipulated in control strategies with
validation.
Relevant ITKs (source: various, Mahapatro et al., 2017, www.termitexpert.in)
Common salt is tied in the cloth bag kept in irrigation channel
Incorporate empty shells of castor pods or human or sheep hairs in the soil to repel termites
Castor oil cake is applied in the soil.
Calatropis plant suspension can be poured in the soil.
In coconut cultivated area planting of Aloe vera cuttings along with coconut seedlings save the
young palms from termite.
Planting materials of Calotropis species are soaked in water (8-10 kg material for 24 hours) and the
filtered liquid is used for treatment of termite infested soil. Efficacy of the same is being judged
by placing small wood stakes at various points of the field and no infestation on the wood after
seven days proved the anti-termite property of the plant.
Incorporating tobacco waste.
Summer burns of waste grass & plant debris. Safflower seed oil cake amended soil records less
termite damage in Odisha.
Wooden works, tree trunks treated with crude cashew nut shell liquid offers resistance against
termites (Kerala, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Karanataka etc.).
Local farmers of Jharkhand state, Odisha (Keonjhar district), utilize the leaves of Vitex negundo in
the pits for fruit-tree plantation as a mean to protect saplings from termites (Bikash Das, pers.
230
hono.).
In a South East Asian nation Laos, termite mound soils were reported to be used as fertilizer in
vegetable growing beds (Miyagawa et al. 2011) with notable fertilizer effect. This fact presents an
excellent example of ITK in termite control and sustainable use of the termite mound soil for
betterment of humankind.
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231
Perforated (24 holes) earthen pot with maize as trap in orchards (PAU-recommendation)
Conclusion
In light of the so far discussed facts and findings, it may be concluded that: Pesticides
suggested are compiled from various sources, so some are not in line with the label claims apropos
Central Insecticide Board, GOI. ITKs are to be taken in an integrative manner with the frontier
technologies. Climate change that brings uneven rainfall pattern greatly influences the termite
infestation in agricultural crops. As short duration varieties are used in some crops, shifts in rainfall
or monsoon may change the coincidence of termite peak infestation period with the crop
231
honologies. Location specific researches are needed to verify these facts in various crops of the
country.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a National Fellowship grant (Sanction No.: 27(3)/2010-HRD)
from the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi (India). Director of IARI is
gratefully acknowledged for the inspiration and support.
Reference
Balikai RA, Kotikal YK, Prasanna PM (2011) Status of pomegranate pests and their management
strategies in india. Acta Hortic. 890, 569-583
Chouvenc T, Su NY and Grace JK 2011. Fifty years of attempted biological control of termites – analysis
of a failure. Biol Control. 59: 69-82. doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2011.06.015
David BV, Anantha Krishnan TN (2004) General and appied entomology, Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited New Delhi, pp 1184. In Mulberry Indian Silk 31(2), pp 39–49
Gamble JS 1893 (ed.) White ant and mango trees. Indian For. January 1893, pp.37-38.
http://farmer.gov.in/imagedefault/ipm/AESA%20based%20IPM%20Brinjal%20(final%2024-02-
2014).pdf
Mahapatro GK, Sachin K (2014) Functional pest status of termites in Agri-Horti-ecosystem of India. In:
International Conference on Changing Scenario of Pest problems in Agri-Horti ecosystem & their Management.
27-29 November 2014: Udaipur.
Mahapatro GK and Sachin Kumar (2015) Review on the incidence and management of coconut termites.
Indian J Ent. 77(2): 152-159. DOI: 10.5958/0974-172.2015.00031.0
Mahapatro GK, Debajyoti C and Gautam RD (2017) Indian indigenous traditional knowledge (ITK) on
termites: ecofriendly approaches to sustainable management. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge,
16 (2), 333-340.
http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/40087
Mahapatro GK (2016) Can insecticide resistance be developed in termites? Curr. Sci. 112 (6): 1097-1098
Mahapatro GK Debajyoti Chatterjee (2016) Termites as structural pest: status in Indian scenario.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences, 88(3), pp.1-18 (online
published 4-01-2017) DOI: 10.1007/s40011-016-0837-5
Mahapatro GK, Thube SH and Arun Kumar MB (2016) In vitro evaluation of insecticides, bio-fungicide
and bio-fertilizer for strategic and eco-friendly combinatorial seed treatments in chickpea. In
vitro evaluation of insecticides, bio-fungicide and bio-fertilizer for strategic and ecofriendly
combinatorial seed treatments in chickpea. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India
Section B: Biological Sciences 86 (2): 497–504 DOI: 10.1007/s40011-014-0474-
Miyagawa et al. (2011) Indigenous utilization of termite mounds and their sustainability in a rice growing
village of the central plain of Laos. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. 2011, 7: 24
Package of Practices of the Important Horticultural Crops of Andhra Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh
Horticultural University, Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari district, AP.
Roonwal ML (1979) Termite life and termite control in tropical south Asia, Scientific Publishers Jodhpur
pp 177 + 8 plates.
Snyder TE (1948) Our Enemy The Termite, Comstock Publishing Co., Inc., New York pp 257
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National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
232
VI-1
Remedy for pests attack on peas (
Pissum sativum
var Makhyat mubi) during storage with
locally available herbs
Tabuiliu Abonmai, MS Singh, Kshetrimayum Manishwari Devi and Thoudam Anupama Devi
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University,
Imphal
Corresponding author email: buibuiabonmai@gmail.com
In Manipur, the majority of the farmers are small and marginal, where pea growers are
unable to store their produce and are forced to sell their seeds at lower price. They store pea seeds
for the next session on their own conventional ways but many of them incur great loss due to insect
pests. Storage of pea seeds is one of the important tasks for the farmers with low cost to be self-
dependent and minimise the input cost. An experiment was conducted in the experimental laboratory
of Agronomy Department, College of Agriculture, Iroisemba, Central Agricultural University, Imphal
in 2017-2019, to study the ―Remedy for pests attack on peas (Pissum sativum var Makhyat mubi)
during storage with locally available herbs‖. It was found that when pea seeds are mixed and stored
with Lantana camara, Chinese neem (Melia azedarach L.) or Paediria foetida leaves, there was no insect
pests attack on the seeds. Whereas in the control, the seeds were attacked by insect pests. In
conclusion, pea seeds can be stored with locally available herbs in order to keep it safe from insect
pests‘ damage. This will increase the income of the small and marginal farmers and also result in
sustainable farming.
Keywords: Peas, stored pest, Lantana camara, Chinese neem (Melia azedarach L.), Paediria foetida
VI-2
Standardization of drone operating procedures for spraying plant protection chemicals
Kota Chakrapani1,2, N. Rama Gopala Varma1, T. Kiran Babu1, R. Jagadeshwar Reddy1, Bireswar
sinha2
1 Rice Research Centre, ARI, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, HYD
2 College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal
Corresponding authors email: Kotachakrapani2@gmail.com
Pesticide spray is one of the crucial operations in plant protection of different principle
crops. The estimates WHO (World Health Organization) states that one million are ill affected, while
spraying the pesticides manually. Recently, remote-controlled unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV),
drones have gained popularity as a new platform to monitor and manage agricultural pests in various
crop fields. Our study aimed at standardizing drone operating procedures for spraying plant
protection chemicals in rice fields. Five different nozzles Extended range, Conejet, Twinjet,
Extended range with cap and Visilow types at three different heights 2m, 2.5m and 3m respectively
above the crop canopy were tested for their efficiency. Parameters like No. of drops, coverage area,
density of drops, volume median diameter were analyzed using of water sensitive papers placed in the
experimental area while spraying. The flying speed of the drone was maintained at 10m/sec which
was found ideal for uniform distribution of spray without drifting under the wind velocity of 1.8 to
2.5 m/sec. The Extended range nozzle (XR 11002VP) compared to Conejet (TXA 8002 VK),
Twinjet (TJ 60-8003), Extended range with cap (TP 8002 VP), Visilow (TP 8002 EVS) was showed
best results of spraying covering the crop canopy at 2.5 m height.
Keywords: Drones, Nozzles, Pesticides, Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), Water sensitive papers
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
233
VI-3
Drones in extension programming for precision pest management
Irom Rati Chanu, Dr. M. Kunjaraj, Dr. M. Deepa Devi
Department of Extension Education, College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur,
India
Corresponding author email: ratiirom5274@gmail.com
In order to feed the increasing population, it is necessary to introduce new farm technology
towards plant production. In terms of plant protection, the concept of agricultural pest has evolved
alongside the development of science and technology applied to agriculture. Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) which is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long term prevention of
pests or their damages through a combination of techniques such as biological control, habitat
manipulation, modification of cultural practices and use of resistant varieties. Reducing crop losses
due to pests is necessary to increasing food security, poverty reduction and sustainable agriculture
development. Drones are used to control pests in huge fields. They are used in Integrated Pest
Management Programme. Drones used for detection of pest hotspots are referred to as sensing
drones, while drones used for precision distribution of solutions are referred to as actuation drones.
Both types of drones could communicate to establish a closed-loop IPM solution. Pest monitoring is
time consuming method. Pest management in modern agriculture is developing and promoting
improved monitoring procedures. Use of drones in precision pest management could be cost
effective and reduce harm to the environment. Use of drones can reduce the time consumed for pest
monitoring. So, extension services are very essential in order to disseminate research information of
economic and practical importance in a way people would be able to understand and use effectively.
Successfully implementation of new technologies depends on their service function. Lack of
knowledge may play a crucial role in non-adoption of new technologies. Agricultural extension and
education aims to improve farmers‘ crop production with environmental preservation approach.
Keywords: Integrated Pest Management (IPM), technology, drones, extension, precision.
VI-4
Efficacy of different management schedule against
Bemisia tabaci
and their impact on
parasitization of
Bemisia tabaci
in cotton
Krishna Rolania and Deepika kalkal
Department of Entomology
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana
Corresponding author email krishna@hau.ac.in
The cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) has emerged as a major pest of cotton,
vegetables and other crops in tropical and sub-tropical regions of Asia. A field experiment was
conducted at Cotton Research Area CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar during kharif 2015
to find out the effective schedule for whitefly management. There were twelve treatments including
control replicated thrice in a Randomized Block Design. The spray of insecticides/ botanical was
applied at 5 days and 10 days interval in different treatments. Observations were recorded before and
after 5 days of spray on 10 plants /plot. The results revealed that different schedule were statistically
superior to reduce the population of whitefly adult in comperision to control (without spray). In
2015 minimum whitefly population (18.73 adults /leaf) was observed in Schedule 1 incorporated
with six spray of nimbecidine 300 ppm @ 5 ml/l at 5 days interval followed by Schedule 2
incorporated with six spray of nimbecidine 300 ppm @ 5 ml/l at 5 days interval + yellow sticky trap
and Schedule 3 incorporated with spray of nimbecidine 300 ppm @ 5 ml/l altered with triazophos
40EC @ 3 ml/l at 5 days interval + yellow sticky trap. Maximum seed cotton yield 20.73 q/ha was
also obtained from treatment 2 and minimum 14.13 q/ha from treatment 9 incorporated with spray
of dimethoate followed by imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and dimethoate (at 10 days interval).
Parasitisation of whitefly ranged from 0.3 to 56.31 per cent during end July to mid September.
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Maximum parasitization (32.28 %) was recorded in control (without water spray) followed by 30.30
per cent in T2 (Spray of nimbecidine at 5 days interval + Yellow sticky trap) while minimum
(15.02%) in T5 (First spray of diafanthiuron, followed by imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, triazophos,
imidacloprid and thiamethoxam. Hence utilization of botanicals or neem derivatives was more
beneficial.
Keywords: Efficacy, management, Bemisia tabaci, parasitization of Bemisia tabaci in cotton
VI-5
Eco-friendly storage pest management in the face of phosphine resistance for ensuring
sustainable food and nutritional security
Arati Ningombam, S. Subramanian*, C. Srivastava*, A. Romila, A. Beemrote, S.K. Sharma, Th.
Seilesh Kumar, L. Gangmei, Ch. Tania, I. M. Singh, Ch. Basudha
ICAR-Research Complex for Neh Region, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Manipur-795004
*Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi-110012
Corresponding authoe email: arati.ning@gmail.com
The World Bank stipulates the post-harvest losses in India, amounting to 12 to 16 million mt
of food grains each year, could feed one-third of India's poor. The present capacity of bulk food
grain storage in India is about 75.6 million mt and the annual loss due to stored grain insect pests in
India has been estimated to be around 5%. Acute food shortage and malnutrition is the greatest
challenge facing the human race complicated by climate change and a rising global population
predicted to reach 9.8 billion by 2050 as per UN. The Global Nutrition Report 2020 reports that the
coronavirus pandemic has further aggravated the food crises and the availability of healthy, nutritious
food in an equitable, sustainable manner is most urgently felt now. There is great necessity to reduce
postharvest food losses for ensuring global food security in a sustainable manner and postharvest
protection of grains against insect pests is of paramount importance to ensure food security. In India
and many countries, the main method for controlling stored-product insects is through fumigation
with phosphine and methyl bromide. After the banning of methyl bromide, only phosphine is used
to control stored-product insects in warehouses. The exclusive reliance on phosphine gas in
warehouses and continuous exposure over the years has resulted in development of phosphine
resistance in stored product pests and the search for eco-friendly, safe alternatives in management of
stored foodgrains is a growing area of research. In our study, Sitophilus oryzae, the rice weevil has been
found to be the major dominant insect pest of stored grains and stored pulses in NE India and a
majority of insect populations collected from all over NE India has been found to be resistant to
phosphine gas. Three indigenous plants from Manipur viz. Zanthoxylum acanthopodium, Plectranthus
ternifolius and Goniothalamus sesquipedalis, traditionally used as grain protectants were evaluated for their
insect growth deterring ability; alone and in different combinations. The plant powders were found
to have good growth-inhibiting characteristic against rice weevil with potential for use in eco-friendly
storage pest management.
Keywords: foodgrains, storage pests, rice weevil, phosphine, eco-friendly, indigenous plants
VI-6
Management of groundnut (
Arachis hypogaea
L.) collar rot (
Aspergillus niger
Van Tieghem)
through phyto extract and bio-agents
Dama Ram, Mahendra Kumar Saran and Rakesh1
Department of Plant Pathology Agriculture University, Jodhpur
1Student B.Sc (Agriculture), CoA, Jodhpur
Corresponding author email – damaram.choudhary@gmail.com
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important and a member of leguminosae family widely
grown food legume and oil seed crop of tropics and sub-tropic regions of the world. It is native of
South America from Brazil region. Seed and soil borne pathogens are the major constraints in
production of groundnut, causing poor germination and early mortality of seedling. The crop suffers
from more than 50 pathogens including fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes. Among all, Collar rot
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
235
caused by Aspergillus niger Van Teighem is one of the most important disease. Collar rot disease
usually seen during early stages of crop growth to crop harvesting stage resulting in damage to the
seed. The annual yield losses due to collar rot alone are approximately 5 %, the disease has a potential
to damage the crop with up to 40% losses, and the detailed investigations on phyto extract and bio
agents were carried out in the present study. Among the phyto extracts datura leaf extract was found
effective, inhibiting mycelial growth (84.06%). The leaf extract at 10 per cent was significantly
superior over 5 per cent. Trichoderma harzianum was found most efficient antagonist in inhibiting the
mycelial growth (77.67 %) of A. niger in in vitro.
Keywords: Collar rot, Trichoderma, Aspergillus, in vitro
VI-7
Efficacy of bio-rational insecticides against major insect pests of sweet basil
Ashok Kumar*, R. Swaminathan, M.K. Mahla and A.K. Meena
Department of Entomology, Rajasthan College of Agriculture
Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur (Raj) - 313001
Corresponding author email to: bishnoiashok92@yahoo.co.in
Sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum Linnaeus, though a medicinal and aromatic plant, is infested by
insects that cause significant damage to the crop. Management of these pests necessitates the use of
bio-rational insecticides, which were evaluated for their efficacy, in field trials, at the Instructional
Farm of Rajasthan College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and
Technology, Udaipur (Rajasthan) for two successive crop seasons during kharif, 2016 and 2017. The
field trial was laid out in uniformly sized plots measuring 12m2 (4m x 3m) under Randomized Block
Design with 6 treatments and 4 replications. The row to row and plant to plant spacing were
maintained at 60cm and 40cm, respectively. The treatment schedule comprised two sprayings: the
first 15 days after transplanting and the second 45 days after transplanting. Azadirachtin 1500 ppm
(1%) was most effective against the lepidopteran defoliators (semiloopers, leaf folder/ webber, gram
pod borer and the tobacco caterpillar) after first spray with 41.54 to 65.01 per cent mean population
reduction; whereas, after second spray Spinosad 45 SC (150 ml/ha) was most effective with 63.22 to
82.34 per cent mean population reduction. Similarly, Azadirachtin 1500 ppm (1%) resulted in the
maximum mean population reduction of the sap feeding insect pests (whiteflies, thrips, jassids, lace
bug, seed bug and aphids) as well as the leaf & flea beetles with 55.94 to 72.02 per cent, as observed
at 3, 5 and 7 days after the treatment during both the years of study.
Keywords: bio-rational, efficacy, insecticides, insect pests, sweet basil, azadirachtin, spinosad
VI-8
Effect of levels and sources of sulphur on growth and yield attributes of sesamum (Sesamum indicum
L.) under rainfed condition of Nagaland
P. C Lallawmzuali, Lanunola Tzudir* and Debika Nongmaithem
Department of Agronomy, Nagaland University: SASRD, Medziphema (Nagaland), India
Corresponding author email: lanunola@gmail.com
A field experiment was conducted at the experimental farm, Department of Agronomy,
SASRD, Nagaland University, during the Kharif season of 2019 to study the effect of different levels
and sources of sulphur on sesamum. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design (RBD)
with three replications and ten treatments viz; T1 (control), T2 (10 kg gypsum ha-1), T3 (20 kg gypsum
ha-1), T4 (30 kg gypsum ha-1), T5 (40 kg gypsum ha-1), T6 (control), T7 (10 kg elemental sulphur ha-1),
T8 (20 kg elemental sulphur ha-1), T9 (30 kg elemental sulphur ha-1) and T10 (40 kg elemental sulphur
ha-1). There were significant variations among different treatments on the growth, yield and yield
attributes of sesamum. From all the treatments, 40 kg elemental sulphur ha-1 recorded the highest
plant height (cm), plant dry weight (g plant-1), crop growth rate (g m-2 day-1), number of capsule
plant1, length of capsule (cm), number of seed capsule-1, stover yield (kg ha-1), seed yield (kg ha-1) and
harvest index (%).
Keywords: Sesamum, levels, sources, sulphur, growth, yield
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Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
236
VI-9
Herbicidal weed management and rice yield stability studies across diverse crop
establishment systems under on-farm environments
Ram Swaroop Banaa,*, Deepak Singhband Manjeet Singh Naina,
a ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi - 110 012
b ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi - 110 012
*Corresponding author email address: rsbana@gmail.com
In zero-till direct seeded rice (DSR), systematic information on weed management under on-
farm conditions is lacking, therefore, on-farm research trials were conducted during 2012-13 to 2016-
17 to find out the effect of diverse crop establishment systems and herbicidal weed management
practices on yield stability and weed dynamics over the years. The trials were carried out at Faridabad
and Sonepat districts of Haryana, India. Results showed that DSR with residue (DSRR) coupled with
pretilachlor pre-emergence (PE) @ 0.75 kg ha-1 followed by bispyribac-sodium Post-emergence
(POE) @ 0.025 kg ha-1 (PretBis) or cyhalofop butyl @ 0.060 kg ha-1 (PretCy) resulted in rice grain
yield (5.38 t ha-1 and 5.33 t ha-1, respectively) statistically at par with transplanted rice (TPR)-PretBis
(5.30 t ha-1) and TPR-PretCy (5.21 t ha-1). PretBis produced 32.3% higher grain yield as compared to
farmers‘ practice (FP). Higher broad leaved weeds (BLWs) biomass was recorded under DSR (8.25 g
m-2), followed by DSRR (4.58 g m-2) and TPR (3.99 g m-2). Whereas, among weed management
practices PretBis had least BLWs biomass (4.17 g m-2) followed by PretCy (4.77 g m-2). Biomass of
narrow leaved weeds (NLWs) and sedges was found lowest under PretCy (3.63 g m-2 and 3.77 g m-2).
GGE biplot analysis of biomass of BLWs and NLWs reveals that PretBis and PretCy, respectively
had the highest ranking owing to their stability across the environments (location x year). In year x
location environments, years 2014-15, 2015-16 and 2016-17 were in the same mega environments,
which indicated stability in weed biomass reduction from third year onwards. The study highlights
that, under north-western Indo-Gangetic plains, if the weeds are managed properly, direct seeded
rice with residues can be adopted without significant yield reduction during initial years and
comparable yield to TPR in the long-term.
Keywords: Conservation agriculture; Direct seeded rice; Sequential herbicide application
VI-10
Bioassay of Cypermethrin 10% EC and Bifenthrin 10% EC against the Bihar hairy caterpillar,
Spilosoma obliqua
(Walker) (Arctiidae: Lepidoptera)
H. Sarjubala Devi, Th. D. Songomsing Chiru, Sharon Gangte Shimray* and R. Varatharajan
*Department of Zoology, Churachandpur College, Manipur. Centre of Advanced Study in Life Sciences, Manipur University
Corresponding author email: sarjubala22@gmail.com
Spilosoma obliqua (Walker) (Arctiidae: Lepidoptera), commonly known as the Bihar hairy caterpillar
is a polyphagous pest having affiliation with over 150 species of plants belonging to 40 different plant
families. It is primarily a pest of pulses and oil seed crops, occurring in Manipur from March to October
with the peak density just after the southwest monsoon. Each female lays 150-300 eggs (on different host
plants) in her life time and till second instar they occur in a cluster on the same leaf. Subsequently, they
move towards other foliage for feeding. The pest infestation will be invariably in a localized manner
irrespective of the crops concerned. However, the infested plant will be completely affected by the time
all the larvae reach the fifth instar by virtue of voracious feeding. Although a number of parasitoids, virus
and bacterial pathogens are available to control this pest, at times chemical treatment is required to
combat this pest species. The synthetic pyrethroids namely Cypermethrin 10% EC and Bifenthrin
10% EC have been evaluated against the third instar in the present study at different concentrations
by keeping neem oil as a standard bio-pesticide. The bioassay reflected that the LT50 value of
Cypermethrin 10% EC and Bifenthrin 10% EC was respectively 5.3 and 6.0 hours against third instar
larvae of S. obliqua, when they were treated @ 0.125% concentration, whereas the LT50 values of
these chemicals were 18.2 and 13 hours respectively at the concentration of 0.06%.
Keywords: Bioassay, Cypermethrin 10% EC, Bifenthrin 10% EC, Bihar hairy caterpillar
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
237
VI-11
Insecticides schedule for management of seed borer (
Trymalitis margarias
Meyrick) in
sapota
K. D. Bisane*, B. M. Naik and A. P. Patel
ICAR-AICRP (Fruits), Fruit Research Station,
Navsari Agricultural University, Gandevi - 396 360 (Gujarat)
Corresponding author email: kdbisane@yahoo.co.in
Sapota [Ma n ilk a ra zapota
(Mill.) Forsberg] is an important sweet fruit of the tropical region
and shown diverse intensification in the recent past. Under the monoculture of Kalipatti variety, seed
borer, Trymalitis margarias Meyrick (Lepidoptera : Tortricidae), became an emerging insect pest of the
sapota, causing very serious damage at peak fruiting stage, due to which the quality of fruit
deteriorated and a foul smell released during storage and transport. An experiment was laid out at
Fruit Research Station, Navsari Agricultural University, Gandevi (Gujarat) under ICAR-AICRP on
Fruits. Three modules comprising sequential insecticides schedule were evaluated along with control.
The trial was laid out in randomized block design (RBD) with seven replications of sapota cv.
Kalipatti planted of 30 years old trees on 10 x 10m spacing. The insecticide treatments were imposed
at the initiation of seed borer infestation, i.e. October onwards. During each harvest, 100 fruit was
collected and counted the number of damaged and healthy fruits (direct sampling). The sequential
application of profenofos 50 EC @ 1.5 ml /l and indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 0.5 ml/l showed minimum
fruit damage (2.45%) with reduction of 71.87% and less unmarketable fruits (0.66 t/ha), which was
equally effective with application of deltamethirn 18.5 EC and Bt @ 1 g/l (2.60% fruit damage) with
reduction of 70.15% and damaged fruits of 0.64 t/ha as compared to control with higher fruit
damage (8.71%) and more infested fruits (1.43 t/ha). After that, the sequential application of
spinosad 45 SC @ 0.3 ml/l chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 0.3 ml/l exhibited fruit damage up to
3.48% with reduction of 60.05% and less unmarketable fruits (0.87 t/ha). The annual yield data of
marketable fruits was found significantly higher in application of profenofos and indoxacarb (18.64
t/ha) as well as in deltamethrin and Bt (18.21 t/ha) over control (14.29 t/ha). The research findings
advocated the sequential application of deltamethrin @ 1 ml/l and Bt @ 1 g/l at 15 days interval at
marble stage of fruit to minimize fruit damage due to seed borer and improve the number of
marketable fruits in sapota as well as to avoid bulk use of two insecticides and their further issue of
residue in plant produce.
Keywords: Insecticides schedule, management, seed borer (Trymalitis margarias Meyrick), sapota
VI-12
Impact of heat shock on reproductive attributes of fall armyworm,
Spodoptera frugiperda
T. Isaiyamudhini, D. Sagar* and Sujatha, G. S.
Division of Entomology, ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110 012
Corresponding author email: garuda344@gmail.com
Temperature is one of the most important abiotic factor determining the distribution and
abundance of insects. Temperature above the optimum range is perceived as heat stress by all living
organisms. Warmer temperatures associated with climate change can potentially affect insect species
population dynamics directly by affecting their life history traits. In this study, the freshly-emerged
male and female adults of Spodoptera frugiperda were exposed to 420 C for three different durations viz.,
2, 4 and 6 h and mated in all possible combinations in a diallel fashion (Cf*Cm, Sf*Sm, Sf*Cm and
Cf*Sm; where C- control, S-stressed, f- female, m-male) to analyse the heat effects on life history
traits such as immediate survival, longevity, fecundity, mating success, mating frequency and fertility
percentage. Results showed that thermal stress did not had detrimental effect on immediate mortality
and mating success. The fecundity of adults exposed to 420C at different durations differed
significantly with highest egg production at 4 hours followed by 6 hours of exposure as compared to
insects maintained under control conditions and 2 hours exposure at 420C. Stressed males
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Directorate of Extension Education
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Imphal, Manipur-795004
238
combination resulted in declined egg production irrespective of durations. Among the different
mating combinations at three durations, stressed female and stressed male combination had highest
mating frequency with lower longevity indicating stressed males are in rush for dumping of
spermatophores in female genital tract. Furthermore, high temperature exposure for longer hours
(6h) negatively affected the fertility percentage to a greater extent followed by 4h and 2h. Thus our
results indicate that heat stress had detrimental effects on reproductive output of S. frugiperda
especially through paternal effects thereby influencing its population dynamics.
Keywords: Thermal stress, Spodoptera frugiperda, fecundity, mating success, fertility
VI-13
Gene mining and identification of Glutothione S-Transferese involved in insecticide resistant
in
Plutella xylostella
(L.) population
R.Gandhi Gracy, T. Venkatesan, P. Jyoti and Aditi Agrwal
ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect resources, Bangalore-24
Corresponding author email: gandhi.gracyr@icar.gov.in
The Diamond Back Moth (Plutella xylostella(L.)), is a serious pest of cruciferous vegetables
and causes huge economic loss all over the world. DBM has developed resistance to almost 97
insecticides. The need of the hour is to understand the underlying molecular mechanism to develop
the efficient pest management strategies and reduce the significant yield losses. In this study, gene
mining was carried out from the insecticide resistant population of P. xylostella whole transcriptome.
The transcriptome of P. xylostella was sequenced using NGS- Illumina paired-end sequencing. De
novo assembly was performed from raw reads from the samples which resulted in the total of 41,205
unigenes. The mining was performed using predicted Protein sequences from PX transcriptome, and
were taken as query for HMM searched in the PFAM database viz., GST-N (PF02798) and GST-C
(PF00043). These were further confirmed by blastp search with nr database. 77 GSTprotein
sequences were selected and combined with the already characterized 22 GST (Yu et al., 2015)
sequences from P. xylostella genome for phylogenetic tree construction. The gene mining yielded 43
transcripts belonged to the 8 subclasses, which consist of 22 genes. The sub-classes Omega found to
be more abundant with 13 transcripts, followed by Epsilon (11) and Delta (9). The two insect
specific sub-classes are Delta and Epsilon were found to be numerically superior, which were
contributing >60% of total GST genes. The role of GST in the insecticide resistance is well
documented in many insects‘ pests including DBM. Our present study indicates that the GSTs in the
Omega, Delta and Epsilon subclasses have a greater general trend of duplication than the GSTs in
the other four subclasses as previously reported and indicate the possible gene expansion of GST
family for the first time in Lepidoptera.
Keywords: Gene mining, identification, Glutothione S-Transferese, insecticide resistant, Plutella
xylostella
VI-14
Efficacy of fungicides and bioproduct in management of turcicum leaf blight disease of
maize
Nabakishor Nongmaithem
Directorate of Research, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur-795004, India
Corresponding author email: nabaaaidu@yahoo.com
Maize (Zea mays L) is the second most important crop next to rice in Manipur and it is mostly
grown under rainfed and uplands conditions. In the region, maize production plays a significant role
in ensuring food security and is used both for direct consumption and as well as for second cycle
produce in piggery and poultry farming. Being a high humid region and the main season of maize
cultivation fall in the rainy season is exposed to several biotic and abiotic stresses. Among the biotic
factor, Diseases are one of the major constraints in realizing the potential yield of this crop. It suffers
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
239
from a number of diseases but Turcicum leaf blight (TLB) is the most devastating leaf pathogen
caused by the heterothallic ascomycete Setosphaeria turcica and may cause by 28 to 91% grain yield loss.
The present studies were undertaken to work out the efficacy of chemicals, botanicals and bioagents
for the management of TLB under field condition for two seasons Kharif 2018 and 2019. Two
molecules (Dithane M-45 75 WP and Azoxystrobin 18.2 w/w +Difenoconozole11.4% w/w SC),
Four botanicals namely Azadirachta indica, Allium sativum, Lantana camara and Cow urine and one
bioagents i.e. Trichoderma asperellum were tested for their efficacy against TLB. Analysis revealed
significant effect of foliar application of Azoxystrobin 18.2 w/w +Difenoconozole11.4% w/w SC @
0.10% with respect to disease control efficacy (51.18%) and increase in grain yield (54.85%). Among
the botanical foliar application of Allium sativum (Garlic) bulb@ 10%@ found significantly superior
to disease control efficacy (24.45%) and increase in grain yield (24.90%). The slow rate of disease
control virtually by the bioagents might have not shown instant effect on plant response to the yield
enhancing components. The identified sources of management can be used further in strengthening
the plant protection in maize against TLB pathogen.
Keywords: Efficacy, fungicides, bioproduct, management, turcicum leaf blight disease, maiz
VI-15
Low cost hydroponic seed germination technique for citrus cv. Rangpur Lime – Rodent
infestation a major problem
S. R. Singh1, L. Wangchu2 and B.N.Hazarika2
Department of Fruit science1, 2, Dean2, College of Horticulture & Forestry,
Central Agricultural University, Pasighat-791 102, Arunachal Pradesh
⃰orresponding author email: romensenjam@yahoo.com
Citrus seed being recalcitrant nature 100% germination are difficult under the field condition.
Under the hydroponic technique of seed germination, Rangpur Lime germination started after 13
days in which the fungicide treated seeds are kept inside the BOD for 250C in the plastic tray
(30x30cm size) which have the capacity around 2200 seeds per tray with the germination percentage
of 98.9% as compared to 21.4% in the field condition which germinate after 30-35 days after sowing.
This experiment proved to be cheap and better seed germination for the citrus seed, which could be
used for the seed propagation for raising rootstock. However, under the hydroponic technique of
seed germination proper precaution measures are necessary from rodent infestation.
Keywords: Rangpur Lime, seed germination, hydroponic, rat infestation
VI-16
Fungal diseases of tomato and their management
Y.Premica Devi, Ph.Sobita Devi, Bireswar Sinha, Lnk Singh and Bijeeta Thangjam
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, CAU,Imphal-795004
Corresponding author email: premicayeng123@gmail.com
Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) is the most popular vegetable in the world because of
its taste, colour, high nutritive value and also for its diversified use. It is known as productive as well
as protective food. However, tomato cultivation has been challenged by the several diseases,
reflecting negatively on plant growth and the produced yield. Out of these, fungal diseases are the
major problem and they are mainly seed and soil borne pathogens which include gray mold (Botrytis
cinerea), Septoria leaf spots (Septoria lycopersici), early blight (Alternaria solani), anthracnose (Colletotrichum
coccodes), Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici), Verticillium wilt (Verticillium albo-
atrum and Verticillium dahlia), late blight (Phytophthora infestans), leaf mold (Fulvia fulva), and buckeye rot
(Phytophthora spp.). Among these fungal diseases, early blight (Alternaria solani), late blight (Phytophthora
infestans) and fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) are found to be the major diseases. So proper
management planning is required for controlling the fungal pathogens. Utilization of modern
pesticides and chemical compounds has been done by farmers to control such plant pathogens.
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However, chemicals do not degrade completely and leaving behind toxic residue in soil. So,
integrated disease management with the use of biocontrol agents like Trichoderma spp offer
environmentally safe and cost effective alternative to chemicals. Genus Trichoderma has gained
immense importance since last few decades due to its biological control ability against several deadly
plant pathogens. It is found that Trichoderma spp. significantly control the fungal diseases.
Keywords: Tomato, Fungal diseases, Trichoderma, seed and soil borne pathogens
VI-17
Bee predatory wasp and their management in Arunachal Pradesh
Denisha Rajkhowa and D. B. Ahuja
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and College of Horticulture and Forestry, CAU, Pasighat
Corresponding author email: denisha.rajkhowa@gmail.com
Beekeeping in Arunachal Pradesh is traditionally practiced and it is one of the most liked
activities in both agricultural and horticultural ecosystem. However it is still to be exploited to its full
strength by setting up professional apiaries. Among several limiting factors, natural enemies of
honeybees constitute a major constraint. Different types of bee predatory wasp species are found in
Arunachal Pradesh. Among them three species viz., Vespa affinis, V. cincta, V. magnifica were found to
cause serious damage to honeybee colonies. The intensity of attack due to wasps was also variable at
different intervals of the day. The activity of the wasp was highest the morning (9-11am) of the day.
During rainy season (July-August) they were more active. It was found that the nest of Vespa affinis
and V. cincta were aerial, they make nest in roof of the building, and hidden side of trees whereas
V. magnifica make underground nest, below the soil surface. Wire gauge screening in front of the hive
entrance followed by flapping during their attack was considered most suitable method for
management of these bee predatory wasps. Other technique found appropriate was rapping them
through fish/meat/molasses/ fruit juice and monitoring and destruction of the nest.
Keywords: Bee predatory wasp, management, Arunachal Pradesh
VI-18
Insecticide induced hormoligosis in whitefly in brinjal
Neeru Dumra1, Krishna Rolania2 and Surender Singh Yadav3
1Phd Research Scholar, Department of Entomology, CCS HAU, Hisar- 125001, India
2Assistant Scientist, Department of Agricultural Entomology, CCS, HAU, Hisar- 125001
3Assistant Director (Plant Protection), Directorate of Research, CCSHAU, Hisar
Corresponding author email: neerudumra23@gmail.com
The studies on insecticidal hormoligosis in brinjal whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, have been carried
out at Chaudhary charan singh Haryana Agricultural University Hisar, India, during 2019 and 2020
crop seasons. The repeated application of diafenthiuron (150, 210 and 300 g ai/ha), fenpropathrin
(50, 70and 100 g ai/ha), thiamethoxam (25, 35 and 50 g ai/ha) and deltamethrin (7.5, 10.5 and 15 g
ai/ha) were evaluated for hormoligosis in terms of effect on whitefly fecundity and oviposition
preference. The results revealed that fenpropathrin at lower dose resulted in significant increase in
fecundity followed by deltamethrin and thiamethoxam. Diafenthiuron recorded minimum fecundity
in both season. Fenpropathrin recorded maximum number of eggs per leaves than others while
diafenthiuron recorded minimum number of eggs. Also translaminar effects of different insecticides
were checked. Thiamethoxam resulted in maximal translaminar activity while fenpropathrin has
minimal translaminar activity. No translaminar effect was found in deltamethrin and diafenthiuron.
The overall results confirmed hormoligosis of fenpropathrin and deltamethrin in B. tabaci.
Keywords: Hormoligosis, Bemesia tabaci, insecticides, brinjal
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VI-19
Performance of power tiller operated boom sprayer for vegetable crops
Piyush Pradhan1 and Kanhaiya Lal Thakur2
1Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
2Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Corresponding author email: piyushpradhan202@gmail.com
In Agriculture crop production due to pest, disease of crop as well as weed plants a
significant loss in yield and quality agriculture products. Spraying is used to break the liquid in droplet
in effective size and uniformly distribute over the crop to regulate and avoid the excessive application
of pest. Due to erratic variation of rainfall, cultivation practices are drastically changes, diseases is one
of serious problem facing by farmers. To overcome these problems a self propelled boom sprayer
were carried out in cabbage and chilli field for performance evaluation. The operating discharge was
0.9 lit/m with speed of 2kmph at cone angle 40º. Power tillers are visualized as potential source of
power for small and medium sized farms in India because of their easy maneuverability and compact
size. The effective field capacity of power tiller boom sprayer was 0.71 ha/h with efficiency of 65%.
The entire boom assembly fixed at the rear of the power tiller, behind of the operator seat. Even in
adverse wind conditions, by the time the power tiller would have moved through considerable
distance, the chemical would be deposited on the canopy, there by reducing the effect of chemical
inhalation by the operator almost to nil. The performance of power tiller operated boom sprayer was
satisfactory with the pressure of 3kg/cm2 and save the cost and time of operation 34% as compared
to power operated knapsack sprayer.
Keywords: Boom sprayer, field capacity, efficiency, pressure, discharge rate
VI-20
Reduction of post-harvest losses through fungicidal treatment in spray
chrysanthemum (
Chrysanthemum morifolium
Ramat.)
M. Preema Devi1, B. Baidya1, Arpita Mandal Khan2, S. Khalko3 and Laishram Hemanta4
1Department of Pomology and Post-Harvest Technology, Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch
Behar, West Bengal, India
2 Department of Floriculture, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops, Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Pundibari,
Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India
3 Department of Plant Pathology, Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal,
India
2 Department of Horticulture, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Medziphema Campus,
Nagaland University, Nagaland, India
Corresponding author email: preema.horti@gmail.com
A laboratory experiment was conducted to investigate the storage life of dried
chrysanthemum flowers using pre-drying fungicidal treatments with Mancozeb (F1), Copper
Hydroxide (F2), Hexaconazole (F3), Azoxystrobin (F4) and without any fungicide (F5) after
embedding in silica gel and drying at 45+5 0C with 80% humidity. Stage of harvesting of the flower
was taken at 80-100% mature and of the same size. Dried flowers were stored in different packaging
materials i.e., without packaging (S1), Polyethylene Pouch (S2), Vacuum Packing (S3), Air tight plastic
box with silica gel (S4) and Air tight plastic Box (S5). The study revealed that the shelf life of the
flowers stored in air tight plastic jar with silica gel (S4) treated with Azoxystrobin (F4) was extended
upto 105 days with acceptable and marketable quality. Chrysanthemum flowers treated with contact
fungicide showed early spoilage in comparison to systemic fungicide during the storage period. Out
of different storage conditions, air tight plastic box prevented the entry of microbial inoculum
efficiently and silica gel absorbed the moisture within the box, discouraging the microbial growth, if
any. This resulted in less microbial attack on dry flowers as compared to other storage condition.
Therefore, fungicide treated dried chrysanthemum flowers could be used in the preparation of
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various value-added products even after its season get over thus, making the flowers available when
its demand rises. This will not only make the flowers available during off season but also meet the
requirements in target occasions hence, adds to income generation.
Keywords: Chrysanthemum, fungicide, shelf life
VI-21
Evaluation of biofumigation potential of
Brassica juncea
on soil borne pathogens of pigeon
pea
in vitro
G. Bindu Madhavi, A. D. G. Grace and L. N. Hanuman
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam, Guntur, Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University, Andhra
Pradesh, India
Corresponding author email: bindugopireddy@gmail.com
Pigeonpea is the second important pulse crop after the gram and a major kharif crop in the
country. India ranks I st in area and production in the world with 80% and 67% of world‘s acreage
and production respectively. Pigeonpea production is affected by several biotic and abiotic stresses of
which soil borne pathogens are inflicting losses up to 100% in severe incidence. Management of
soilborne diseases is complicated because even low inoculum causes more damage and the organisms
are distributed in the soil unevenly. Farmers relay on fungicides for the management of soil borne
diseases but it is not feasible and economical to drench fungicide in the entire field. Researchers are
in search of other eco-friendly alternatives and found that biofumigation is one of the feasible
strategy for sustainale management of soil borne diseases. Biofumigation is an agronomic approach
to manage soilborne pest and pathogen which involves the use of plants primarily from the
Brassicaceae family (e.g., mustards, cauliflower, and broccoli) in rotation with cash crops.
Biofumigant crops contain glucosinolates (GSLs) and upon cellular disruption and hydrolysis, can
release GSL-degradation products, specifically isothiocyanates (ITCs). Isothiocyanates have
fungicidal and nematicidal properties hence the present study was conducted to evaluate the
biofumigation potential of different plant parts of mustard against dry root rot pathogen
Macrophomina phaseolina in vitro. From the results it can be confirmed that the macerated root
@10g recorded maximum (84.33 % ) inhibition of redial growth of M. phaseolina followed by 72.78
% of inhibition with 5g of root. Where as the inhibition of radial growth of fungus with macerated
shoots ranged from 28.11-51.22 % for 1g and 10g respectively. In case of macerated leaf tissue
percent inhibition was in the tune of 25.67 to 48.78 for 1g and 10 g respectively.
Keywords: Evaluation, biofumigation potential, Brassica juncea, soil borne pathogens, pigeon pea
VI-22
In-vitro evaluation of
Catenaria anguillulae
against
Anguina tritici
Bijeeta Thangjam, S.S. Vaish*, Ph. Sobita, LNK Singh, Bireswar Sinha, Tusi Chakma, Y.Premika7 and
Kota Chakrapani8.
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal
* Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, IAS, BHU
Corresponding author email: bijeetathangjam@gmail.com
Catenaria anguillulae is a faculative endoparasite of nematodes. It owns almost all the attributes
of biological control agent. Investigations were done to understand variability among 15 isolates of
Catenaria anguillulae isolated from different crop varieties against second stage juveniles of Anguina
tritici. Anguina tritici is a plant pathogenic nematodes which causes ear cockle disease in wheat and rye.
Isolates showed variation in respect of virulence. Out of 15 test isolates, Isolate-13 encountered
maximum mortality to the extent of 100 per cent 24 hrs after inoculation showed fully developed
sporangia within 50 per cent of J2s of A. tritici and colonization of zoospores with later development
stages of parasitism in rest of the juveniles. However, Isolates-10, 11, 12, 1 and 5 caused more than
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90 per cent mortality. The J2s of A. tritici with fully developed sporangia was maximum with respect
to Isolate-1 to the extent of 70% followed by Isolates-5 and 15. Further, it was noticed that the most
of the isolates exhibited more than 60% mortality except Isolates-4, 8 and 9. Catenaria anguillulae acts
as effective biocontrol agent.
Keywords: Catenaria anguillulae, endoparasite, nematodes, biological control agent.
VI-23
Management of fall armyworm,
Spodoptera frugiperda
(Smith) in maize by different
spraying methods with novel chemicals
ADG Grace and Bindu Madhavi. G
Scientist (Ent.), Regional Agril. Research Station, Lam
Corresponding author email: dianagrace79@gmail.com
Ma ize (Zea may s L) is one of th e mos t ver s at i l e cro ps ha v i n g wid e r adapta b il ity
un der varied agro-climatic condi tions. In India, maize is the th ird most imp ortant food
cr ops afte r rice and wheat. Bi otic an d abiotic stresses are the main constraints for
hi gh production, among ins ect pests new invasive pe s t Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith) causes
severe damage to yields. Hence the present field experiment was conducted at RARS, Lam during
2019-20 to test the efficacy of spraying methods ie., by using hand sprayer and dripping the novel
chemical by using bottle into whorls to manage new invasive pest, Spodoptera frugiperda in maize. The
novel chemicals tested were chlorfluazuron 5.4 EC, spninosad 45 SC, spinetoram 11.7 SC and
emamectin benzoate 5 SG. The results showed that per cent damaged plants due to fall armyworm
ranged from 5 to 91.7 with significant differences among the treatments. Lowest per cent damage
(5%) was recorded in treatment sprayed with spinosad @ 70 ml/acre and spinotoram@100 ml /acre
(5%) in the whorls using hand sprayer, which were superior over all other treatments but, on a par
with bottle dripping of spinosad @70ml/acre in the whorls. The mean per cent reduction in damage
due to fall armyworm over untreated control ranged from 83.6 to 94.5. The highest reduction in
damaged plants was due to spraying of spinosad@70 ml/ acre and spinotoram@100 ml /acre in the
whorls using hand sprayer. With respect to maize grain yield significant differences were also
observed among the treatments. The maize grain yield ranged from 3517 to 5117 kg/ha, highest
grain yield was recorded in treatment sprayed with spinosad @ 70 ml/acre using hand sprayer which
is superior over untreated control but on a par with all other treatments.
Keywords: Spraying methods, Spodoptera frugiperda, Novel chemicals.
VI-24
Nanodiagnostics for plant diseases
Shruti Ranote, Bireswar Sinha, L. Nongdrenkhomba Singh, Tusi Chakma and Bijeeta Thangjam
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Iroisemba
C.A.U., Imphal, Manipur
Corresponding author email: rajpootshruti02@gmail.com
Plant pathogens decline global food grain production by 14%. Under favourable conditions
some pathogens can cause complete crop failure. So, the reliable and timely detection of plant
pathogens plays an important role in crop health monitoring to reduce disease spread and facilitate
effective management practices. Current tools used to detect crop pathogens, includes visual
inspection, isolations onto growth media, microscopy, serology, and molecular techniques like
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA fingerprinting, quantitative real-time PCR, nucleic acid blot
assays, microarrays, and next generation sequencing. Though, the serological and nucleic acid-based
detection are rapid and sensitive but unable to reach at farmer‘s field and these techniques are less
reliable at asymptomatic stage. Additionally, they are time consuming, required costly equipment,
produced false negative results from cross contamination, and need professional experts. To conquer
such drawbacks, nanodiagnostics is a promising technology. Nanomolecular diagnostic is the use of
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nanobiotechnology to diagnose plant diseases and this can be termed as Nanodiagnostics. Emerging
evidence indicated that nanosensors (e.g., metal nanoparticles, array-based sensors, and quantum
dots) and tools (e.g., microneedle patch, nanopore sequencing and plant wearables) of the
nanodiagnostics can be used for getting rapid, precise, and accurate information related to early
infection and progress of disease under filed conditions. These nanotools and nanosensors offer a
wide range of paraphernalia for researchers interested in the identification, characterization, and
monitoring of crop pathogen. But some constraints like non-specific binding, aggregation, and
toxicity of nanoparticles in planting materials should be addressed to realize their full potential.
Despite the remaining challenges, the recent development of miniature and cost-effective
nanodiagnostic tools has shown tremendous potentials in improving plant disease diagnosis and crop
health monitoring in the long run.
Keywords: Serology, PCR, DNA fingerprinting, nanodiagnostics, nanopore sequencing, nanotools,
nanosensors
VI-25
Priorities in crop protection for sustainable agriculture in tomato
Soumen pati, L. Nongdrenkhomba Singh, Bireswar Sinha and Ph. Sobita Devi
Department Of Plant Pathology, College Of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal – 795001
Corresponding author email: soumenpati1617@gmail.com
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop next to potato
in the world, with estimated production reaching as 170 million MT in 2014, where China accounts
for 31% of the total, followed by USA, India, and Turkey as the major producers. Apart from being
the important vegetable crop worldwide, tomato is also used as a model plant for genetical studies
related to fruit quality, stress tolerance (biotic and abiotic), and other physiological traits. This is
widely adapted to a variety of agro climate spanning from the tropics to temperate regions (Panthee
and Chen 2010). Presently, the production and quality of tomato are known to be largely affected by
the pathogens in the field or post-harvest processing (Walker 1971; Ramyabharathi et al. 2012).
Disease development during field or/post-harvest storage and shipment without the effective
inhibitor of microbial growth results in huge economic loss. Therefore, a critical need of sustainable
approach for the plant disease management is necessary. Currently, more than 200 pests and diseases
have been identified in tomato, causing losses in their production directly or indirectly (Nowicki et
al. 2013). Diseases caused by fungi, nematodes, bacteria, and viruses are of the most severe concern
in cereal crops and vegetables, which not only affect their nutritional contents, but also human health
and overall economy. Some of the most important diseases in tomato caused by fungal pathogens are
late blight, Sclerotinia rot, Fusarium wilt, Fusarium crown, and root rot. Late blight caused by
the Phytophthora infestans is one of the most destructive diseases of tomato resulting in significant
economic loss (20–70%). Sclerotinia rot, caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, is another one of the
important diseases affecting the tomato crop productivity. Fusarium wilt is common vascular disease
caused by Fusarium oxysporum, resulting in extensive (10–80%) yield loss in many tomato producing
countries. Root-knot caused by the nematode Meloidogyne sp. is the other most devastating and
widespread disease in tomato. Bacterial leaf spot is common bacterial diseases of tomato caused
by Xanthomonas campestris. Plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) as biocontrol agents (BCA) have
certain advantages over the conventional chemical control methods, because the former is
ecofriendly, non-toxic, naturally occurring microorganisms, and their application is sustainable not
only for the environment but also to the human health. Another advantage of PGPB as biocontrol
agent is the mode of action against the pathogens or the diseases, which also helps in the
enhancement of crop growth and yield.
Keywords: Biocontrol, tomato, plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB), disease management
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VI-26
Scenario of cotton diseases under sustainable agriculture
Rambabu Dasi, L.Nongdrenkhomba Singh, Bireswar Sinha and Ph. Sobita Devi
Department Of Plant Pathology, College Of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal – 795001
Corresponding author email: ramtherocy@gmail.com
Cotton is the one of major commercial crops grown in India and cultivated in about 117 lakh
hectres. India accounts 37.5 % of global cotton area and 26% of total cotton production of the
world. Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in boll, or protective capsule around the seeds of
cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. Cotton is the king of fibres, usually referred as white gold.
Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes annually. In India, cotton
diseases like root rot, the wilt, bacterial blight and the anthracnose cause a heavy losses. • The losses
due to diseases is estimated to 10.4% cotton lint. The storage of cotton seed is likely to get heated
and deteriorate in quality by the attack of micro- organisms. Under warm and humid conditions of
storage, cotton fibres are liable to be attacked by fungi and bacteria. global distribution of black arm
of cotton is the major cotton disease in present situation of india. Water soaked circular or irregular
lesions on cotyledons which spread to petiole and stem and finally withering and death of seedling
known as seedling blight. Small, dark green, water soaked areas develop on lower surface of leaves,
enlarge gradually and become angular when restricted by veins and veinlets and spots are visible on
both the surface of the leaves ( Angular leaf spot) are the symptoms. The infection of veins and
veinlets shows blackening with crinkled and twisted leaves and bacterial oozing (Vein necrosis or
vein blighting). Black lesions on stem and branches, pre-mature drooping of the leaves resulting in
die-back known as black arm. It also affects the bolls causing boll rot. The bacterium is a short rod
with a single polar flagellum. It is gram negative, Non-spore forming and measures 1.0-1.2×0.7-
0.9µm. The bacterium is aerobic, capsule forming and produces yellow colonies in culture medium.
Optimum soil temperature of 28°C. High atmospheric temperature of 30-40°C. Relative humidity of
85%. Early sowing, delayed thinning, poor tillage, late irrigation and potassium deficiency in soil.
Rain followed by bright sunshine during the months of October and November are highly
favourable. Follow cultural practices like crop rotation with non host crops. Early thinning and early
earthing up with potash. Grow resistant varieties like Sujatha, 1412, CRH71, HG-9, BJA 592, G-
7and HS-6. Suvin is tolerant.
Keywords: Cotton, Angular leaf spot, Blight, Xanthomonas, Bacteria,cultural practices
VI-27
Post-harvest loss and management practices of agricultural produce in North East India
Sorokhaibam Bijayalakshmi Devi and M M Shulee Ariina
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture
Central Agricultural University, Imphal
Corresponding author email: bijusorok8@gmail.com
As compared to the National average of 30% loss, North Eastern Region accounted for 45%
of post harvest losses in agriculture commodities to the tune of more than Rs 92,600 crores. This can
be accounted with the poor road connectivity, irregular power supply, unavailability of cold storage
facilities and poor value addition. Although North Eastern region produces only 1.5% of country‘s
food grain, minimal oil seeds and continues to be net importer for domestic consumption, the region
is also known for its high and quality horticulture produces. Cereal grains contributed the highest loss
in storage (50%-60%). Use of scientific storage method can reduce the loss to as low as 1%-2%.
Reduction in the losses of this food waste will help tremendously in ensuring food security and
accomplish our Prime Minister‘s vision of ―Doubling the farmer‘s income‖.
Keywords: Agriculture, cold storage, horticulture, cereals, food securit.
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Directorate of Extension Education
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Imphal, Manipur-795004
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VI-28
Phosphine as an alternative to methyl bromide for management of coffee berry borer,
Hypothenemus hampei
(Ferrari, 1867)
Ramya, R.S1, Navik Omprakash Samodhi1, and Sumitra Arora2
1ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Post Bag No. 2491, H. A. Farm Post, Bellary Road,
Hebbal, Bengaluru 560 024.
2ICAR-National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, Pusa Campus, New Delhi 110 012.
Corresponding author email: ramya.ento@gmail.com
The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari, 1867) (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae: Scolytinae), is the most important pest of coffee worldwide, with damage exceeding
US$500 million annually. Green coffee used in blending and roasting is traded between countries and
may be subjected to fumigation with fumigants such as methyl bromide for disinfestation of CBB.
However, honouring Montreal Protocol, several countries are exploring alternatives for methyl
bromide for its application in quarantine and pre-shipment treatment of agricultural produce. Our
aim was to explore the utility of phosphine as an alternative for methyl bromide by testing its efficacy
against various life stages of coffee berry borer. Phosphine gas was generated in the laboratory using
the FAO approved protocol of submerging commercially available solid formulations of aluminium
phosphide (eg. 3 g tablet) in a 5 per cent solution of sulphuric acid underneath a collection tube. The
phosphine bio-assays experiments were conducted in glass desiccators annexed with a tube for
injection of gas, along with inlet and outlet tubes for gas monitoring. Life stages of CBB, viz. larvae,
pupae and adults were subjected to phosphine bioassay with different concentrations and three
exposure periods of 24 hours, 48 hours and 72 hours. Bioassay data was analysed for estimation of
LC50 values using log-dose probit analysis. The experimental results revealed that coffee berry borer
is susceptible to phosphine. More than 90% mortality was observed with 0.2 mg/L of phosphine
under lab bio-assay experimental studies. The LC50 values of phosphine were observed in the range
of 0.019-0.021 mg/L against larval, pupal and adult stages of the coffee berry borer. Hence,
phosphine is observed to be effective against all the tested stages of H. hampei. It was also learned
that the LC50 and LC90 values tend to decrease with increased exposure periods, which underscores
the importance of extended exposure periods than increased doses for better management of stored
grain pests including CBB using phosphine. We could also understand the order of susceptibility of
life stages to phosphine, which was larvae> adult> pupae. This can be attributed to the reduced
respiratory rates in pupae which led to reduced intake of phosphine, which is a fumigant.
Keywords: Phosphine, methyl bromide, management, coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei
VI-29
Effect of ready mix formulation of sulfosulfuron and metsulfuron-methyl and different
irrigation levels on weeds, microbial population, yield and yield attributes of wheat
Kumar, Yogandra, Singh V.P. and Kumar, Piyush
College of Agriculture
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana
Corresponding author email: narwal_y@rediffmail.com
The present study was conducted during winter season at the Agronomy Research Area of
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (India) on the ―Effect of ready mix
formulation of sulfosulfuron and metsulfuron-methyl and different irrigation levels on weeds,
microbial population, yield and yield attributes of wheat‖. The experiment was conducted in
split-plot design with four replications. Different water regimes were treatment in main plot and
herbicides were applied in sub plot. The experimental field was dominated by Phalaris minor, Melilotus
indica, Rumex retroflexus, Anagallis arvensis, Lathyrus abhaca and Chenopodium album during both the years.
The density of different weed species increased significantly under three and four irrigations
compared to two irrigations. Different levels of irrigation significantly increased the dry weight of
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Phalaris minor and broad leaf weeds. Maximum dry matter was observed under four irrigations.
Application of sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron-methyl reduced the dry matter accumulation of all the
weeds; when applied @ 40g ha-1 at 60 DAS during both the years. Application of four irrigations
significantly increased the plant height and dry matter accumulation in wheat compared to two
irrigations. The yield attributes of wheat under four irrigations were significantly superior than that
recorded under two irrigation levels. Various yield attributes of wheat viz., number of spikes, spike
length, number of grains per spike and 1000 grain weight were significantly higher under
sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron-methyl when applied @ 40g ha-1 as compared to weedy check.
Maximum grain (5509 kg ha-1 in 2005-06 and 5674 kg ha-1 in 2006-07) and straw (6943 kg ha-1 in
2005-06 and 7097 kg ha-1 in 2006-07) yields were obtained under the treatment of 40 g ha-1 of
sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron-methyl. With the increase in dose of herbicide, different soil microbial
population was adversely affected (total bacteria, fungi and Azotobacter). However, its adverse effects
were nullified with harvest of wheat crop. From the present studies, it can be concluded that
sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron-methyl can be applied @ 40 g ha-1 for excellent control of complex
weed flora in wheat.
Keywords: Sulfosulfuron + metsufluron, irrigation, weeds, microbial population
VI-30
Effect of different soil types on the persistence of ready mix formulation of sulfosulfuron and
metsulfuron–methyl in crop Maize (Zea Mays) and Sorghum (Sorghum Vulgare)
Kumar, Yogandra, Singh V.P. and Kumar, Piyush
College of Agriculture
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana
Corresponding author email: narwal_y@rediffmail.com
The present study on ―the persistence of ready mix formulation of sulfosulfuron and metsulfuron–
methyl in crop Maize (Zea Mays) and Sorghum (Sorghum Vulgare)‖ was conducted during winter
season at the Agronomy Research Area of Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University,
Hisar (India). To generate any sound and viable herbicidal recommendation for effective weed
management in a crop, it is very important to study the residual impact of that herbicide on
succeeding crops in the rotation. Sulfosulfuron and metsulfuron-methyl @ 20, 40 and 80 g ha-1 was
applied in wheat (var. WH 711) as sub-plots at 35 days after sowing (DAS) along with 2, 3 and 4
irrigation levels as main-plot treatments. The experiment was conducted in split-plot design with four
replications. After 150 days of its application, succeeding maize crop was sown after wheat harvest
keeping the original layout undisturbed. The growth indices viz., dry weight of shoot per plant and
shoot length of maize decreased as the sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron-methyl concentration increased
from 0 to 80 g ha-1. Both these parameters increased with increase in incubation period. In acid soil,
dry weight of shoot per plant was more than that recorded in alkaline soil at each concentration of
sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron-methyl. The mean value showed that acidic soil produced 14 per cent
more dry weight of shoot as compared to alkaline soil. As evident from mean values, the
phytotoxicity decreased significantly with corresponding increase in incubation period, and the
phytotoxicity decreased from 65 to 47 percent as incubation period increased from 0 to 160 days.
Alkaline soil exhibited higher phytotoxicity in maize than that in acidic soil. Visual phytotoxicity
increased with increase in sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron-methyl concentration and decreased with
increase in incubation period in both types of soil. Visual toxicity was more in sandy soil as compared
to clay loam. Various growth parameters of maize viz. dry weight of shoot per plant decreased
significantly as sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron-methyl concentration increased from 0 to 80 g ha-1.
Whereas, all parameters increased significantly as incubation period increased from 0 to 160 days in
both soil types. So on the basis of above it was ravelled from present study that different levels of
sulfosulfuron and metsulfuron-methyl and irrigations applied in wheat had residual harmful effects
on succeeding maize crop. With the increase in dose of herbicide, there was corresponding increase
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in harmful effects on soil microbial population (total bacteria, fungi and Azotobacter).The persistence
of sulfosulfuron and metsulfuron was found to be positively correlated with temperature and
negatively with soil pH. Residual impact of herbicide on maize was more in sandy soil than in clay
loam soil. So it recommended from the present study that Maize should not be planted in rotation
with wheat where sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron-methyl have been applied to wheat.
Keywords: Herbicide, weed, phytotoxicity, microbs, maize, sorghum
VII-31
Controlling insect pest through soil management
Hiren Das, N. Surbala Devi, Nakeertha Venu and T. Sanahanbi Devi
Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry
College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur-795004
Corresponding author email: thehirendas@gmail.com
Plant resistance to insect and disease pests is linked to optimal physical, chemical, and
perhaps most importantly biological properties of soil. In organic farming, enhancement of soil
fertility is accomplished through crop rotation, cover cropping, and the application of plant and
animal materials. This review article addresses some of the main elements of soil management that
can help to reduce insect pest problems, including soil and fertility management, use of mulches, and
sanitation. Healthy, vigorous plants that grow quickly are better able to withstand pest damage.
However, over-fertilizing crops can actually increase pest problems. The chemical aspects of soils
(pH, salt content, availability of nutrients, etc.) can affect crop health and pest susceptibility. There
are several strategies for improving soil health. In general, the focus should be on increasing soil
organic matter to improve soil structure and to provide food for soil microbes that in turn make
nutrients available to plants. Tillage can be beneficial because it disrupts the life cycle of insect pests
and can expose pests to predators and the elements. Fall tillage can destroy crop debris that serves as
over wintering sites for flea beetles, corn borers, squash bugs, and other insect pests. Mulches, both
organic and synthetic, can help reduce insect pest problems. Plastic mulch is often used to speed
early season crop growth that makes plants better able to tolerate insect feeding. Reflective mulch
repels thrips and aphids and can reduce the incidence of insect transmitted virus diseases in vegetable
crops. Sanitation measures can be used to help prevent the introduction of pests onto the farm, to
prevent the movement of pests within the farm, and to remove overwintering or breeding sites for
pests on the farm.
Keywords: Sanitisation, organic farming, soil management, insects and mulches
VI-32
Bio-efficacy of insecticides for management of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) on
maize (Zea mays L.)
K.C. Ahir, M.K. Mahla, Lekha, H. Swami and A. Kumar
Department of Entomology, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan
313001, India
Corresponding author email: kcahirento@gmail.com
Bio-efficacy of insecticides viz., spinosad 45 SC, emamectin benzoate 5 SG, thiodicarb 75
WP, chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC, azadirachtin 10000 ppm, Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana
was evaluated against fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda on maize at Agronomy farm, Rajasthan
College of Agriculture, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur,
Rajasthan during Kharif 2019 and 2020. The result revealed that three sprays of chlorantraniliprole
18.5 SC was found most effective against S. frugiperda with maximum reduction of larval population,
lowest plant damage (%), lowest leaf damage (%), lowest cob damage (%) and highest grain yield.
However, the maximum incremental benefit cost ratio was obtained from three sprays of emamectin
benzoate 5 SG.
Keywords: Bio-efficacy, newer insecticides, maize, Spodoptera frugiperda
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VI-33
Bioefficacy of neonicotinoid insecticides against sucking insect-pests of brinjal
H S Randhawa and Vivek Pandey
PAU Regional Research Station Gurdaspur
Corresponding author eail: harpals_randhawa@pau.edu
Sucking pests i.e. whitefly (Bemesia tabaci) and jassid (Amrasca bigutullabigutulla) causing
significant loss brinjal crop directly by sucking cell sap and indirectly transmitting viral diseases. The
continuous use of synthetic insecticides leads to development of resistance and residue problem.
However, Neonicotinoids insecticides have broad spectrum, good translaminar properties and long
systemic activity (Kodandaram et al., 2010). Therefore, present investigation was formulated for
efficacy of selected neonicotinoid insecticides on whitefly and jassid in brinjal. The crop nursery was
transplanted in second week of August during 2017 and 2018. The insecticides viz. Diafenthiron 50
WP @ 400, 500, 600 g; Thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 100, 150, 200 g and Malathion 50 EC @ 625 ml
per hectare were evaluated against test insects. The pest population was recorded from top, middle
and bottom leaves of randomly marked selected 5 plants. Pooled mean data revealed that least count
of whitefly was observed with Thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 200 g (2.34/plant) andwas non-significant
with other treatments but significant with Malathion 50 EC @ 625 ml (5.75/plant). Similarly, least
jassid population was recorded with Diafenthiron 50 WP @ 600 g (1.82/plant) and it was at par with
other treatments except Malathion 50 EC @ 625 ml.. The tested insecticides were also found safest
to predators (spider and coccinelid) of insect-pests. The vegetable growers can make alternative spray
of tested insecticides for management of sucking pests of brinjal.
Keyword: Bioefficacy, neonicotinoid insecticides, sucking insect-pests, brinjal
VI-34
Rapid detection of citrus gummosis by using recombinase polymerase amplification
Sumitra Phurailatpam1, Susheel Kumar Sharma2, Ngathem Taibangnganbi Chanu3, Stina
Khumukcham1 and Gayatri Khangjarakapam1
MTTC & VTC, College of Agriculture, Iroisemba, Central Agricultural University, Imphal-795004
ICAR, Research Complex for NEH, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal-795004
MTTC & VTC, College of Horticulture and Forestry, (Central Agricultural University, Imphal) Pashighat, AP-
791102
Corresponding author email: sumitrapathology@gmail.com
Citrus grow vigorously in Manipur as cultivated, semi wild and wild forms, with the greatest
diversity being maintained in home yard. Citrus grown in NE India is known to be affected by many
plant pathogens of which few are having economic importance. Among the major diseases of citrus,
gummosis caused by Phytophthora species is one of the major constraints to citrus production in
Manipur. Currently, citrus gummosis is detected in different ways, including isolation on selective
media, immune-detection assays, ELISA, conventional polymerase chain reaction, and real-time PCR
assays. Recently, recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA), an isothermal amplification
technique, has been developed for the detection of many plant pathogens including fungi. To
develop rapid, robust, and accurate diagnostic methods for the detection of Phytophthora spp.
causing citrus gummosis in Manipur. We modified RPA assays to reduce expense and compared
these with RPA assays using manufacture‘s protocols. We again compared RPA with PCR regarding
sensitivity, specificity and field applications in the detection of citrus gummosis, a rapid and robust
RPA assay for the detection of the Phytophthora infecting Citrus with minimal sample preparation
requirements was developed and showed good specificity and sensitivity of this assay. Overall, this
method has demonstrated to be a promising alternative to the conventional PCR in current general
use and has the potential to be used in identification facilities to assist in the rapid diagnosis of
disease-free planting material.
Keywords: RPA; Citrus; Phytophthora
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Theme-VII
Priorities of plant protection
services of KVKs and social
networking in ensuring food
and nutritional security
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LVII-1
Priorities of plant protection services of KVKs and social networking in ensuring food and
nutritional security
M. Pratheepa1*, N. Bakthavatsalam1, S.M. Haldhar2
1 ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru – 560 024
2College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal
Corresponding author email: mpratheepa.nbaii@gmail.com
The world population predominantly increasing day by day and it may reach 10 billion by
2050. The additional population by 2050 will be 4.3 billion in developing countries and which will be
three-fourths of the global population in the world. The demand of food production is likely to be
doubled in comparison with present situation. Therefore, it is necessary to produce enough food to
meet everyone‘s hunger adequately, and hence, agriculture plays an important role on it. India ranks
second in the world in farm production and agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. There is
a huge loss on major agricultural crops mainly due to insect pests, diseases and weeds and the
estimated crop loss is around US$ 36 billion in India in post green revolution era. Adaption of new
technologies in the farmer‘s field is major concern to increase the crop yield to meet the food
requirement for increasing population. Dissemination of knowledge to the farmers is essential and
Krishi Vigyan Kendras in India are playing a major role to transfer the technologies to the farmer‘s
field. Dissemination of crop protection technologies through KVKs will ensure increase in crop
productivity, reduction in crop losses, use of appropriate ecofriendly technologies with consequent
reduction in pesticide use and assurance of water, soil, human and animal health. Impact assessment
on the adoption of technologies, their spread and improvement of farmer‘s skills needs regular
updation. Social networking for the benefit of farmers to promote and prioritization of the plant
protections services with the help of Krishi Vigyan Kendras in India is imminent for the uptake of
these technologies.
Keywords: Food security, nutrition security, technology transfer, knowledge network, social network
Introduction
Crop protection is the science and practice of managing plant diseases, weeds and other pests
that damage agricultural crops and forestry. The world population predominantly increasing day by
day and it may reach 10 billion by 2050 (Singh, 2005). The additional population by 2050 will be 4.3
billion in developing countries and which will be three-fourths of the global population in the world.
The demand of food production is likely to be doubled in comparison with present situation.
Therefore, it is necessary to produce enough food to meet everyone‘s hunger adequately, and hence,
agriculture plays an important role on it. India ranks second in the world in farm production and
agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy (Pratheepa and Cruz Antony, 2018). There is a huge
loss on major agricultural crops mainly due to insect pests, diseases and weeds (Singh 2005; Kumar
and Parikh 1998) and the estimated crop loss is around US$ 36 billion in India in post green
revolution era (Dhaliwal et al. 2015). Several advanced technologies developed in the field of crop
protection. Adaption of new technologies in the farmer‘s field is major concern to increase the crop
yield to meet the food requirement for increasing population. Dissemination of knowledge to the
farmers is essential and Krishi Vigyan Kendras in India are playing a major role to transfer the
technologies to the farmer‘s field. There are several aspects in crop protection are to be addressed
like food security, nutrition security, soil health, agro marketing, seeds availability, etc. Therefore, this
review aimed at to discuss about the social networking for the benefit of farmers to promote and
prioritize the plant protections services with the help of Krishi Vigyan Kendras in India.
In 2016, the government of India launched a number of programs to double the farmers‘
income by 2022. They include, National Food Security Mission, Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
(RKVY-RAFTAAR), the Integrated Schemes on Oilseeds, Pulses, Palm oil and Maize (ISOPOM),
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana and e-market. (https://in.one.un.org/un-priority-areas-in-
india/nutrition-and-food-security/). These programs largely helped the farming community, for
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application of bio-pesticides, bio-fertilizers, weedicides and usage of farm machineries, cultivation of
target crops based on demand, etc.
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana – Remunerative Approaches for Agriculture and Allied
Sectors Rejuvenation (RKVY-RAFTAAR) is a unique scheme of Government of India, Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers‘ Welfare (MoA&FW). It is aimed at strengthening infrastructure in
Agriculture and Allied sectors to achieve 4% annual growth, with the promotion of Agri-
entrepreneurship and Agribusiness by facilitating financial aid and nurturing a system of business
incubation (https://rkvy.nic.in/static/index.html). ―ISOPOM‖, is a scheme to Encourage Small and
Marginal farmers for growing Pulses, Maize and Oilseeds. To increase production
of oilseeds including soya bean in the country, the Government is implementing a Centrally
Sponsored Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPOM) in 14
major oilseeds growing States to accelerate the production of vegetable oils. The Pradhan Mantri
Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) launched an insurance service to protect the farmers from their crop
loss. The e-Market platform, i.e., the National Agriculture Market (NAM) launched recently, which
can help the farmers to sell their farm produce via internet. This plays greater role in changing the
scenario in agribusiness industry. A Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) is an agricultural extension center
in India. The main purpose of KVKs is conveying the schemes and benefits to the farmers
practically. KVKs act as knowledge and resource centre, for agricultural technology and supports to
implement the government initiatives and schemes for sustainable food and nutrition security in the
country.
Food security
The National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013, aims to ensure food and nutrition security by
launching several schemes and programmes, making access to food a legal right for an individual
(https://in.one.un.org/un-priority-areas-in-india/nutrition-and-food-security/). The four pillars of
food security are availability, access, utilization and stability. According to United Nation‘s statement
on ―Food Security‖, it is a measure of the availability of food and individual‘s ability to access it
which means that all people can access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food at all times to lead an
active and healthy life (http://www.fao.org/3/a-k7197e.pdf). Hence, the individual feels food secure
and do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. India has made prompt pace in improving rates of
under- and malnutrition with decline of stunting growth from 48% to 38% in children below five
years between 2006 and 2016. Yet, India continues to tackle the child undernutrition rates, impacting
the child‘s health and development, performance in school and productivity in adult life.
Nutritional security
Food security is defined as the availability and the access of food to all people; whereas
nutrition security demands the intake of a wide range of foods which provides the essential needed
nutrients (Venugopal, 1999). It is estimated that the average dietary intake in India is 2280 calories. In
9 major states, the average was less than 2400 calories, suggesting poverty. Article 47 of the
Constitution of India states that, ―the State shall regard raising the level of nutrition and standard of
living of its people and improvement in public health among its primary duties‖. The government
has also taken significant steps to combat the nutritional security by implementation of mid-day
meals at schools and anganwadi systems (http://mdm.nic.in/mdm_website/) to provide rations to
pregnant and lactating mothers and subsidized grain for those living below the poverty line through a
public distribution system (http://epds.nic.in/). Nutrition supplement programs carried out through
Anganwadi centres in rural areas. Recognizing that agriculture is the key for food security and
nutrition security, it is a major concern in maintaining the soil health and to promote the biological
control measures in insect pest management to increase the crop yield.
Soil health
Soil health day is celebrated on every year February 19 from 2015 onwards in our country
and it is essentially required to maintain the soil health and soil fertility for crop production. Soil
Health Card (SHC) scheme has been introduced in the year 2015 by Government of India and every
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two years soil health card has been issued to the farmers through KVK‘s to address nutritional
deficiencies in fertilization practices and hence soil testing reduces cultivation cost by application of
right quantity of fertilizer. This program is to be continued for further years to promote sustainable
agriculture.
Seeds availability
Seed is the basic and most critical input for sustainable agriculture. World Bank aided
National Seeds Programme was launched in three phases by Government of India during Phase-I
(1977-78), Phase-II (1978-79) and Phase-III (1990-1991) respectively. Thrust areas have been
identified and several national seeds policy have been derived in which, plant variety protection, seed
production, quality assurance and seed distribution and marketing are the key elements. Over the
years, seed quality specifications comparable to international standards have been evolved and are
adopted by the Indian Seed Programme in both the public and private sectors. The Indian Seed
Programme is now occupying a pivotal place in Indian agriculture and is well poised for continued
growth in the years to come with involvement of public and private sectors.
(https://seednet.gov.in/material/IndianSeedSector.htm). KVK plays major role in training the
farmers in seed production techniques for quality seeds on several important crops. KVK from
Trichirappalli, took up the venture in and around the villages, with the concept, ‗Developing Seed
Villages‘ in Rice, Pulses and Oilseeds and presently the farmers were equipped in quality seed
production for Rice, Blackgram and Sesame crops.
Agri-marketing (farm produce)
Agricultural marketing covers the services involved in moving an agricultural product from
the farm t the consumer. These services involve the planning, organizing, directing and handling of
agricultural produce in such a way as to satisfy the farmers, intermediaries and consumers. Numerous
interconnected activities are involved in doing this, such as plannig production, growing
and harvesting, grading, packing and packaging, transport, storage, food processing, provision
of market information, distribution, advertising and sale. Effectively, the term encompasses the entire
range of supply chain operations for agricultural products, whether conducted through ad hoc sales or
through a more integrated chain, such as one involving contract farming. There are several instances
of distress sale by farmers, even though consumers are paying abnormally high price for agricultural
commodities. Infrastructure and adequate marketing support should be provided so that farmers not
only get the best return for produce, but also able to get a higher share in consumer spending.
(https://sites.google.com/site/dasprojectconsultant/home/ami)
Role of KVK in agriculture development
KVK, is an integral part of the National Agricultural Research System (NARS), aims at
assessment of location specific technology modules in agriculture and allied enterprises, through
technology assessment, refinement and demonstrations. KVKs have been functioning as Knowledge
and Resource Centre of agricultural technology supporting initiatives of public, private and voluntary
sector for improving the agricultural economy of the district and are linking the NARS with
extension system and farmers. There are totally 686 KVKs are functioning under various bodies like
State agricultural universities, ICAR Institutes, NGOs, etc.( https://www.agademy.in/2019/02/role-
of-kvk-in-agriculture-extension/). The mandates of KVKs are Technology Assessment and
Demonstration, Application, Capacity Development, Knowledge resource centre and to provide
farm advisories by using Information Communication Technologies. Dissemination of knowledge
and methods related with novel technologies in agriculture like selection of transgenic crops for
higher yield, selection of quality seed, application of biopesticides instead of spraying pesticides,
adoption of biological control methods for pest and disease management are important in the
current scenario. There are several phases to transfer the technology from laboratories to the field
such as development of new technologies, testing in field conditions, transfer the technology in the
farming field, recommendation of the new technologies to the farmers.
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Hands on training for formulations of biopesticides, mass production techniques,
demonstration of releasing of biocontrol agents in the fields are help the farmers to easily adopt the
new technologies in IPM. Forming a farmer‘s group in the villages helps to motivate them to
practice the new technologies. A number of socio-economic, psychological, institutional and
technological factors determine the farmers to participate in collective action (Singh and Gupta,
2016). Collective approach plays a vital role for the implementation of new technologies in IPM
successfully. The willingness of the farmers is very important and it is the duty of NGO‘s, State
departments to motivate the farmers to adopt the new technologies. There is a perception that
biological pest control often takes longer time to control pests than chemical pest control and
frequently reduces a pest population to a low level rather than eliminating it completely. Hence, it is
the duty of extension workers and researchers to develop confidence and assurance in the farmer‘s
mind about the biological control methods through various programs for knowledge dissemination.
In addition, KVKs produce quality technological products (seed, planting material, bio-agents,
livestock) and make it available to farmers, organize frontline extension activities, identify and
document selected farm innovations and converge with ongoing schemes and programs within the
mandate of KVK.
Fig. 1. The Network of KVK with Farmers
Social and Knowledge Network
Knowledge networks and social networks are the drivers of information sharing and they
play an important role in diffusion of technology and related knowledge (Mittal, et al., 2015). As we
know, KVKs are act as knowledge resource centre for the farmers, it is very much essential for
knowledge creation in the several forms like knowledge sharing by farmer‘s groups, web portals,
bulletins, books, whatsapp group among the farmers, mobile applications related with agriculture,
etc. KVK knowledge Network portal is available at http://kvk.icar.gov.in, which provides basic
information and facilities of KVK, District agricultural contingency plan, upcoming, ongoing and
past evens organized by KVKs, Package of practices related to Crop, Horticulture and other
enterprises, access to Agro meteorological advisory and Agricultural commodity market prices to
farming community. The portal facilitates KVKs to update and upload all types of information so
that the related information and knowledge can reach to the farming community in time. A KVK
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Mobile App for farmers has also been developed for Android users and is available in Google Play
Store. Farmers need to register and select concerned KVK in the App for accessing information.
Farmers can ask any farm related query to the experts of KVKs for solution. KVK App gives details
about Facilities, package of practices, Send Query, Upcoming Event, Past Event, Weather Advisory,
Market and Advisory for package of practices. Package of practices are important for the farmers to
know about the recommendations and this KVK app includes Horticulture, Fisheries, Crop and
Livestock. ‗Market‘ icon redirects you to the eNAM website where you can get market price of
agricultural commodities. CaneInfo web site gives all details about sugarcane crop and it is available
at https://caneinfo.icar.gov.in/. The other Mobile App available in KVK portal are Nematode Info
to get Nematode details, ANGRAU-PASHU POSHAN, IVRI-Pashu Prajanan (Animal
Reproduction), IVRI-Shukar Palan (Pig Farming), IVRI-Vaccination Guide, IVRI-Dairy Manager
App, IVRI-Pig Ration and IVRI-Waste Management Guide App, etc. Digital Resources like Expert
system on Roghu, Maize etc. and design of Micro irrigation system are available as Digital Resources
at (https://icar.org.in/content/technologies-and-knowledge-resources).
KIRAN (Knowledge Innovation Repository of Agriculture in the North East) is a user
platform developed by ICAR Research Complex, Barapani to provide knowledge about technologies,
products, innovative approaches and solutions in the field of agriculture and it is available at
http://www.kiran.nic.in/. Several Mobile Apps developed like CashewIndia, Buffalo Nutrition, Farm
Tree, CIFTraining, Arka Bagwani, Avimitra, etc. are developed in the field of agriculture and the list
and links have been accessible at https://icar.org.in/mobile-apps. National Agriculture Market or
eNAM is an online trading platform for agricultural commodities in India and it is accessible at
https://enam.gov.in/web/. The is e-market and it facilitates farmers, traders and buyers with online
trading in commodities and helping to fix better price for their marketing produce. All Agricultural
Produce Market Committees (APMC) in India are linked through this portal for agricultural
commodities. Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC) is the lead agency for implementing
eNAM under the aegis of Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers‘ Welfare, Government of India. This
e-Market helps to make uniformity in agriculture marketing by standardizing the procedures across
integrated markets between sellers and buyers to promote the real time price discovery based on
actual demand and supply. It is essentially required to convey about the benefits of e-NAM to the
farmers and farmer committees throughout India via KVKs.
Social and Knowledge networks
Knowledge networks and social networks are the drivers of information sharing and they
play an important role in diffusion of technology and related knowledge (Mittal et al., 2015). Social
network is been formulated village level among the farmers group. Mapping of social and knowledge
networks (SKN) and understanding their role in the system is an important strategy to promote
wider dissemination of technologies in IPM and application. To understand the farmer‘s network,
case study has been carried out by Mittal, et al., discussed about the benefits of formation of social
group in the village level and link to hierarchy of agriculture officers up to state level in
implementation of agricultural technologies. In this group progressive farmers have been identified in
the village level. The social network contains district agricultural officers, block agricultural officers,
agricultural coordinators, KVK project coordinators, service providers, progressive farmers, input
dealers, NGOs and research institutions, representatives from panchayat, women groups, and
farmers‘ cooperative. The link goes from village level to the state capital level. According to
Goswami and Basu (2011), the influence of individual‘s position like progressive farmer within the
social network helps to accept the new innovation knowledge among the farmer‘s group. The key
actors like progressive farmers, themselves play an important role in either creating a new
information that is important for farmers in their agricultural activity or/ and also play an important
role in transmitting the important information and knowledge about different aspects of agriculture
and farming to farmers. These key actors are identified at state level, district level, block level and
village level so as to have a right mix of creators and intermediaries of information in our pool. The
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key persons in the network are connected to each other and thus play multiple roles - of creating,
transmitting and utilizing information.
At the village level progressive farmers who sometimes are also service providers (farmers
who own farm machinery and offer custom hire services to adjoining farmers) form informal
network with farmers for sharing information. Service providers and progressive farmers form the
second largest group because of their higher involvement in the whole network. They are the most
crucial intermediary linkages between government and farmers. Progressive farmer helps to build up
the knowledge network among the farmers. Krishi Mela is a national initiative celebrated every year
with agricultural theme like ―Turn green waste into cooking gas‖, etc. and helps to build up the social
network of the farmers. Other than that, the Television program, Radio talk, Newspaper, Kishan call
centres and Mobile phone based services are important platform to address the farmer‘s issues
according to the scenario. Agricultural extension workers should identify the poor/weak farmers
with less facility and to encourage and motivate them in farming activities. Women in villages are
involved in farming activities other than the household tasks, agricultural operation and animal
husbandry activities. Their participations are very much distinct in raising of seedlings, intercultural
operation, weeding, harvesting and postharvest value addition activities. Some of the trainings are
specially designed for the women so that they can earn and sustain their family through remunerative
enterprise like vermi compost, kitchen garden, tailoring, fabric, preservation of fruits and
vegetable/nursery, floriculture, pisiculture ornamental fish etc. The KVKs have got clear cut themes
for upgradation of farmwomen in term of capacity building through training and senitization
programs.
Future plan required
KVK programmes will be problem oriented and field oriented with follow-up measures.
―Learning by doing‖ the motto of KVK is always kept in mind while giving training. It gives direct
bearing on our agricultural productivity. The training programmes further intend to cover backward
areas, weaker sections and tribes, hill farmers on priority basis. Rural women can play a significant
role by their effectual and competent involvement in entrepreneurial activities. So, the training
programme must promote critical analysis in women and encourage them to think independently and
challenge unequal gender relations and exploitation. The resources allotted are extremely scanty but
the assignments attempted by KVK were countless. The community development programs in
agriculture and allied sectors are essential, especially in implementing the agricultural technologies.
Conclusion
Dissemination of knowledge to the farmers is essential and Krishi Vigyan Kendras in India
are playing a major role to transfer the technologies to the farmer‘s field. Dissemination of crop
protection technologies through KVKs will ensure increase in crop productivity, reduction in crop
losses, use of appropriate ecofriendly technologies with consequent reduction in pesticide use and
assurance of water, soil, human and animal health. Knowledge network related with agricultural
technologies and practices are needed for food and nutrition security. Social network is required for
knowledge dissemination and implementation. Hence, the focus is to be given for priorities of
building the social network from the farmers to high-level authority for technology implementation.
Both knowledge network and social network team up together and Krishi Vigyan Kendras are the
driving force for uplifting of the farmers, and to help increase in crop production for sustainable
agriculture.
References
Dhaliwal GS, Jindal V, Mohindru B. 2015. Crop losses due to insect pests: global and Indian
scenario. Indian Journal of Entomology 77(2):165–168. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-
8172.2015.00033.4
Goswami Rupak, Basu Debabrata. 2011. Influence of Information Networks on Farmer‘s Decision-
Making in West Bengal, Indian Research Journal of Extension Education, 11:50-58.
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Kumar KS, Parikh J. 1998. Climate change impacts on Indian agriculture: the Ricardian approach. In:
Dinar A, Mendelsohn R, Evenson R, Parikh J, Sangi A, Kumar K, Mckinse J, Lonergan S
(eds) Measuring the impact of climate change on Indian agriculture, World Bank Technical
Paper, 402. World Bank, Washington, DC.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/793381468756570727/Measuring-the-impact-
of-climate-change-on-Indian-agriculture
Mittal Surabi, Subash S.P., Anurag Ajay, Anurag Kumar. 2015. Understanding the knowledge and
social networks in India – Case study of Bihar. 29th International conference of Agricultural
Economists, Milan, Italy.
Singh NB. 2005. Helicoverpa menace in the Indian subcontinent. In: Heliothis/Helicoverpa management
– emerging trends and strategies for future research. pp 39–43.
Pratheepa M and Cruz Antony J. 2018. Outlook of various soft computing data preprocessing
techniques to study the pest population dynamics in integrated pest management, In: Purohit
H., Kalia V., More R. (eds) Soft Computing for Biological Systems. Springer, Singapore
Venugopal, K.R. 1999. Food security vs. Nutrition security, Health Millions. Mar-Apr, 25(2): 18-9,
PMID: 12295422.
Government of India launched a number of programs - https://in.one.un.org/un-priority-areas-in-
india/nutrition-and-food-security/
Food a legal right for an individual - https://in.one.un.org/un-priority-areas-in-india/nutrition-and-
food-security/
Definition of food security - Committee on World Food Security (CFS), ―Reform of the Committee
on World Food Security,‖ CFS:2009/2 Rev.2 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, 2009); http://www.fao.org/3/a-k7197e.pdf.
Mid-day meals at schools and anganwadi systems in India – http://mdm.nic.in/mdm_website/.
Public distribution system of grains - http://epds.nic.in/
Seed quality distribution system - https://seednet.gov.in/material/IndianSeedSector.htm
Das project consultants for Agri-Marketing
https://sites.google.com/site/dasprojectconsultant/home/ami
Role of KVK - https://www.agademy.in/2019/02/role-of-kvk-in-agriculture-extension/
KVK Knowledge Network Portal - http://kvk.icar.gov.in
CaneInfo web site for sugarcane crop - https://caneinfo.icar.gov.in
Technologies and Knowledge resources - https://icar.org.in/content/technologies-and-knowledge-
resources
Knowledge Innovation Repository of Agriculture in the North East - http://www.kiran.nic.in
Mobile Apps in ICAR Portal - https://icar.org.in/mobile-apps.
Details about National Agriculture Market - https://enam.gov.in/web/.
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LVII-2
Priorities of plant protection services of KVKs and social networking in ensuring food and
nutritional security
Badal Bhattacharyya, Nang Sena Manpoong, Partha Partim Gyanudoy Das, Elangbam Bidyarani
Devi and Sudhansu Bhagawati
All India Network Project on Soil Arthropod Pests, Department of Entomology, Assam Agricultural University,
Jorhat 785 013, Assam
Corresponding author email: badalassam@gmail.com
Abstract
With the changing diversified agricultural production systems concerning economic,
environmental and social issues, there is an urgent need to reorient present plant protection systems
with new vistas so as to stay away from the overreliance on chemocentric approaches to manage
pests and diseases. Reorientation of extension services by embracing more innovative methods to
identify farmer‘s problems and execution of problem-solving, demand-driven and need-based
agricultural extension programme is the need of the hour. KVK functionaries engaged in both plant
protection and production system can enhance the prominence of extension services, methodologies,
approaches and outcome for the greater benefits of the farming community by adopting ICT based
tools of social networking. This will led to the development of effective linkage and convergence of
KVK functionaries with the farmers and other stakeholders for the purpose of effective and
meaningful knowledge and resource sharing. The internet and social media penetration are likely to
increase substantially in near future in rural India because of affordable devices and cheap data plans
to harness sharing of agricultural knowledge and information to the farmers. Exploration of digital
technology and social media platforms could be one of the efficient ways to reach the farmers and
equip them with solid information in real time for taking farming related decisions. This innovative
approach would definitely play a great role in understanding changing pest scenario, invasion of
exotic pests, pests and disease forecasting, safe handlings of pesticide application equipments,
conservation of natural enemies, IPM & IDM strategies, policy decisions etc. along with instant
feedback mechanisms from farmers and other stakeholders.
Keywords: Priorities of plant protection, ICT, social media, social engineering
Agriculture is the most important sector of Indian economy and 41.49% of the country‘s
workforce are employed in agriculture. As per Second Advance Estimates for 2020-21, total food
grain production in the country is estimated at record of 303.34 million tonnes which is higher by
5.84 million tonnes than the production of food grain of 297.50 million tonnes achieved during
2019-20 (Anon., 2021). However, this sector is facing several challenges like global climate change,
mismatch of prices and production, failing to raise small holder productivity, unorganized markets,
improper international competitiveness, biotic and abiotic stresses etc. The world bank also
emphasised to meet those challenges for the country‘s overall development and welfare, mostly of its
rural people through raising agricultural productivity per unit of land, reducing rural poverty through
a socially inclusive strategy that comprises both agriculture as well as non-farm employment and
ensuring that agricultural growth responds to food security needs. Therefore, some priority areas like
enhancing agricultural productivity through competitiveness, poverty alleviation and community
actions along with sustainable development of the environment need to be focussed. For the suitable
agricultural development, agricultural extension agencies as well as their services must have to play a
more proactive and participatory role and serve as knowledge/information ―brokers‖, initiating and
facilitating mutually meaningful and equitable knowledge-based transactions among agricultural
researchers, trainers and primary producers (FAO, 2019). To achieve such goals, there is an urgent
need to embrace modern strategic planning and quality management tools as well as other holistic
innovative approaches in developing or restructuring present extension services in order to
disseminate appropriate agricultural technologies to the farmers and other stakeholders.
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Changing role of Krishi Vigyan Kendra in agriculture extension services and its convergence
KVK is an integral part of National Agricultural Research System (NARS) and has been playing a
pivotal role in transfer of technology to farmers since inception. Being recognized as the centres for
innovative vocational training institute, KVKs are taking initiatives for technology demonstration and
transfer at the door step by using various field extension and Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) based tools (Kumar et al., 2020). KVKs have been playing a major role in
transferring of technology from laboratory to farmers‘ field through Subject Matter Specialists
(SMSs), extension specialists, researchers, NGOs and other stakeholders. Specifically, the main role
of SMS (Plant Protection) is to provide/ organize training especially for small and marginal farmers
from time to time on various areas related to crop protection. Conducting On Farm Trials (OFTs),
Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) and Transfer of Technology (TOT) on crop protection activities
are some of the highlights of the various duties entrusted to them. They are also regularly
participating in showcasing of modern scientific technologies/ modules developed by the agricultural
scientists in farmers‘ mela, exhibitions, farmers-scientists interaction etc. as per the mandated
guidelines. With the boom in the information sector and equipped with modern day tools like the
World Wde Web (www) and cellular technology, farmers have also evolved accordingly to access
information from these sources. Information on pest forecast as recently seen during the locust
attack and fall army worm, coping up with climate change issues, proper handling of different
pesticides, use of modern pesticide application equipment, insect pests and disease diagnostics,
application of biocontrol agents, conservation of natural enemies, IPM modules are some of the
numerous instances that the modern day farmers have access due to the technology at their disposal.
This has become possible due to rise in social media usages and widespread positioning technology
in cellular networks in India.
Social media overview
Worldwide globalization boosts up the easy accessibility of services and connectivity among
the people and social media acts as catalyst in this field. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) defined social
media as ―a group of internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological
foundations of Web 2.0 and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content‖.
Worldwide connectivity, safe and ease of accessibility, option to share information, free advertising
and marketing features etc. made social media more popular among the people of different age
groups all over the world. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) classified social media according to ―social
presence/media richness‖ and ―self-presentation/self-disclosure‖ (Table 1). The highest score is
achieved by virtual game and social worlds in the first category i.e. social presence/media richness
where all dimension of face to face interaction is observed. Text-based communication modes with
sharing of pictures, videos etc. (Facebook, YouTube) score medium and collaborative projects
application (Wikipedia) scores the lowest rank. Besides, among ―self-presentation/self-disclosure‖
category blogs score higher than Wikipedia. Similarly, social networking sites (Facebook) allow for
more self-disclosure than content communities (YouTube) and virtual social worlds scores more than
that of virtual game worlds. Classification of social media based on their functions is mentioned in
Table 2.
Table 1. Classification of social media (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010)
Social presence/media richness
Low
Medium
High
self-presentation/
self-disclosure
High
Blog
Social networking sites
(e.g. Facebook)
Virtual social world
(e.g. Second life)
Low
Collaborative
Content communities
Virtual game world
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projects
(e.g. Wikipedia)
(e.g. YouTube)
(e.g. World of
warcraft)
Table 2. Classification of social media based on their functions (Nag et al., 2017)
Type
Examples
Social networking sites
YouTube, LinkedIn, Google Plus
Discussion tools
WhatsApp,Wechat, Viner, Yahoo!, Messenger, Skype, Google
Talk, Hi5
Social Photo and Video Sharing
YouTube, Instagram, SlideShare, Flickr
e-Encyclopaedias
Agropedia, Wikipedia
Social News
Google News, Digg, Reddit
Blog Comments and Forums
e-blogger, Twitter, Tumblr, FriendFeed
Rise in digital technology in India
In India, there were 624 million internet users in January 2021. The number of internet users
was increased by 47 million (+8.2%) between 2020 and 2021. Internet penetration in India stood at
45% in January 2021 (Kemp, 2021). Likewise, there were 1.10 billion mobile connections in India in
January 2021. The number of mobile connections in India was increased by 23 million (+2.1%)
between January 2020 and January 2021. The number of mobile connections in India in January 2021
was equivalent to 79.0% of the total population. It is also predicted that Indian to have 820 million
smartphone users by 2022 and it‘s smartphone base is estimated to reach 820 million in the next two
years, which can unlock 80% improvement in efficiency and 8 times reduction in processing time for
e-governance services. The total number of smartphone users in India is likely to rise to nearly 83
crore by 2022, fuelled chiefly by open operating systems such as android and low data rates. There
were 448 million social media users in India in January 2021. The number of social media users in
India increased by 78 million (+21%) between 2020 and 2021. The number of social media users in
India was equivalent to 32.3% of the total population in January 2021.
Current trends and new directions in crop protection
Crop protection scenario is changing very frequently day by day. Due to overall changes in
the climatic conditions, injudicious use of pesticides, pest resurgence, outbreak of secondary pests
etc. became major problems in present time. Moreover, introduction of serious invasive pests in
agroecosystem becomes a big challenge for the experts as they are difficult to identify and mange by
the local farmers. Social media popularity in both rural and urban areas can be exploited as an easy,
effective and alternate technology dissemination tool. This platform can play a vital role in
transforming knowledge from resource person to the farmers. Even creation of institutional official
pages in Facebook is a way to link the organization with all sections of people directly. Recent
technologies related to forecasting, pest alert, location specific plant protection tactics etc. can be
transferred very quickly by using Facebook platform. Moreover, such type of social networking site
gives tremendous opportunities to talk or ask queries directly to plant protection experts in live
session. Limitations such as long distance, poor transportation, poor weather, pandemic etc. can
easily be overcome by using these kinds of social networking sites. Similarly, YouTube serves as a
long term depository of high-tech or traditional, institutional, informative mass video source for the
common people. Farmers can also participate in the same platform to promote Good Agricultural
Practices (GAPs), Indigenous Technical Knowledge‘s (ITKs), innovative pest control measures,
gardening tips for others. Again, applications like WhatsApp, Telegram etc. promote farmers group
formation and effective linkage and convergence with the experts. Quick identification of insect pests
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or diseases by sharing photos or videos in such applications becomes very popular among the
farmers. Besides, use of pest monitoring or detecting mobile application for several notorious pest
viz., fall army worm, locust etc. becomes boon for the farmers in different parts of the world. Thakur
et al. (2017) has summarized the advantages of using WhatsApp in delivering extension services as
mentioned below:
a) Information related to agricultural services can be disseminated to several recipients in just a
seconds. The feedback and clarification of doubt are high as well through this tool. This
applications potentiates delivery of agro advisory services to a great extent.
b) Using WhatsApp has become relatively simpler and easier ICT tool for farmers. It can be easily
operated through mobile internet compared to other web-based portals, which are primarily
computer based. It also offers a communication approach that can be quite flexible, as at any
time and any place, interaction is possible.
c) Expenses on mobile data pack are comparatively less as compared to other application. Farmers
can be benefitted immensely from this app.
d) Information related to crop protection and crop improvement can be generated in multiple ways
such as audios, texts, visuals and audio-visuals. The understanding of the message would
therefore be relatively high through this medium.
e) Potential to reduce the gap of knowledge and information which seems to be one of the major
factors for poor agricultural productivity.
f) Queries can be posted in the form of pictures of the infected crops, text messages, voice
messages and audio-visual format. Farmers can post their query at any time and from any place
without visiting any agriculture centre. Time and money of the farmers are saved and they can
also get proper crop diagnostic support services through this app since responses of feedback are
immediately given by the resource persons after detail assessment of farmer‘s query.
However, some limitations like poor understanding of the clients about the objectives of WhatsApp
group created, poor mobile networks, limited internet data pack availability, inactive role played by
the admistrator, low quality photographs and videos, presence of spoiler holdouts in the group,
language barrier may also hinder the success of such efforts.
Applications used for plant protection and other agro-services in India
Use of social media in agriculture is a relatively a newer concept in India. However, after the
popularization of ―Digital India Programme‖, use of different social media platforms viz., Facebook,
YouTube, Twitter as well as several mobile based applications to promote agriculture among the
common people has gained a momentum. Recently, ICAR has compiled the information of different
applications that are developed by different research institutes, KVKs, State Agricultural Universities
etc. for the welfare of common farmers (ICAR, 2018). Some of them are highlighted for providing
several promising services related to crop management and plant protection aspects. Some of these
important applications with their important features are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. List of some promising applications used to provide plant protection services in India
(ICAR, 2018)
S.
No.
Name of the application
Features
1.
RiceXpert
Developed by National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack in
2017. It provides information about real time on insect pests,
nutrients, weeds, nematodes and disease-related problems,
rice varieties for different ecologies, farm implements for
different field and post-harvest operations.
2
RKMP Rice Vocs
Developed by Indian Institute of Rice Research, Hyderabad in
2015.
3.
Rice IFC (Insecticide
& Fungicide Calculator)
Developed by NCIPM-ICAR New Delhi in 2017. It provides
information about weather based predictions of insect pests
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and diseases of rice, insecticides and fungicides etc.
4.
Chanamitra
Developed by ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research,
Kanpur in 2016. It includes information related to improved
chickpea varieties, crop production and protection
technologies for management of insect pest and diseases,
post-harvest technologies etc.
5.
Cotton (Kapus)
Developed by Vasantrao Naik Marathwada Krishi
Vidyapeeth, Parbhani, Maharashtra in 2017. It provides
information like cotton cultivation for Maharashtra with
useful information on package of practices of cotton such as
pest and disease management, seeds, fertilizer management,
irrigation, critical growth stages etc.
6.
Soybean-Gyan
Developed by ICAR Indian Institute of Soybean Research,
Indore, Madhya Pradesh and TCS (m-Krishi) in 2017. It is a
depository of information like seeds, varieties, suitability in
agro-climatic zones, recommended package of practices,
controlling measures for managing insect-pests and diseases
and weed management.
7.
ICAR IIOR
Developed by ICAR-Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research,
Hyderabad, Telangana in 2017. This application includes
information on agronomic practices, production technology,
crop management, insect management, disease management,
weeds management, food uses and health benefits of
sunflower, safflower, castor and sesame.
8.
ICAR IIOR Biocontrols
Developed by ICAR-Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research,
Hyderabad, Telangana in 2017 and provides information on
Bacillus thuringiensis, Trichoderma seed treatment benefits, disease
control and dosage etc.
9.
Mobile Farm Solutions
(Q&A)
Developed for KVKs by Department of Agriculture,
Government of Meghalaya and Directorate of Agriculture in
2017. This application helps the farmers to report problems
on the crops, soil, insect pests, diseases etc.
10.
mAgIDS
This multilingual app was developed by PAU, Ludhiana, in
2014. Its features include offline and online mode, crop
disease database, send images of diseased crops to experts,
quick replies for queries etc.
11.
Khetiyok
Developed by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Dhemaji, Assam in
2017. It includes crop disease database, send images of
diseased crops to experts, quick replies for queries etc. This
application supports Assamese language.
12.
Mango Cultivation IIHR
Developed by ICAR-IIHR, Bengaluru, Karnataka in 2016. It
includes different crop management aspects of Mango,
diseases of mango and its management viz., anthracnose,
blossom blight, leaf blight, powdery mildew, dieback, etc. and
the pest management modules comprises of infestation of
fruit fly, mango hopper, stone weevil, mealy bug, shoot borer,
stem borer etc.
13.
Aam ki Suraksha-ICAR
Patna
Developed by ICAR-Research Complex for Eastern Region,
Patna, Bihar in 2018 and provides offline information on
pests and disease of mango.
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14.
SabjeeGyan
Developed by ICAR-Indian Institute of Vegetable Research,
Varanasi and it provides knowledge about vegetable
production as well as insect and disease management of
different vegetables.
15.
TuberGuru
Developed by ICAR-CTCRI, Thiruvananthapura, Kerala in
2018 which focuses cultivation practices of tuber crops as well
as information related to pests and diseases of important
tropical tuber crops like cassava, sweet potato, yams, elephant
foot yam and taro.
16.
E-kalpa
Developed by ICAR- CPCRI, Kerala in 2016. It is a cloud
based interactive mobile application for plantation crops.
17.
Soil insects guide
Developed by AINP on Soil Arthropod Pests, AAU Jorhat to
disseminate various information on soil insect pests to the
farmers in Assamsese language.
Embracing social engineering for innovative pest management: a case study
The AINP on Soil Arthropod Pests, AAU Jorhat Centre has organized ―Mass campaigning
programme against Lepidiota mansueta‖ for the collection and destruction of L. mansueta beetles at
Majuli, Jorhat by using the concept of Social Engineering/large community mobilization. The mass
campaigning programme was conducted by involving 400 farmers from 40 different endemic villages
as well as with the involvement of local Self Help Groups, Gaon Panchayats, NGOs and district
administration. This mass campaigning programme received overwhelming response and was
exceedingly successful leading to massive collection and killing of about 11.33 Lakhs beetles during
2011-2019 (Anon., 2020). By observing the acceptance of L. mansueta beetles as culinary delight by
the populace of Majuli, efforts were also made to demonstrate the exploration of these beetles for
entomophagy purposes at different strategic locations. Demonstrating the power of Social
Engineering, AINP-SAP, AAU created history by entering into ―India Book of Records‖ by setting a
national record of ―most beetles collected in three hours‖ by collecting 73,700 white grub beetles at
Majuli river island in 2018. Some innovative tools of social engineering viz., Awareness, T-shirt,
Awareness calendar, Awareness cap, Awareness stickers, Awareness rain head umbrella, Awareness
cup, Awareness wall hanging plate were also distributed to the Lepidiota endemic farmers‘ groups of
Majuli to create general awareness for the mass campaigning programme which yielded encouraging
results. An interactive bilingual mobile app ―Soil Insects guide‖ has been developed to provide
instant solution for the management of different soil insect pests for the farming communities of
Assam. Moreover, more than 200 farmers from white grub endemic villages were included in a
WhatsApp group where they were constantly educated with different information on white grubs
and other soil insect pests. Farmers were also kept informed regarding the project related activities
through this group. The impact assessment of the ―Mass campaigning programme‖ has been carried
out for 200 respondents targeting all the Lepidiota endemic villages of Majuli during 2018-2020 in
collaboration with the Department of Agricultural Economics & Farm Management, AAU, Jorhat so
as to focus the whole endeavour as a ―Success story‖ of exploring nonchemical method of managing
insect pests through large community mobilization. The impact analysis team strongly felt that the
mass campaigning programme explored ―group approach of extension as well as social media
platform‖ mostly targeting the flood and erosion affected farmers in Majuli and had tremendous
impact in terms of protecting the crops, disseminating ecofriendly technologies, enhancing crop
productivity as well as improving both livelihood and nutritional security.
Conclusion
Being the hub of technologies, KVKs are constantly playing the key role in serving farmers
and working as a link in the technology generation and dissemination system. The tasks and
responsibilities of extension services should be broad based and holistic in contents and scope, thus
beyond agricultural technology transfer. Now-a-days farmers are always in urgent need of newly
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updated agriculture technology services. Therefore, in order to reduce the gap of transmitting
knowledge and information between farmers and experts, extension functionaries can grab the ICT
based social networking sites as opportunities. Of late, social media platforms have become the main
source of information surpassing print and other digital media platform and further the COVID-19
Pandemic has acted as a catalyst to the ever-increasing rise in social media adoption to reach the
farming community. However, proper training and awareness about the use of different social media
platforms are to be generated among the small and marginal farmers by the extension functionaries
so that the real benefits of this approach could be derived sustainably.
References
Anonymous. 2020. Impact Assessment study on group approach on extension management of white
grub in Majuli river island of Assam, All India Network Project on Soil Arthropod Pests,
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam.
Anonymous. 2021. Record food grain production of 303.34 million tonnes.
https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1700545.
FAO. 2019. Agricultural Extension Manual, by Khalid S M N, Sherzad S (eds). Apia.
ICAR. 2018. Krishi Gyan Mobile Apps. Singh A K, Singh R, Adhiguru P, Hajare R (eds.). Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
Kaplan A M, Haenlein M. 2010. Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social
media. Business Horizons 53(1): 59-68.
Kemp S. 2021, February. Digital 2021 India. Retrived from https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-
2021-india
Kumar S, Singh L, Singh R, Thombare P B. 2020. Changing roles of extension in Krishi Vigyan
Kendra (KVK): Reaching the last mile. Food and Scientific Reports 1: 42-44.
Nag A, Mukherjee A, Kumari S. 2017. Use of social media in information communication in
agriculture. Indian Farmers‘ Digest 23-26.
Thakur D, Chander M, Sinha S. 2017. WhatsApp for farmers: Enhancing the scope and coverage of
traditional agricultural extension. International Journal of Science, Environment and
Technology 6(4): 2190-2201.
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VII-1
Lantana camara
– boon to farmers for save storage of pea seeds under Manipur condition
Kshetrimayum Manishwari Devi, M.S. Singh, Tabuiliu Abonmai and Th. Anupama Devi
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal, Manipur
Corresponding author email: ahenbisanakshetri@gmail.com
Abstract
Lantana camara, also known as Spanish Flag or West Indian Lantana, in Manipur: Samballei
or Nongballei, is found abundantly in Manipur. An experiment was conducted in the experimental
laboratory of Agronomy Department, College of Agriculture, Iroisemba, Central Agricultural
University, Imphal in 2017-2019, to study the ―Effect of Lantana camara on controlling insect pests
on storage of pea seeds (Pisum sativum var Makhyatmubi) in Manipur condition‖. It was found that
when we mixed the L. camara with pea seeds in the ratio 1Kg pea seeds:150g L. camara and above,
there were no damage of the pea seeds by insect pests but in control where there was no L. camara,
all the seeds were damaged by insect pests.
Keywords: Pea seeds, Lantana camara, storage
VII-2
Assessment of entomological frontline demonstration conducted by KVKs of North Eastern
Region
Bagish Kumar1, M. Thoithoi Devi2, Divyashree Saikia3, Sampurna Sharma4, and A.K. Tripathi5
1&2 Scientist, ICAR- ATARI, Zone VI, Guwahati
3&4 Senior Research Fellow (SRF), ICAR- ATARI, Zone VI, Guwahati
5Director, ICAR- ATARI, Zone VI, Guwahati
Corresponding author email: bagishars@gmail.com
Pest problems in the NEH region are innumerable and hill agriculture is comparatively more
vulnerable to insect pest infestation. In almost all crops, they pose serious problems with the
consequence of low productivity. To counter such problems, various plant protection technologies
such as; biological, chemical, and agro technical approaches were carried out by the researcher. These
measures were not panacea for all the problems at all time. There is the need to assess these
technologies for particular location. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) was entrusted with the
responsibility to establish the technological specificity for the location. The KVKs through its
mandated activities of Frontline Demonstration (FLD), On-Farm Testing (OFT), capacity building
etc. validate the location specificity of technologies. The present study was done to assess the front-
line demonstrations conducted by the KVKs of three states viz. Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and
Sikkim in different entomological measures viz. integrated pest management, insecticide applications,
bio pesticides, biological agents and tools for insect management in food grains, fruits and vegetables
for a period of five years i.e. 2016-17 to 2020-21. The study revealed that in Assam for food grains,
total 39 numbers of entomological measures were carried out of which maximum interventions (13
numbers) were observed in IPM followed by 10 numbers in biological agents and minimum
intervention was seen in bio pesticide application. In Arunachal Pradesh, total 6 numbers of
entomological interventions under different dimensions were conducted out of which maximum
interventions (4 numbers) were observed in IPM and least identified interventions were in bio
pesticide application and bio control agents. Similarly in Sikkim, total 5 technologies were directed in
different fields of which more demonstrations were on tools for insect management. From the five
years study in fruits production, it had been observed that demonstrations on tools for insect
management (3 numbers) were mostly conducted in Assam and total of 5 technologies for insecticide
application were undertaken in Arunachal Pradesh, and Sikkim. For vegetable crops in Assam, it was
found that maximum of 14 interventions on bio agents were used for curing pest infestation
followed by 5 and 3 technologies of IPM in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim respectively.
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Keywords: Frontline Demonstration, pest infestation, entomological interventions, NEH region,
plant protection
VII-3
Assessment of entomological on-farm testing conducted by KVKs of North Eastern Region
M. Thoithoi Devi1, Bagish Kumar2, Sampurna Sharma3, Divyashree Saikia4, and A.K. Tripathi5
1&2 Scientist, ICAR- ATARI, Zone VI, Guwahati
3&4 Senior Research Fellow (SRF), ICAR- ATARI, Zone VI, Guwahati
5Director, ICAR- ATARI, Zone VI, Guwahati
Corresponding author email: bagishars@gmail.com
Insect pests are one of the most significant constraints of growing crops in the NEH region.
There have been considerable changes in the pest scenario of crops in the region with increase in
productivity and production of agricultural crops, through the involvement of high yielding varieties,
irrigation, agrochemicals etc. To counter such problems, various plant protection technologies such
as; biological, chemical, and agro technical approaches were carried out by researcher. These steps
have not always been a panacea for all problems. For particular areas, there is a need to test these
technologies. The responsibility for determining the technical specificity of the location was
entrusted to Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK). The KVKs validate the location specificity through its
mandatory On-Farm Testing (OFT), Frontline Demonstration (FLD), and capacity building
activities. The present study was done to assess the On-Farm Testing conducted by the KVKs of
three states viz. Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim in different entomological aspects like
integrated pest management, insecticide applications, bio pesticides, biological agents and tools for
insect management in food grains, fruits and vegetables for a period of five years i.e. 2016-17 to
2020-21. In case of food grains in Assam, total 19 numbers of entomological interventions were
carried out of which maximum 8 interventions were observed in IPM followed by 4 numbers in
biological agents, insecticide applications, and minimum intervention was used as tools for insect
management. In Arunachal Pradesh, total 9 trials under different fields were directed of which
maximum interventions (6 numbers) were observed in insecticide applications and least identified
interventions were in bio pesticide application. Similarly in Sikkim, only one intervention on bio
agent was demonstrated by the KVKs. From the study in fruits production, it was observed that for
pest management, 3 technologies on IPM were carried out in Assam and only one intervention as
insecticide application was done in Arunachal Pradesh. It was also reported that 34 OFTs in
vegetables were conducted in Assam, 6 numbers in Arunachal Pradesh and 3 numbers in Sikkim to
treat pest infestation.
Keywords: On-Farm Testing, pest infestation, entomological interventions, NEH region, plant
protection
VII-4
Production and marketing of nutri-cereals for food and nutritional security
Shivani Kumari 1*, Lanunola Tzudir 1, Merentoshi 2
1Department of Agronomy, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development (SASRD), Nagaland
University, Medziphema (Nagaland)
2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development (SASRD),
Nagaland University, Medziphema (Nagaland)
Corresponding author email: imshivani96@gmail.com
Millets are potential food source which can combat hunger and address climate change in a
sustainable manner. In India, millets are being cultivated on an area of 15.48 million hectares
producing17.2 million tones with an annual productivity of 1111 kg/ha. There are several factors like
ability to withstand drought, heat stress, low carbon and water footprints which makes millet a
sustainable and climate resilient crop. Government has renamed coarse cereals as ―Nutri-cereals‖ as
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they provide most of the nutrients required for normal functioning of human body. Millets are highly
nutritious as they are rich in dietary fibre, vitamin, calcium, iron, zinc and antioxidants. These days,
cereals are replaced by coarse grains because its non-glutinous nature makes it easy to digest by
human body. It has in-built characteristics of risk mitigation as it can withstand vagaries of climate
change, resistant to insect pests and can be grown on low fertile, mountainous and rainfed areas.
Weather uncertainties have forced famers to practice millets based cropping system in different parts
of India as it provides assured yield and income to farmers. There is need to develop stress tolerant
millet varieties and boost its cultivation for increasing farmers income and nutritional security
through reduced inputs. Several steps and initiatives has been taken by the government to reveal its
underlying potential and boost its production, consumption and promotion in the country. Due to its
nutritional and ecological benefits there is increased demand of millets in the national and
international market. It can prove to be a sustainable source of income for farmers with low
investment and short cultivation cycle. So, there is an urgent need to introduce millets in non-millet
growing areas to address the issues related to nutritional security, food systems security and farmers‘
welfare.
Keywords: Climate resilient, ecology, income, nutri-cereals, nutritional security, sustainable.
VII-5
Loranthus ligustrinus
– A causal factor for khasi mandarin (
Citrus reticulata
Balnco.) decline
in Arunachal Pradesh
S. R. Singh1, A and B.N.Hazarika2
Department of Fruit Science1, Dean2
College of Horticulture & Forestry, Central Agricultural University,
Pasighat-791 102, Arunachal Pradesh (India)
Corresponding author: romensenjam@yahoo.com
Survey and identification of Loranthus species infesting the khasi mandarin orchards in
Arunachal Pradesh citrus belt is necessary. Study on its habit, mode of seed dispersion, host plants,
its life cycle and its management in different sites of East Siang district was conducted and it is
identified that the Loranthus species as Helixanthera ligustrina (Loranthus ligustrinus) which flowers during
the month of April - May and the seed dispersal is mainly done by two birds viz. Plain flowerpecker
and Fire breasted flowerpecker in June-July period. The study also revealed that it is one of the main
problems causing khasi mandarin decline by lowering down its yield and productivity and finally
killed the plant after 4-5 years of infestation. This parasitic weed is slowly spreading to other nearby
orchards and needs emergency attention for the citrus grower. To control this parasitic weed
effectively awareness program among the citrus growers are needed.
Keywords: Helixanthera ligustrina; khasi mandarin; host plants; birds
VII-6
Crude protein content in the pollen pellets collected by
Apis mellifera
L during dearth period
Mandeep Rathee1, O. P. Chaudhary2, Sunita Yadav3 and Pradeep Kumar Dalal3
1Training Assistant, KVK, Kaithal, 2Principal Scientist, RRS, Uchani, Karnal, 3Sunita Yadav, Assistant
Professor, Dept. of Entomology and 4Technical Assistant, Dept. of Seed Science and Technology, CCS HAU, Hisar
Corresponding authors email: mndprathee@gmail.com
In the present investigations, front mounted Chaudhary‘s three-piece pollen traps were
installed at 6:00 am on randomly chosen 5 experimental colonies thrice a month (start, mid and end)
during consecutive dearth periods (June-October 2017 and 2018). The experimental apiary (30 Apis
mellifera L. hives) was located at College of Agriculture, Kaul, Kaithal, Haryana, India. The trapped
pollen loads collected from the respective pollen traps after uninstallation of latter at 6:00 pm; were
segregated and identified melissopalynogically for the source of their botanical origin. Five gram of
each segregated pollen pellet as well mix pollen loads (for each month) were used to determine their
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respective crude protein percentage [Protein (%) = Nitrogen x 6.25)]. Among the predominant pollen
sources, Trifolium alexandrinum L. collected in June had maximum crude protein content (23.8%),
followed by Pennisetum typhoides L. (October, 22.6%), Trianthema portulacastrum L., (July, 16.6%) and
Abutilon indicum (Link) Sweet had the least (October, 15.5%). Considering the secondary pollen
sources, Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. collected in July had maximum crude protein content
(26.1%), followed by Commelina benghalensis L., (August, 16.5%) while, Chenopodium sp. had the least
(August, 15.9%). Among the tertiary pollen sources, Parthenium hysterophorus L. collected in July
had maximum crude protein content (42.5%), followed by Taraxacum officinale (L.) Webber,
(22.7%), Oryza sativa L. (August, 18.4%), Tribulus terristris L. (August, 18.3%) and Dicliptera
paniculata (Forssk.) I. Darbysh., possessed the minimum (October, 17.2 %). Overall, maximum
protein content amongst the various pollen types, in Northern Haryana was recorded from P.
hysterophorus (42.5%) followed by L. siceraria (26.2%), T. alexandrinum (23.8%), T. officinale (22.7%) and
P. typhoides (22.6%) while minimum in T. procumbens (13.4%). The mixed sample for each month
revealed maximum crude protein content in pollen mixture of October month (25.9%) and
minimum in the month of July (17.4%).
Keywords: Apis mellifera, dearth period, pollen, melissopalynology, protein content, Haryana
VII-7
Priorities of plant protection services of KVKs and social networking in ensuring Food and
Nutritional Security
M. Pratheepa1, N. Bakthavatsalam1, S.M. Haldhar2
1 ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru – 560 024
2 College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal
Corresponding author email: mpratheepa.nbaii@gmail.com
The world population predominantly increasing day by day and it may reach 10 billion by
2050. The additional population by 2050 will be 4.3 billion in developing countries and which will be
three-fourths of the global population in the world. The demand of food production is likely to be
doubled in comparison with present situation. Therefore, it is necessary to produce enough food to
meet everyone‘s hunger adequately, and hence, agriculture plays an important role on it. India ranks
second in the world in farm production and agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. There is
a huge loss on major agricultural crops mainly due to insect pests, diseases and weeds and the
estimated crop loss is around US$ 36 billion in India in post green revolution era. Adaption of new
technologies in the farmer‘s field is major concern to increase the crop yield to meet the food
requirement for increasing population. Dissemination of knowledge to the farmers is essential and
Krishi Vigyan Kendras in India are playing a major role to transfer the technologies to the farmer‘s
field. Dissemination of crop protection technologies through KVKs will ensure increase in crop
productivity, reduction in crop losses, use of appropriate ecofriendly technologies with consequent
reduction in pesticide use and assurance of water, soil, human and animal health. Impact assessment
on the adoption of technologies, their spread and improvement of farmer‘s skills needs regular
updation. Social networking for the benefit of farmers to promote and prioritization of the plant
protections services with the help of Krishi Vigyan Kendras in India is imminent for the uptake of
these technologies.
Keywords: Food security, nutrition security, knowledge network, social network, technology transfer
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Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
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Different Committees
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
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National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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Imphal, Manipur-795004
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National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
1. Transport and Accommodation Committee
1.
Dr. Herojit Singh, Professor, COA, Imphal
Chairman
2.
Dr. L. K. Mishra, Assoc. Professor, COA, Imphal
Co-Chairman- Conveyance
3.
Dr. Daya Ram, Assist. Professor, COA, Imphal
Co-Chairman-
Accommodation
4.
Dr. P. T. Sharma, Assist. Professor, COA, Imphal
Member
5.
Dr. Ramananda, SMS, KVK Andro, CAU, Imphal
Member
6.
Er. L. Bobby Singh A.E., CAU, Imphal
Member
7.
Er. Chitranjan, A.E., COA, Imphal
Member
8.
Sh. Ibomcha, Accounts, DEE, CAU, Imphal
Member (Expert TA)
9.
Sh. Sanjay, Assistant Accounts, DEE, CAU, Imphal
Member (Expert TA)
10.
Sh. Rustam, SRF, Lac Insect, COA, Imphal
Member
11.
Longnathan R., Student, COA, Imphal
SRF
2. Food and Refreshment Committee
1.
Dr. N. Brajendra Singh, Professor, COA, Imphal
Chairman
2.
Dr. Sonika Yumnam, Scientist, AICRP – Chickpea
Member
3.
Dr. M. Samuel Jeberson, Scientist, AICRP – MULaRP
Member
4.
Dr. Th. Anand Singh, Scientist, AICRP – PHET
Member
5.
Dayananda Soraisam, Project Assistant, AICRP – Mango
Member
6.
Mr. Th. Ningthou Singh, LDC, DEE, CAU, Imphal
Member
7.
Shri. L. Momon Singh, Account Asst., CAU, Imphal
Member
3. Technical Committee
1
Dr. S. M. Feroze, Assoc. Professor, COA, Imphal
Chairman
2
Dr. Bireshwar Sinha, Assistant Professor, COA, Imphal
Member
3
Dr. N. Surbala Devi, Assistant Professor, COA, Imphal
Member
4
Dr. Jeti Konsam, Asst. Entomologist, AICRP – Maize
Member
5
Dr. Kh. Stina Devi, Assistant Professor, COA, Imphal
Member
6
Sheileja Thounaojam, Student, COA, Imphal
Student
7
CN Nidhi, Student, COA, Imphal
Student
8
Romeo, COA, Imphal
Member
4. Cultural Committee
1.
L. Meghachandra Singh, SWO, COA, Imphal
Chairman
2.
Dr. Diana Shumurailatpam, Jr. Agronomist, AICRP –
Rapeseed & Mustard
Member
3.
Shri. Sarat, Head Asst., DEE, CAU, Imphal
Member
4.
Jabaskumar Singh, Student, COA, Imphal
Student
5.
Sunita Devi, Student, COA, Imphal
Student
5. Publicity, Invitation, Reporting and press note Committee
1.
Dr. Angad Prasad, Professor, COA, Imphal
Chairman
2.
Dr. Dipak Nath, DDEE, CAU, Imphal
Co-Chairman
3.
Dr. Indira Thounaojam, IPO, CAU, Imphal
Co-Chairperson
4.
Amritkumar Sharma, Videographer, CAU, Imphal
Member
5.
Shri Y. Premchand Singh, Computer Operator, CAU,
Imphal
Member
6.
Shri. S. Govind Singh, System Analyst, PRMM Cell, CAU,
Imphal
Member
7.
Shri Ph. Rahulnath Sharma, LDC, COA, Imphal
Member
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
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6. Exhibition-cum-poster Committee
1.
Dr. AK. Bijaya Devi , Professor, COA, Imphal
Chairperson
2.
Dr. Ng.Piloo, Assoc. Prof.(Hort), COA, Imphal
Member
3.
Dr. P.S. Meriam Anal, Assistant Professor, COA, Imphal
Member
4.
Dr. Gayatri Kh., Assistant Professor(MTTC&VTC),
COA, Imphal
Member
5.
Dr. Nilima Karam, Jr. Entomologist, AICRP – Soybean
Member
7. Reception and Registration Committee
1
Dr. K. Nandini Devi, Professor, COA, Imphal
Chairperson
2
Dr. Th. Renuka Devi, Associate Professor, COA, Imphal
Co-Chairperson
3
Smt. Kh. Priya Devi, AICRP (F) Mango, CAU, Imphal
Member
4
Shri Khagemba, Artist, DEE, CAU, Imphal
Member
5
Smt. Narita L., PA to DEE, CAU, Imphal
Member
8. Paper Screening-cum-Publication Committee
1.
Dr. Kh. Ibohal Singh, Head, Entomology, COA, Imphal
Chairman
2.
Dr. L. Nongdrenkhomba Singh, Head, Plant Pathology,
COA, Imphal
Co-Chairman
3.
Dr. S.M. Haldhar , Assoc. Prof., Entomology, COA,
Imphal
Co-Chairman
4.
Dr. M. Sampath Kumar, Scientist ICAR-NBAIR,
Bengaluru
Member
5.
Dr. K. J. David, Scientist ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Member
6.
Dr. Rachana R. R., Scientist ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Member
7.
Dr. R. S. Ramya, Scientist ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Member
9. Stage beautification and arrangement Committee:
1.
Dr.A.K. Bijaya Devi, Prof. & HoD, Horticulture, COA,
Imphal
Chairperson
2.
Smt. S. Molibala Devi, Head i/c, KVK- Imphal East,
Andro
Co-Chairperson
3.
Dr. M. Abhinash, Asstt. Prof. (Hort), COA, Imphal
Member
4.
Ch. Nandini Devi, SMS, KVK Andro, CAU, Imphal
Member
5.
Shri M. Khan, Jr. Stenographer, DEE, CAU, Imphal
Member
6.
Shri Ph. Rahulnath Sharma, LDC, COA, Imphal
Member
12.Healthcare and SOP Committee
1
Dr. S. Ranjita Devi, MO, COA, Imphal
Chairperson
2
Shri M. Priyokumar Meitei, MHW
Member
3
Shri Ch. Indreshwor Singh, Compounder
Member
4
Smt. N.Ranjana Devi, FHW
Member
5
Smt. H. Sarju Devi, FHW
Member
Central Organizing Committee
1.
Dr. Anupam Mishra, Vice Chancellor, CAU, Imphal
Chief Patron
2.
Dr. N. Bakthavatsalam, Director, ICAR- NBAIR,
Bengaluru
Patron
3.
Prof. R. K. Saha, Director (Extension Education) CAU,
Imphal
Chairperson
4.
Prof. Indira Sarangthem, Dean, COA, CAU, Imphal
Co-Chairperson
5.
Dr. M. Nagesh, PS & HOD, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Convener
6.
Dr. Shravan M Haldhar, Assoc. Professor, Entomology,
CAU, Imphal
Organizing Secretary
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
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Imphal, Manipur-795004
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Proceeding
of
National Conference
on
‘Priorities in Crop Protection
for Sustainable Agriculture’
National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
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National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Directorate of Extension Education
Central Agricultural University
Imphal, Manipur-795004
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Proceeding
of
“National Conference on Priorities in Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture”
Inaugural Function
Chief Guest
Prof. M. Premjit Singh
Former Vice Chancellor, CAU, Imphal
Guests of Honour
Prof. B. K. Agarwala
Chairman, TSPCB, Agartala, Tripura
Dr. S. C. Dubey
ADG (PP & BS), ICAR, New Delhi (Virtual)
Dr. N. Bakthavatsalam
Director, ICAR- NBAIR, Bengaluru (Virtual)
Prof. Indira Sarangthem
Dean, College of Agriculture, CAU, Imphal
Dr. M. Nagesh
Convener (NCPCPSA) & HOD, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
President
Prof. R. K. Saha
Chairman (NCPCPSA) & Director (EE), Central Agricultural University, Imphal
(Date: 16th March, 2021; Time: 10:30 am to 11:30 am)
The opening of the national conference was done by Prof. M. Premjit Singh, Former Vice
Chancellor, CAU, Imphal.
Special Address on Crop Protection for Sustainable Agriculture
Chairperson: Prof. M. Premjit Singh, Former Vice Chancellor, CAU, Imphal
Co-Chairperson: Dr. Deepa Bhagat, Principal Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
Rapporteur: Dr. R.S. Ramya, Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru
(Date: 16th March, 2021; Time: 12.00 AM to 1.30 PM)
The Special Address Session was held on the first day of the conference on 16 March 2021 in
Auditorium, CAU, Imphal. The session had three talks and it started with the talk on “Overview of
crop protection for sustainable agriculture” by Dr. S.N. Puri, Former VC, CAU, Imphal. He
discussed about the pros and cons of using pesticides and also on the need for developing indigenous
molecules of insecticides. He stressed about the importance of encouraging private industries to
come up for the manufacture and supply of biopesticides. He pointed out the scope of utilizing
transgenic approaches to improve the efficiency of biopesticides and natural enemies so that the
change in climatic conditions can be better adapted to. He listed out the following challenges which
are to be addressed in future research and planning in crop protection:
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To study the effect of climate change in pest scenario and plant protection.
To develop infrastructure and trained manpower for production of biocontrol agents in
North Eastern states which are known for their organic farming.
Use of forecasting and forewarning systems to forecast the arrival of pests.
To employ semiochemicals for mass trapping and not only for monitoring.
To identify the resistant hosts already available in diverse germplasm and utilize them to
develop pest resistant varieties.
To find out the pests likely to invade our country and develop sustainable methods to
control them.
Need for more research on management of sucking pests in protected cultivation.
Next talk was by Dr. H.C. Sharma, Former VC, YSPUHF, Solan on “Host plant resistance,
biochemical and molecular mechanisms for pest and disease management”. He elaborated about the
methods for identification and utilization of resistance to insects. He also discussed about the
techniques to screen for resistance to insects. Further, he discussed about the mechanisms and
components of HPR. He also stressed on the use of molecular studies like employment of SSR
markers to assess the diversity among crop lines and also on the need to generate genetic linkage
maps so as to identify regions of chromosomes responsible for imparting resistance against insect
pests. He concluded the talk by stressing the importance of HPR as an integral component of IPM
and the need to research on the synergism of HPR with the use of insecticides.
The last talk in the session was by Prof. M. Premjit Singh, Former VC, CAU, Imphal on
“Insects and integrated pest management in the context of climate change”. He pointed out how
change in climate might influence the insect biology and migration and suggested strategies to cope
with these effects. He further listed out the causative factors for changes in insect pest complex in
North Eastern region. He also stressed on the importance of studying the effect of climate change on
tri-trophic interactions, pesticide residues, transgenic crops and pest population dynamics.
The session ended with vote of thanks to chair by Prof. M. Premjit Singh.
Technical Session-I
“Changing scenario of pests and diseases, diversity, biosystematics and molecular taxonomy
for crop protection”
Chairperson: Dr. B. K. Agarwala
Co-Chairperson: Dr. T. Venkatesan and Dr Ranjan Das
Rapporteur: Dr. S. M. Haldhar and Dr. K. Selvaraj
(Date: 16th March, 2021; Time: 02:00 pm to 05:00 pm)
The session started with keynote address by Dr. N. K. Krishna Kumar, Former DDG
(Horticulture), ICAR, New Delhi on “Role of insect biodiversity, biosystematics, biosecurity in crop
protection and crop productivity”; Dr Y.G. Prasad, Director, ICAR-CICR, Nagpur on “Changing
scenario of insect pests and diseases in Indian cotton ecosystem and critical issues in their
management”; DR. S.N Sushil, Former Plant Protection Advisor on Recent experiences and
preparedness in management of invasive insect pest, the desert locusts”; Dr. T. Venkatesan, Principal
Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR on DNA barcoding and its application in identification of agricultural
important insects species”; Dr. M. Mohan, Principal Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR on Insect while genome
sequencing and its relevance to pest management”; Dr. Ranjan Das, Professor, AAU, Assam on
“Pollinators and pollination under climatic change” and Dr. K. Selvaraj, Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR on
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“recent experiences and preparedness in management of invasive insects; biosecurity and quarantine
regulatory perspective”. Followed by four oral presentation was presented.
Take home points:
Development of conservation strategies for non-apis pollinators.
Emphasis may be given on insect pest as vectors of plant diseases.
Development of mathematical and molecular knowledge for pest management strategies.
Need of public private sector for developing pest management strategies.
Monitoring of locust upsurge in the North eastern states of India.
The session ended with vote of thanks to chair by Dr. B. K. Agarwala.
Technical Session-II
“Priorities in biological control of insect pests and diseases”
Chairperson: Dr. Gopalasamy Sivakumar
Co-Chairperson: Dr. M. Mohan and Dr. Kesavan Subaharan
Rapporteur: Dr. Jagadeesh Patil and Dr. Bireswar Sinha
(Date: 17 March 2021 Time: 10.00-1.00 pm)
There were seven lead talks and nine oral presentations in this technical session. The lead
speakers addressed about the diversity of entomopathogens, parasitiods, predators and antagonistic
microbes and their exploitation for the management of insect pests and diseases of crop plants. Oral
presenters covered individual biocontrol agents and their potential for the management of insect
pests and diseases of crop plants. Dr. R. J. Rabindra, Former Director, NBAIR, Bengaluru spoke
about the exploitation of Baculoviruses for the management of insect pests. He stressed upon the
creation epizootics of entomopathogens to have a complete control of insect pests. He also
highlighted that the natural infection of entomofungal pathogens highly depend on temperature and
relative humidity. Dr. Abraham verghese, Former Director, NBAIR, Bengaluru spoke about the
problems and prospects in application of biocontrol agents. Dr. Chandish R. Ballal, Former Director,
NBAIR, Bengaluru delivered her talk on biocontrol potential of various natural enemies crop pests
especially the parasitoids and predators. Dr. Ramesh, Director, IIBAT talked about the regulatory
requirements and generation of bioefficacy data for the purpose of registration as biopesticides under
CIB&RC. Dr. G.Sivakumar, Principal Scientist, NBAIR, Bengaluru covered elaborately the role of
various antagonistic organisms and entomopathogens for management plant diseases and insect
pests. Dr. Jagadeesh Patil, Scientist, NBAIR, Bengaluru spoke about the entomopathogenic
nematodes and their role on insect pest management. The following are the few recommendations of
the presentations.
Take home points:
More biopesticide production units have to be set up across the country to enhance the
production of microbial biopesticides to cater the needs of Indian farmers.
National facilities of biopesticides testing laboratories of States and Union Territories should
be strengthened with NABL accreditation. Currently the DNA fingerprinting of microbial
isolates is legally done at ICAR-National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganism
(NBAIM), Mau. Considering the high volume of the samples being handled at NBAIM
facilities at CSIR/other institutes should be explored. There is a paucity of guidelines for
consortia, nano-based bio pesticides and secondary metabolites. Guidelines on registration
and production of secondary metabolite(s) based products from agriculturally important
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microorganism should also be developed. A surveillance mechanism is to be initiated to
identify the manufacturers who do not follow the CIBRC guidelines on sustaining quality of
their products.
There is need for establishing Good Lab Practices (GLP) and Good Manufacturing Practices
(GMP) of manufacturing facility with strong financial investment to improve the quality
management of biopesticides. The Quality Council of India has standardized in-house quality
review management (QRM) procedure that can be recommended to manufacturers through
appropriate hand-holding by the research laboratories to make sure that continuing support
with an eye on QRM is strongly operating in their technology for manufacture.
Emphasis should be laid on improving the efficacy of biopesticides, especially with regard to
the temperature and humidity stress tolerance. Biotechnological options are to be explored in
this context.
Central Insecticide Board should draft guidelines for combination microbial pesticides.
Institutes licensing technologies pertaining to microbial pesticides should make it mandatory
for licensees to get trained in production process and quality parameters testing.
Need for recognizing more laboratories by CIBRC for the generation of DNA finger print
besides National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Microorganisms (NBAIM).
The quality based on prescribed label claimed shelf life needs to provide definitions on the
packaging, transport and storage (specifying the nature of containers and ambient micro-
climate conditions of the stores/ go downs in both manufacturing sites and markets.
The manufacturers should declare quality of their phytochemical/ biopesticide formulations
of every batch indicating their shelf life and intimate the Agriculture Department of States
and Union Territories
As per the new gazette notification toxicological data have to be generated for bio-stimulants
to register under CIB & RC.
Technical Session-III
“Priorities in integrated and traditional eco-friendly approaches for pest and disease
management”
Chairperson: Dr. M. Nagesh
Co-chairperson: Dr. T. M. Shivalingaswamy and Dr. K. I. Singh
Rapporteur: Dr. M. Pratheepa and Dr. Pranab Dutta
(Date: 17th March, 2021; Time: 02.00 pm to 6.00 pm)
The session started with keynote address by Dr. M. Nagesh, Chairman, HOD & Principal
Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru. In this session, 5 lead talks and 11 oral presentations were there.
The first lead talk given by Dr. S. C. Dubey, ADG (PP & BS), ICAR, New Delhi on topic, “Priorities
in integrated and traditional eco-friendly approaches for pest and disease management”. Dr. Badal
Bhattacharya, All India Network Project on Soil Arthropod Pests, Department of Entomology,
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat presented a lead talk on topic, “Priorities of plant protection
services of KVKs and social networking in ensuring food and nutritional security” and explained
about the social engineering by using digital media. Dr. M. Pratheepa, Principal Scientist, ICAR-
NBAIR, Bengaluru given a presentation on the same topic and focused on KVK network with
farmers and the importance of KVKs since KVKs act as nodal centre for technology resources. Dr.
T. M. Shivalingaswamy, Principal Scientist, ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru given a talk on topic,
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Imphal, Manipur-795004
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“Priorities in ecological services for food and nutritional security: role of pollinators”. At the end, Dr.
M. Nagesh, HOD and Principal Scientist, Division of Genomic Resources, given a lead talk on topic,
“Priorities in soil health management for sustained ecosystem services in terms of crop protection”.
The session followed by 11 oral presentations both offline and online.
Take home points:
There is an urgent need to establish a national level project on trans boundary surveillance,
monitoring and diagnostics of pest and diseases and entry of plant material for ensuring
biosecurity.
KVKs have not only become knowledge/technology hubs and brokers but also technology
flow linkages.
An exclusive funding for high end region specific pest-disease and weed management mobile
apps need to be provided by the ICAR for the benefit of farming community of difficult
areas like NEH regions where outreach is better through digital/electronic media in
colloquial languages.
Habitat manipulation, crop architecture and pollinator gardens are essential for conservation
and promotion of pollinators in agro-ecosystem to sustain crop productivity and nutritional
security.
Ecosystems services of soil biodiversity in terms of biocontrol of soil borne pests, diseases,
nematodes and weeds are directly contributing to soil health. There is an urgent need to have
multi-disciplinary, long term projects on cataloguing of microbiomes, soil biodiversity and
develop region-wise soil biodiversity, Atlas for EPN, microbials, micro arthropods, etc.
Further, NARES should be part of FAO’s, Global biodiversity initiative in developing
regional data sets for soil biodiversity in order to evolve policies on conservation and
utilization of ecosystem services of Indian soils.
The session ended with Vote of Thanks given by Dr. K.I. Singh.
Technical Session-IV
“Priorities in host plant resistance, crop architecture and semiochemicals for pest and
disease management”
Chairperson: Dr. N. Bhakthavatsalam, Director, NBAIR, Bengaluru
Co-Chairperson: Prof. K. Mamocha Singh, Registrar, CAU, Imphal; Dr. N. Geetha, ICAR-SBI,
Coimbatore
Rapporteur: Dr. R.S. Bana, Sr. Scientist, IARI, New Delhi and Dr. M.K. Khokhar, Scientist,
NCIPM, New Delhi
(Date: 18th March, 2021; Time: 09:30 am to 01:00 pm)
The session started with keynote address by Dr. B. K. Agarwala, Chairman, Tripura State
Pollution Control Board, Agartala, Tripura. Dr Agarwala highlighted the importance of host races of
insect pest of agriculture importance and role of microclimate on pest dynamics. Dr. N.
Bhakthavatsalam, Director, ICAR – NBAIR, Bengaluru in his address presented the overview of
semiochemicals for pest management. He stressed on role of pheromones for pest monitoring, mass
trapping, mating disruption and male annihilation. He also highlighted that semiochemicals are safer
alternatives, environmentally safe, ensure safety of water, soil and environment. Dr. K. Subaharan, in
his presentation emphasized on the role of insect attractants and repellents to develop clean and
green management strategies for agriculture and veterinary pests. Dr Deepa Bhagat described the role
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of nanoformulations of pheromones for insect pest management. She informed that ICAR – NBIAR
have developed nanogels and nanosensors for timely detection and pest management in diverse
agricultural crops. She also emphasized the role of artificial intelligence for pest management
technologies like micro-electro-mechanical sensors for the selective pest female sex pheromone
detection of Helicoverpa armigera and Bactrocera oleae. These nano-phormulation technologies are cost
effective, reusable, farmer friendly and ecologically sound. Dr. S. Manbhar Haldhar covered various
aspects of host plant resistance in dryland horticultural crops. The HPR phenomena can be exploited
for development of resistant crop varieties.
Take home points:
More emphasis on the host plant resistant studies with particular reference to tritrophic
interaction and identifying biocontrol friendly varieties.
Studies on behavior based varieties using xenotic properties.
Package pf practices should also include semiochemicals as a package in IPM of several
crops.
More stress on identification of pheromone compounds for various unknown insects and the
appropriate dispensers.
Involvement of private partners in developing semiochemical products.
Identification of plants with more insecticidal and fungicidal properties from unexploited
areas of north east region.
Nanogels and nanosensors can be effectively used for timely detection and pest
management. Similarly, artificial intelligence for pest management technologies like micro-
electro-mechanical sensors for the selective pest female sex pheromone detection can be new
avenues for future pest management R & D.
Host plant resistance phenomena can be good option for strengthening varietal development
program for environmentally safe pest management strategy.
