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Democratizing-Truth:-An-Analysis-of-Truth-Commissions-
in-the-United-States
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Daniel'Posthumus
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' ' Kelebogile'Zvobgo
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International*Journal*of*Transitional*Justice'pre-publication'version'
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Abstract"
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Over"the"past"half-century,"numerous"transitional"justice" (TJ)"measures"have"been"
implemented"globally."While"much"research"has"examined"different"TJ"modalities"in"
the" aftermath" of" authoritarian" rule" and" armed" conflict," a" growing" body" of" work"
recognizes" TJ"outside" of" political" transitions." We" study" a" noteworthy" export" from"
transitional"to"non-transitional"settings:"truth"commissions."Building"on"scholarship"
on" TJ" in" established" democracies," we" introduce" new" quantitative" data" from" the"
Varieties( of( Truth( Commissions"Project" on" truth" commissions" in" an" overlooked" but"
significant" case:" the" United" States." The" data" capture" twenty" past," present" and"
proposed" official" U.S." truth" commissions," most" of" them" at" the" subnational" level."
Though"their"mandates"vary" considerably," they" all"address"racial"injustice," with" an"
emphasis"on"anti-Indigenous"and"anti-Black"violence."We"elaborate"on"trends"in"the"
data"and"discuss"the"implications"for"unfolding"efforts"to"reckon"with"historical"and"
contemporary"racial"violence"and"injustice"in"the"United"States."
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!For! helpful! comments! and! discussion,! we! thank!the! editors! and! reviewers! at! the! International* Journal* of*
Transitional*Justice,!Claire!Crawford,!Geoff! Dancy,!Eduardo!González,!Adam!Kochanski,!Colleen!Murphy,! Kyle!
Rapp,! Eric! Wiebelhaus-Brahm,! Carla! Winston,! workshop! participants! at! The! Ohio! State! University!and!
members! of! the! International! Justice! Lab.!This!research!is!supported!by!fellowships!from!the!University! of!
Southern!California!(Provost!Fellowship!in!the!Social!Sciences)!and!William!&!Mary!(Global!Research!Institute!
Pre-doctoral! Fellowship).! In! addition,! this! material! is! based! upon! work! supported! by! the! National ! Science!
Foundation!Graduate!Research!Fellowship!Program!under!Grant!No.!DGE-1418060.!Any!opinions,!findings,!and!
conclusions!or!recommendations! expressed!in!this! material!are!those!of! the!authors!and! do!not!necessarily!
reflect!the!views!of!the!National!Science!Foundation.!Authors!are!listed!alphabetically.!
†
!Program!in!Public!Policy!and!Global!Research!Institute,!William!&!Mary,!dkposthumus@email.wm.edu.!
‡
!Government!Department!and!Global!Research!Institute,!William!&!Mary,!kzvobgo@wm.edu.!
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Introduction*
Over% the% past% half-century,% numerous% transitional% justice% (TJ)% measures% have% been% implemented%
globally.
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% While% much% research% has% examined% different%TJ% modalities% in% paradigmatic% transitional%
settings%like%post-apartheid%South%Africa%and%post-junta%Chile,%a%growing%body%of%work%recognises%TJ%
in% non-paradigmatic% settings,% namely% consolidated% democracies% and% autocracies.
2
%Building% on% the%
scholarship% on% TJ% in% established% democracies,% this% article%examines% truth% commissions% in% an%
overlooked%but%significant%case:%the%United%States.%
In%the%aftermath%of%domestic%and%international%racial%justice%protests%triggered%by%the%police%
killings%of%Breonna%Taylor%and%George%Floyd%and%the%lynching%of%Ahmaud%Arbery%in%2020,%US%policy%
makers% at% the% city,% state% and% federal% levels% proposed,% and% in% some% instances% launched,% truth%
commissions%to%address%historical%and%contemporary%racial%violence%and%injustice.
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%While%the%number%
of%recently%proposed%and%launched%commissions%is%noteworthy,%US%truth%commissions%are%not%a%new%
phenomenon.%
This%article%introduces%and%comparatively%analyses%all%past,%present%and%proposed% US%truth%
commissions,% using% new% data% from% the% Varieties( of( Truth( Commissions%Project,% the% most%
comprehensive%and% detailed%quantitative%data%on%truth% commissions%to%date.%The%article%in%general%
and% the% data% in% particular% proceed% from% an% exercise% in% critical% reflexivity% and% a% commitment% to%
producing%decolonial%and%antiracist%research.%So,%in%addition%to%analysing%original%data,%we%lay%out%a%
1
!Cynthia!M.!Horne,!‘The!Impact!of!Lustration!on!Democratization!in!Postcommunist!Countries,’!International!
Journal!of!Transitional!Justice!8(3)!(2014):!496-521;!Kathy!L.!Powers!and!Kim!Proctor,!‘Victim’s!Justice!in!the!
Aftermath!of!Political!Violence:!Why!Do!Countries!Award!Reparations?’!Foreign!Policy!Analysis!13(4)!(2016):!
787-810;! Jelena! Subotić,! ‘Expanding! the! Scope! of! Post-Conflict! Justice:! Individual,! State! and! Societal!
Responsibility,’!Journal!of!Peace!Research!48(2)!(2011):!157-169.!
2
!Paige!Arthur,!‘How!Transitions!Reshaped!Human!Rights:!A!Conceptual!History!of!Transitional!Justice,’!Human!
Rights!Quarterly!31(2)!(2009):!321-367;!Michal!Ben-Josef!Hirsch,!‘Ideational!Change!and!the!Emergence!of!the!
International! Norm! of! Truth! and! Reconciliation! Commissions,’!European! Journal! of! International! Relations!
20(3)!(2014):!810-833;!Carla!Winston,!‘Truth!Commissions!as!Tactical! Concessions:!The!Curious!Case!of!Idi!
Amin,’!International!Journal!of!Human!Rights!25(2)!(2021):!251-273.!
3
!Jennifer!Rae!Taylor!and!Kayla!Vinson,!‘Ahmaud!Arbery!and!the!Local!Legacy!of!Lynching,’!The!Marshall!Project,!
21! May! 2020,! themarshallproject.org/2020/05/21/ahmaud-arbery-and-the-local-legacy-of-lynching!
(Accessed!8!July!2021).!!
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model%for%reflexivity%in%TJ%research,%especially%quantitative%work.%Our%reflexive%exercise%addresses,%in%
the%first%instance,%the%TJ%field%and,%in%the%second%instance,%ourselves%as%researchers.%This%sociological%
analysis% of% the% field,% combined% with% the% data% analysis,% confirms% the% conceptual,% methodological,%
empirical% and% normative% importance% of% including% the% US%case% in% TJ% scholarship.% To% be% sure,% US%
commissions%meet%widely%accepted%definitions%of%truth%commissions;%omitting%the%US%case%introduces%
bias%into%global%TJ%data%and%analyses;%the%US%case%has%both%shaped%and%been%shaped%by%global%cases;%
and% individuals% and% communities% that% have% suffered% political% violence% are% owed% TJ% in% the% United%
States%just%as%much%as%anywhere%else%in%the%world.%
Our% new% dataset% captures% 20%past,% present% and% proposed% official% US%truth% commissions,%
detailing%among%other% items:%(1)%the%commission’s% jurisdiction%(city,%county,%state% or%national),%(2)%
commission%subject%matter%(e.g.,%lynchings,%police%abuse,%institutional%racism,%etc.),%(3)%victim%and%
perpetrator% groups,% (4)% commission% leaders% and% leadership% selection% and% (5)% the% involvement% of%
domestic%and%international%civil%society%actors.%%
Our%early%research%produces%several%important%findings.%To%begin,%while%the%first%two%US%truth%
commissions%were%implemented%at%the%national% level,% the% majority% have% been%implemented%at%the%
subnational%level,%with%state-level%commissions%accounting%for%25%percent,%and%county-%and%city-level%
commissions%accounting%for% a%combined%55%percent% of%US%commissions.%With% national-level%action%
often% stymied% by% partisan% polarization% and% legislative% gridlock,% the% ‘local% turn’% suggests% that%
subnational%TJ%efforts%in%the%United%States%may%be%more%feasible%than%national%ones.%
Next,%while%US%truth%commission%mandates%vary%considerably,%they%all%address%racial%violence%
and%injustice,%by%state%and%nonstate%actors.%Historically,%they%have%tended%to%focus%on%anti-Indigenous%
and% anti-Black% violence,% but% more% recent% commissions% are% broader% in% scope,% encompassing% other%
racial%and%ethnic%minority%groups,%immigrants%and%the%LGBTQIA%community.%Relatedly,%though%past%
commissions% concentrated% on%particular% types% of% abuse%like% extrajudicial% killings,% current% and%
proposed% commissions% seek% to% address% broader% issues% like% institutional% racism.% Many% new%
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commissions%also%span%decades,%if% not%centuries,%in% the%scope%of% their%investigations,%in% contrast%to%
many%earlier%commissions%with%narrower%timeframes.%This%expansion%–%in%groups,%violations%and%time%
–%poses%a%potential%breadth-depth%trade-off%in%the%information%that%US%commissions%can%uncover.%
Finally,%the%United%States%joins%countries%like%Brazil,%Colombia%and%Mexico%in%their%use%of%truth%
commissions%at%the%subnational%level.%With%actors%at%different%levels%of%government%responsible%for%
abuses% in% different% jurisdictions,% these% recent% commissions% indicate,% albeit% provisionally,% a% new%
development% in% global% TJ% practice:% the% (re)distribution% of% responsibility% for% human% rights% abuses%
across%jurisdictions%and,%by%extension,%the%(re)distribution%of%responsibility%to%provide%redress.%This%
may%be%particularly%true%of%countries%with%federal%systems.
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%
This%article%makes%three%contributions%to%the%comparative%study%of%truth%commissions%and%TJ.%
First,%we%make%an%argument%for%‘casing’%the%United%States%and%we%map%out%the%prevalence%and%types%
of%US%commissions%over%the%past%six%decades.%While%the%nation%has%touted%itself%as%‘exceptional,’%it%has%
struggled%to%address%past%and%present%injustices,%primarily%against%communities%of%colour.%The%need,%
demand%and,%to%a%growing%degree,%the%supply%of%TJ%in%the%United%States%evinces%the%importance%of%this%
set%of%norms%and%practices%–%for%the%whole%world,%not%just%some%countries.%In%addition,%our%work%begins%
to%correct%a%common%error%in%existing%empirical% research:%the%exclusion% of%cases%that,% but%for%their%
occurrence%where%we%least%expect,%meet%standard%definitions%of%TJ%institutions.%
Second,% this% article%represents% an% unusual% attempt% to% analyse%subnational% TJ% tools% using%
quantitative%data.%Our%granular%data%illuminate%differences%and%similarities%between%US%commissions%
and% indicates% the% extent% to% which% US%commissions% are% learning% from% each% other% and% from% global%
precedents.%The%data%also%helps%scholars%and%practitioners%foresee%potential%limitations%of%current%US%
truth%commission%designs,%opening%the%door%for%experts%to%recommend%ways%to%mitigate%against%these%
limitations.%
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!Consider,!as!an!example,!the!United!States,!where!there!have!been!different!types!of!localized!human!rights!
violations!like!racial!terror!lynchings,!which!were!concentrated!in!the!Southern!states.!
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Third,%we%offer%a%model%for%reflexivity%in%TJ%research,%especially%quantitative%projects.%While%
qualitative%and%interpretivist%scholarship%has%long% centred% reflexivity%in%project% conceptualization,%
data% generation,% empirical% analysis% and% writing,% quantitative% scholarship% has% lagged% behind.
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%Yet%
positionality%shapes%many%research%choices,%with%important%implications%for%research%findings%and%
conclusions.%Accordingly,%we%lay%bare%how%different%parts%of%our%identities%shaped%various%aspects%of%
the%research:%from%the%decision%to%do%it%to%how%we%define%and%measure%key%concepts%to%the%analysis%
itself.%Were%the%TJ%field%more%reflexive%–%as%our%co-author%team%has%striven%to%be%–%the%United%States,%
we%propose,%may%have%been%cased%years%ago.%
The%article%proceeds%as%follows.%In%the%second%part,%we%discuss%reflexivity,%which%guides%the%
project.%In%the%third%part,%we%address%the%notion%of%‘transitional%justice%without%transition’%and%discuss%
research%on%and%cases%of%truth%commissions%in%consolidated%democracies.%Here,%we%problematize%the%
omission%of%previous%US%national%commissions%in%empirical%research.%We%then%pivot%to%US%subnational%
commissions,% which% have% been% all% but% ignored% in% the% literature.% We% describe% the% data% collection%
protocol% and% introduce% the% dataset% in% the%fourth% part.% We% then% produce% descriptive% statistics% and%
elaborate%on%trends%in%the%data%in%the%fifth%part.%The%sixth%part%summarizes%the%findings%and%suggests%
how%US%commissions%can%build%on%precedents.%We% conclude% by% discussing% the% implications% of% our%
findings%for%the%scholarship%and%practice%of%TJ.%
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Active*Reflexivity*
We%approached% this% research% from% a% posture% of% ‘active% reflexivity,’% mindful% of% how% positionality% –%
notably% scholars’% identities,% geographic% locations,% academic% training% and% methodological%
backgrounds%and%preferences%–%can% influence%the%design%and%execution%of%social% science%research.
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%
5
!Katelyn! E.! Stauffer! and! Diana! Z.! O'Brien,! ‘Quantitative! Methods! and! Feminist! Politi cal! Science,’! in! Oxford!
Research!Encyclopedia!of!Politics,!ed.!William!R.!Thompson!(Oxford:!Oxford!University!Press,!2018),!1-29.!
6
!Roni! Berger,! ‘Now! I! See! it,! Now! I! Don’t:! Researcher’s! Position! and! Reflexivity! in! Qualitative! Research,’!
Qualitative! Research! 15(2)! (2015):! 219-234;! Jessica! Soedirgo! and! Aarie! Glas,! ‘Toward! Active! Reflexivity:!
Positionality!and!Practice!in!the!Production!of!Knowledge,’!PS:! Political!Science! &!Politics!53(3)!(2020):!527-
5"
Yet,%despite%its% importance,%the%role% of%the%researcher%is% not%often%addressed% in%quantitative%work.%
This%is%especially%true%for%‘desk%research’%–%‘the%process%of%collating%and%coding%existing%information%
for% analysis,% without% direct% contact% between% researchers% and% research% [subjects].’
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%While% an%
uncommon%practice,%reflexivity%is%vital:%it%is%a%cornerstone%of%decolonial%and%antiracist%research.
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%As%
we% elaborate% below,% our% reflexive% exercise% is% dual-pronged,% first% addressing% the% TJ% field% and% then%
addressing%our%co-author%pair.%
%
Why$do$transitional$justice$scholars$exclude$the$US$case?$
Our% project% was% inspired% by% a% question% and% puzzle% in% mainstream% TJ% research:% why% do% scholars%
exclude%the%US%case%despite%the%need,%demand%and,%to%a%growing%extent,%the%supply%of%TJ%for%political%
violence%in%the%United%States?%The%country%is%conspicuously%absent%from%scholarship,%even%specialized%
journals%and%book%collections.%Scholars%seem%unwilling%or%reluctant%to%case%the%country.%We%speculate%
that%this%is%due%to%an%implicit%bias%among%TJ%scholars,%many%of%whom%are%white%and%from%the%Global%
North,%and%who%perhaps%prefer%to%study%things%that%happen%‘over%there,’%i.e.,%in%the%Global%South.
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%But%
this% creates% a% sample% selection% bias% that% reinforces% notions% of% US% exceptionalism% and% denies% the%
United%States%as%a%setting%where%TJ%is%needed,%wanted%and%happening.%
Some%might%exclude%the%United%States%on%the%grounds%that%it%is%a%‘full’%democracy%and%is%not%
undergoing% a% transition.% But% the% democratic% context,% and% the% difference% between% transitional% and%
non-transitional%TJ,%should%not%distract%us%away%from%the%case%–%just%as%it%does%not%distract%us%away%
531;! Dvora! Yanow,! ‘Thinking! Interpretively:! Philosophical! Presuppositions! and! the! Human! Sciences,’! in!
Interpretation! and! Method:! Empirical! Research! Methods! and! the! Interpretive! Turn,! eds.! Dvora! Yanow! and!
Peregrine!Schwartz-Shea!(Armonk:!M.E.!Sharpe,!2006),!5-25.!!
7
!Amelia!Hoover!Green!and!Dara!Kay!Cohen,!‘Centering!Human!Subjects:!The!Ethics!of!“Desk!Research”!on!
Political!Violence,’!Journal!of!Global!Security!Studies!6(2)!(2021):!1-17.!
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!M.!Brinton!Lykes!and!Hugo!van!der!Merwe,! ‘Critical!Reflexivity!and!Transitional!Justice! Praxis:!Solidarity,!
Accompaniment!and!Intermediarity,’!International!Journal!of!Transitional!Justice!13(3)!(2019):!411-416.!
9
!Laurel! E.! Fletcher! and! Harvey! M! Weinstein,! ‘How! Power! Dynamics! Influence! the! North-South! Gap! in!
Transitional!Justice,’!Berkeley!Journal!of!International!Law!36(2)! (2018):! 1-28;!Hugo!van!der!Merwe!and! M.!
Brinton!Lykes,!‘Racism!and!Transitional!Justice,’!International!Journal!of!Transitional!Justice!14(3)!(2020):!415-
422.!
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from% other% cases.% Established% democracies% like% Canada% and% South% Korea% have% implemented% truth%
commissions%and%other% TJ% mechanisms,% and% scholars% and% practitioners% alike% consider% these% cases%
important%within%the%global%TJ%landscape.
10
%In%addition,%there%has%been%a%shift%over%the%past%decade%
from%the%field’s%early%preoccupation%with%transitional%contexts,%given%the%growing%use%of%TJ%tools% in%
non-transitional%contexts.
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%So%the%US%case%is%not%unique%in%this%regard.%
Others% might% exclude% the% United% States% because% most% of% its% truth% commissions% have% been%
developed%at%the%subnational%level,%making%the%case%‘too%different’%from%global%cases.%But%the%emphasis%
on% the% subnational% also% should% not% deter% us% from% analysing% US%truth% seeking.% Subnational%
commissions%in%countries%like%Brazil%and%Colombia%have%received%praise,%both%at%home%and%abroad,%
for%their%contributions%to%national%narrative%making.
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%So%the%US%case%is%not%exceptional%in%this%regard%
either.%
Most% fundamentally,% the% inequalities,% discrimination% and% violence% that% marginalized%
populations%face%in%the% United% States,%racial%and%ethnic%minority% groups% in%particular,%are%in%many%
ways%similar,%for%example,%to%those%that%Black%and%other%non-white%people%experienced%in%South%Africa%
under%apartheid.%Here% and%now,%as% it%was%there% and%then,%there%is% a%deep%need% to%reckon%with% and%
provide%restitution%for%historical%and%contemporary%wrongs.%
Therefore,%scholars%should%not%let%the%US%case%slip%through%the%cracks% when%we% study%truth%
commissions%and%TJ%globally.%Otherwise,%we%expose%ourselves%to%criticisms%long%raised%(and%recently%
amplified)%in%the%field%of%International%Relations%–%that%our%collective%body%of%work%is%value%laden%in%
10
!Franklin!Oduro,!‘The!Canadian!Truth!and!Reconciliation!Commission:!Lessons!from!Comparable!Experiences!
in!Nigeria!and! Ghana,’!The!Canadian!Journal!of! Native! Studies!32(2)!(2012):!103-120;!Hun!Joon! Kim,! ‘Local,!
National,!and!International!Determinants!of!Truth!Commissions:!The!South!Korean!Experience,’!Human!Rights!
Quarterly!34(3)!(2012):!726-750.!
11
!Nicola!Henry,!‘From!Reconciliation!to!Transitional!Justice:!The!Contours!of!Redress!Politics!in!Established!
Democracies,’!International! Journal! of! Transitional! Justice!9(2)! (2015):! 199-218;! Eric! Wiebelhaus-Brahm,!
‘Global! Transitional! Justice! Norms! and! the! Framing! of! Truth! Commissions! in! the! Absence! of! Transition,’!
Negotiation!and!Conflict!Management!Research!(2020,!advance!access).!
12
!Advocacy!for!Human!Rights!in!the!Americas,!‘A!Review!of!How!Colombia’s!Truth!Commission!is!Advancing,’!
Colombia! Peace:! Monitoring! Progress! in! Peace! Dialogues,! colombiapeace.org/advancing-truth-commission!
(Accessed! 4! March! 2021);! Nina! Schneider,! ed.,!The! Brazilian! Truth! Commission:! Local,! National! and! Global!
Perspectives!(Oxford:!Berghahn!Books,!2019).!
7"
ways%that%privilege%powerful,%white-majority%nations%like%the%United%States%and%deny%them%as%sites%of%
debate%and%analysis.
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%This%is%a%criticism%that%can%also%be%made%about%cross-national%data%projects%that%
characterize%political%regimes%and%that% measure% conflict% occurrence,%intensity%and%duration%–% data%
projects%that%many%of%us%rely%on%to%operationalize%and%evaluate%‘democracy’%and%‘autocracy,’%‘peace’%
and%‘conflict’%and%‘transitional’%and%‘non-transitional.’%The%TJ%field,%and%cognate%research%programmes%
in%peace%and%conflict%studies,%can%and%should%be%more%reflexive%in%conceptualization,%data%generation%
and%empirical%analysis.%In%the%next%section,%we%turn%from%the%field%to%ourselves,%discussing%how%our%
personal%and%professional%backgrounds%shaped%our%decision%to%undertake%this%project%and%influenced%
our%approach.%
%
Racial$Injustice,$Researcher$Identity$and$Location$
This%project%was%born%amidst%racial%justice%protests%following%the%killings%of%George%Floyd,%Breonna%
Taylor%and%Ahmaud%Arbery%in%2020.%We%had%reflected%for%some%time%on%TJ%in%the%United%States,%but%
more%in%a%personal%capacity%than%in%a%professional%capacity.%The%year%2020%challenged%this%division%
between%the%personal%and%the%professional,%spurring%us%to%action.%Against%the%backdrop%of%the%national%
awakening%on%race,%identity%and%space%shaped%our%understanding%of%the%issues%at%stake.%%
Kelebogile%is%an%outsider-insider%while%Daniel%is%an%insider-outsider%to%the%United%States%and%
the%TJ%processes%that%are%unfolding%in%the%country.%A%Zimbabwean%immigrant%to%the%United%States,%the%
principal%investigator%Kelebogile%does%not%directly%share%in%the%history%that%has%brought%the%country%
to%this%moment%of%racial%reckoning.%To%borrow%a%term%from%US%politics%scholar%Christina%Greer,%she%is%
a%‘Black%ethnic’%not%a%‘native%Black’;%there%is%a%degree%of%distance%between%her%and%the%issues%that%US%
13
!Gurminder!K.!Bhambra,!Yolande!Bouka,!Randolph!B.!Persaud,!Olivia!U.!Rutazibwa,!Vineet!Thakur,!Duncan!
Bell,!Karen!Smith,!Toni! Haastrup,! and!Seifudein!Adem,!‘Why! Is!Mainstream!International! Relations!Blind!to!
Racism?’! Foreign! Policy,! 3! July! 2020,! foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/03/why-is-mainstream-international-
relations-ir-blind-to-racism-colonialism! (Accessed! 15! November! 2020);! Kelebogile! Zvobgo! and! Meredith!
Loken,!‘Why!Race!Matters!in!International!Relations,’!Foreign!Policy!237!(2020):!11-13.!
8"
truth%commissions%are%intended%to%address.
14
%She%has%the%privilege%of%studying%these%topics%without%
the%weight%of%direct%experience%or%intergenerational%trauma.%In%addition,%she%is%a%scholar%of%TJ%in%the%
Global%South,%not%the%Global%North.%Because%of%this%personal%and%professional%outsider%status,%she%
hesitated%to%assume%this%project.%
But%Kelebogile%realized%during%the%protests%that%the%distance%between%her%and%questions%of%TJ%
for%US%racial%violence%is%narrower%than%she%initially%thought.%She%felt%an%acute%sense%of%‘linked%fate’%–%
that% what% happens% to% Black% Americans% affects% her% and% that% what% happens% to% her% affects% Black%
Americans.
15
%Beyond%beginning%to%feel(more%like(an%insider,%she%is%an%assumed%insider.
16
%She%has%lived%
in%the%United%States%for%20%years,%was%educated%there%and%does%not%have%a%detectable%‘foreign’%accent.%
In%her%everyday%life,%she% is%read%as% a%native%Black.% Moreover,% she%has%shared%her% international%and%
comparative%TJ%research%with%groups%advocating%for%and%helping%to%implement%US%truth%commissions%
and%she%has%presented%her%research%findings%to%the%public%in%national%media.%Importantly,%she%feels%a%
deep% sense% of% responsibility% to% engage% rather% than% disengage% with% unfolding% TJ% processes% in% her%
adopted%country.%%
%Daniel%has%a%different%kind%of%privilege%from%Kelebogile:%white%privilege.%American%by%birth,%
but%raised%and%educated%overseas,%primarily%in%Japan,%Daniel%does%not%know%intimately%the%history%of%
US%racial%violence.%Lacking%personal%insight%and%direct%experience%with%the%issues%at%the%centre%of%US%
truth%commissions%–%both%because%he%is%white%and%because%he%has%lived%most%of%his%life%abroad%–%he%
also%approached%the%project%with%hesitancy.%Yet%the%TJ%institutions%and%policies%that%he%first%learned%
about% in% Asia% are% materializing% in% his% home% country.% Researching% TJ% in% the% United% States% is% an%
14
!Christina!M.!Greer,!Black!Ethnics:!Race,!Immigration,!and!the!Pursuit!of!the!American!Dream!(Oxford:!Oxford!
University!Press,!2013).!
15
!Michael! C.! Dawson,! Behind! the! Mule:!Race! and! Class! in! African-American! Politics!(Princeton:! Princeton!
University!Press,!1995).!
16
!Louise!Ryan!and!Anne!Golden,!‘“Tick!the!Box!Please”:!A!Reflexive!Approach!to!Doing!Quantitative!Social!
Research,’!Sociology!40(6)!(2006):!1191-1200.!
9"
opportunity% to% interrogate% systemically% racist% institutions% from% which% he% benefits% directly% and%
indirectly%as%a%white%American.%
Though%outsiders%in%several%respects,%we%have%privileged,%insider%knowledge%because%we%have%
studied% or% observed% TJ% processes% in% different% parts% of% the% world.% We% have% insight% into% how%these%
processes%have%worked%in%global%contexts%and%we%appreciate%how%TJ%could%be%transformative%in%the%
US%context.%Importantly,%this%research%is%an%opportunity%for%us%to%engage%in%decolonial,%antiracist%work%
from%a%former%centre%of%colonization:%the%Commonwealth%of%Virginia.
17
%
%
Academic$Background,$Concept$Definition$and$Research$Design$
Once% we% decided% to% undertake% this% research,% our% professional% backgrounds% influenced% how% we%
designed%and%executed%it.%Because%state-centrism%is%endemic%to%both%our%home%fields,%International%
Relations%and%Public%Policy,%we%de%facto%privilege%government-sponsored%TJ%projects.%While%we%relax%
the%assumption%that%a%truth%commission%must%be%adopted%by%a%national%government%–%a%point%to%which%
we% return% later% in% the% article% –% we% nevertheless% maintain% that% a%commission% must% be% adopted% by%
government%actors.%We%do%not%presume%that%government/official%TJ%initiatives%are%preferable%to%civil%
society/unofficial%initiatives%or%that%they%are%more%effective.%We%simply%conceptualize%commissions%
as%government%initiatives.%Of%course,%we%recognize%that%differently%situated%scholars%might%approach%
this%issue%differently.%
17
!The! first! colony! in! English! North! America! was! established! at! Jamestown! in! 1607! and! the! first! enslaved!
Africans!were!brought! to! Point! Comfort! in! 1619,! both! mere! miles! from! William! &! Mary,! where! Daniel! is! a!
student!and!Kelebogile!is!a!professor.!The!University,!itself,!sits!on!stolen!Indigenous!land!and!was!built!and!
enriched!by!enslaved!Africans!and!their!descendants,!people!whose!labour!was!also!exploited!by!the!College’s!
faculty!and!students.!Our!city,!Williamsburg,!was!also!the!capital!of!the!Virginia!colony!during!British!rule!and!
the!state!capital,!Richmond,!was! a! political!centre!of!the!Confederacy!during!the!US!Civil!War.!This!history!
challenges!and!motivates!us!to!participate!in!decolonial,!antiracist!work!through!research!and!teaching,!as!well!
as!memorializing!the!enslaved! on!campus!and!removing!from! places!of!honour!the!names!and! likenesses!of!
white! supremacists,! among! other! truth! and! memory! projects.! The! Lemon! Project! Steering! Committee,! The!
Lemon!Project:!A!Journey!of!Reconciliation,!Report!of!the!First!Eight!Years!(Williamsburg:!The!College!of!William!
&!Mary,!2019).!
10"
We%also%recognize%our%positionality%as%producers%of%quantitative%data.%Scholars%who%build%and%
analyse%quantitative%data%sometimes%‘flatten’%the%processes%and%politics%that%they%purport%to%capture.%
Quantitative%research%relies%on%an%assessment%of%‘what%counts’%and%‘what%does%not%count.’%Our%concern%
with%consistency%in%defining%what%is%and%what% is%not%a%truth%commission%is%thus%rooted% not%only%in%
International% Relations% and% Public% Policy% but% also% in% assumptions% about% unit% comparability.% We%
assume% that% ‘official’% and% ‘unofficial’% truth% projects% are% ‘too% different’% to% be% studied% side% by% side.%
Relatedly,%our%measurement% implies%that%official%truth% projects% are%in%fact% comparable.% We%respect%
that%differently%positioned%scholars%might%approach%this%same%task%in%markedly%different%ways.%
Finally,% we% acknowledge% our% motivation% in% building% a% dataset:% quantitative% data% is%highly%
valued%in%US%political%science%and,%for%many%scholars,%it%is%the%only%way%that%they%can%appreciate%the%
prevalence%and%significance%of%political%events%and%processes,%especially%those%that%have%historically%
been% overlooked% in% scholarship.% With% that% said,% our% quantitative% data% is%not% intended% to% supplant%
qualitative%work.%Rather,%the%data%can%help%situate%qualitative%work%in%a%broader%perspective%and%help%
us%expand%the%reach% of% research%on%truth%commissions%and% TJ% in%a%discipline%that%often% values% the%
quantitative%over%the%qualitative.%Critically,%our%data%helps%us%and%the%broader%field%characterize%and%
evaluate%US%commissions% in%a%way%that% was%not%previously% possible.%A%quantitative%dataset,%with%a%
clear%codebook%and%protocol,%also%positions%us%and%other%scholars%to% later% integrate% the% results% of%
commissions,%add%new%commissions%and%expand%on%the%current%list%of%variables.%
%
Transitional*Justice*Without*Transition*
Early%research% on%TJ%in%‘non-paradigmatic’%cases,% namely%established%democracies%and%autocracies,%
suggested%that%its%effects%are%limited,%the%basic%reasoning%being%that%democratic%leaders%have%existing%
commitments%to%justice%while%autocratic%leaders%do%not.
18
%Recent%research%has%set%aside%the%purported%
18
!Pádraig! McAuliffe,! ‘Transitional! Justice’s! Expanding! Empire:! Reasserting! the! Value! of! the! Paradigmatic!
Transition?’!Journal!of!Conflictology!2(2)!(2011):!32-44.!
11"
effects%of% TJ% tools% in% non-transitional% settings% and% seeks%instead% to% comprehend% variation% in% the%
emergence%and%design(of%TJ%mechanisms%absent%a%conventional%political%transition.
19
%
Truth%commissions%are%a%noteworthy% export% from% transitional%to%non-transitional%settings.%
The% Varieties( of( Truth( Commissions(Project%reports% that% between% 1970% and% 2018,% 43% percent% of%
national%commissions%(36%of%84)%were%implemented%outside% of%transitions% from%autocracy,%internal%
armed%conflict%and% government-led% mass%killings.
20
%And%since%2000,%non-transitional% commissions%
represent%more%than%half%of%commissions%globally.%While%traditional%political%transitions%are%not%the%
trigger%for%commissions%in%standing%democracies,%scholars%argue%that%such%commissions%nevertheless%
operate% in% a% ‘transition% between% regimes% of% legitimation.’
21
%Essentially,% governments% deliver% a%
commission%or%another%mechanism%because%unaddressed%historical%injustices%undermine%the%state’s%
legitimacy%in%the%eyes%of%the%public.%South%Korea’s%three%truth%commissions%in%the%early%2000s%serve%
as% examples.
22
%Other% full% democracies% like% Canada% have% implemented% TJ% mechanisms% (to% varying%
success)%in%response%to%abiding% social%divisions%and%conflicts%between%and%among%citizens,% not%just%
with%the%state%–%something%Canada%and%the%United%States%have%in%common.
23
%%
(
19
!Daniel! Solomon! and! Kelebogile! Zvobgo,! ‘Co-Opting! Truth:! Explaining! Quasi-Judicial! Institutions! in!
Authoritarian!Regimes,’!Unpublished!manuscript!(2020).!
20
!Kelebogile!Zvobgo,!‘Demanding!Truth:! The!Global!Transitional!Justice!Network! and!the!Creation!of!Truth!
Commissions,’!International!Studies!Quarterly!64(3)!(2020):!609-625.!
21
!Stephen!Winter,!Transitional!Justice!in!Established!Democracies:!A!Political!Theory!(Basingstoke:!Palgrave!
MacMillan,!2014);!Stephen!Winter,!‘Towards!a!Unified!Theory!of!Transitional!Justice,’!International!Journal!of!
Transitional!Justice!7(2)!(2013):!224-244.!
22
!Kim,! Hun! Joon,! The! Massacres! at! Mt.! Halla:! Sixty! Years! of! Truth! Seeking! in! South! Korea! (Ithaca:! Cornell!
University!Press,!2014).!
23
!Amaia! Álvarez! Berastegi,! ‘Transitional! Justice! in! Settled! Democracies:! Northern! Ireland! and! the! Basque!
Country!in!Comparative!Perspective,’!Critical!Studies!on!Terrorism!10(3)!(2017):!542-561;!Fionnuala!Ní!Aoláin!
and! Colm! Campbell,! ‘The! Paradox! of! Transition! in! Conflicted! Democracies,’! Human! Rights! Quarterly! 27(1)!
(2005):!172-213;!Kim!Stanton,!‘Canada's!Truth!and!Reconciliation!Commission:!Settling!the!Past?’!International!
Indigenous!Policy!Journal!2(3)!(2011):!1-18.!
12"
Truth$Commissions$in$the$United$States$$
The%United%States%is%by%many%accounts%one%of%the%world’s%oldest%and%strongest%democracies.
24
%That%is,%
of%course,%if%one%takes%a%narrow%view%of%the%concept%of%democracy%and%sidesteps%the%fact%that%suffrage%
for%non-white%Americans%was%only%legislated%in%the%mid-20th%century%and%remains%highly%contested.%
Further,%the%United%States%has%been%reluctant%to%grapple%with%historical%wrongs%like%the%country’s%
establishment%on%Native%genocide%and%land%theft,%beginning%in%1607,%and%the%enslavement%of%Africans%
and% their% descendants,% beginning% in% 1619.
25
% These%injustices%are%not% universally%acknowledged%
among% the% majority-white% population,% nor% is% redress% widely% supported.% This%contributes% to% the%
continued%marginalization%and%oppression%of%Indigenous%people%and%Black%people,%and%other%racial%
and% ethnic% minority% groups,% in% virtually% all% aspects% of% US%political% and% economic% life% –% from%
employment%and%housing%to% healthcare% to% voting%and%justice.
26
%Yet%there%appears%to%be%a%growing%
interest% in%addressing% and% disseminating% (i.e.,% democratizing)% the% truth% of%US%political% violence,%
especially%racial%violence,%as%part%of%a% broader%movement%to%acknowledge%the%voices,% perspectives%
and%experiences%of%Americans%of%colour%and%to%uphold%their%rights%and%full%citizenship.%So%it%is%puzzling%
that% the% mainstream% TJ% literature% has% ignored% the% US%case% and% specific%TJ% modalities% like% truth%
commissions.
27
%
One%reason%for%the%omission%in%scholarship%is%chronology%and%nomenclature.%The%first%national%
truth% commissions% in% the% United% States% preceded% emblematic% commissions% in% Latin% America% and%
24
!Carles!Boix,! Michael! Miller! and! Sebastian! Rosato,! ‘A! Complete! Data! Set!of!Political!Regimes,!1800-2007,’!
Comparative!Political!Studies!46(12):!1523-1554.!
25
!US!Congress,!House,!Truth!and!Healing!Commission!on!Indian!Boarding!School!Policy!Act,!H.R.!8420,!116th!
Cong.,!introduced!in!House!29!September!2020,!congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/8420!(Accessed!
3!March!2021);!US!Congress,!House,!Urging!the!establishment!of!a!United!States!Commission!on!Truth,!Racial!
Healing,! and! Transformation,! H.Con.Res.! 100,! 116th! Cong.,! introduced! in! House! 4! June! 2020,!
congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-concurrent-resolution/100/text!(Accessed!3!March!2021).!
26
!Devah!Pager!and! Hana!Shepherd,!‘The!Sociology!of! Discrimination:! Racial!Discrimination!in!Employment,!
Housing,!Credit,!and!Consumer!Markets,’!Annual!Review!of!Sociology!34!(2008):!181-209;!Jo!C.!Phelan!and!Bruce!
G.!Link,!‘Is!racism!a!fundamental!cause!of!inequalities!in!health?’!Annual!Review!of!Sociology!41!(2015):!311-
330;!Alexandra!Byrne,!Bilen!Zerie,!and!Kelebogile!Zvobgo,!‘Biden’s!Policy!Must!Center!Racial!Justice,’!Foreign!
Policy!240!(2021):!5-7.!
27
!Genevieve!Bates,!Ipek!Cinar,!and!Monika!Nalepa,!‘Accountability!by!Numbers:!A!New! Global! Transitional!
Justice!Dataset!(1946–2016),’!Perspectives!on!Politics!18(1)!(2020):!161-184;!Geoff!Dancy,!Bridget!E.!Marchesi,!
13"
Africa%in%the%1980s%and%1990s.%The%first%US%truth%commission,%the%National%Advisory%Commission%on%
Civil% Disorders% (hereafter,% the% Kerner% Commission)% was% initiated% more% than% a% decade% before% the%
renowned%Argentine%Comisión%Nacional%sobre%la%Desaparición%de%Personas%(CONADEP).%Installed%in%
1967%by%President%Lyndon%Baines%Johnson,%the%Kerner%Commission%studied%the%circumstances%of%the%
nationwide% race% riots% that% year% and% their% causes,% namely% racial% segregation% and%discrimination% in%
policing,%employment,%housing%and%education% –%evergreen%problems%facing% Black%communities%and%
communities%of%colour%today.
28
%Thirteen%years%later%in%1980,%the%US%Congress%formed%the%Commission%
on% Wartime% Relocation% and% Internment% of% Civilians% (CWRIC)% to% examine% World% War% II-era%
persecution%of%persons%of%Japanese%ancestry.
29
%%
To%be%sure,%neither%commission%was%called%a%‘truth%commission’%at%the%time%nor%was%it%framed%
as%part%of%a%process%of%‘transitional%justice’%per%se.%This%terminology%did%not%exist%then.%Moreover,%the%
country% was% not% undergoing% a% textbook-case% political% transition.% Nonetheless,% both% the% Kerner%
Commission%and%the%CWRIC%meet%Hayner’s%widely-accepted%definition%of%a%truth%commission:%(1)%a%
temporary%body%(2)%created%by%a%national%government%to%(3)%examine%past%abuses%and%(4)%determine%
a%pattern%of%harm%while%(5)%engaging%affected%communities.
30
%Crucially,%CONADEP%experts%like%Emilio%
Crenzel%argue%that%Argentina%modelled%its%commission%after%US%commissions,%and%not%after%the%failed%
1982%commission%in%neighbouring%Bolivia,%as%some%have%suggested.
31
%Leaving%the%United%States%out%
Tricia!D.!Olsen,!Leigh!A.!Payne,!Andrew!G.!Reiter,!and!Kathryn!Sikkink,!‘Behind!Bars!and!Bargains:!New!Findings!
on!Transitional!Justice!in!Emerging!Democracies,’!International!Studies!Quarterly!63(1)!(2019):!99-110.!
28
!Much!of!the!commission’s!research!focused!on!Detroit,!Michigan!and!Newark,!New!Jersey,!where!the!violence!
was!especially!severe.!United!States!National!Advisory!Commission!on!Civil!Disorders,!The!Kerner!Report!(New!
York:!Pantheon!Books,!1988).!
29
!Commission! on! Wartime! Internment! and! Relocation! of! Civilians,! Personal!Justice! Denied:! Report! of! the!
Commission!on!Wartime!Relocation!and!Internment!of!Civilians!(Seattle:!University!of!Washington!Press,!1997).!
30
!Priscilla!B.!Hayner,!Unspeakable!Truths:!Transitional! Justice! and! the! Challenge!of!Truth!Commissions,!2! ed.!
(New!York:!Routledge,!2011).!
31
!Emilio! Crenzel,! ‘Argentina's! National! Commission! on! the! Disappearance! of! Persons:! Contributions! to!
Transitional!Justice,’!International!Journal!of!Transitional!Justice!2(2)!(2008):!173-191.!
14"
of%the%global%history%and%genealogy%of%truth%commissions%is%regrettable;%it%obscures%an%important%part%
of%commissions’%evolution%over%time%and%across%space.
32
%%
The%Kerner%Commission%and%the%CWRIC%also%set%a%precedent%for%future%US%commissions,%most%
of%which,%quite%interestingly,%have%been%designed%at%the%subnational%level.%Outside%of%the%United%States,%
subnational%truth%commissions%have%gained%attention%and%traction%in%recent%years;%they%are%part%and%
parcel%of%the%local%turn%in%TJ.
33
%Some%argue%that%these%types%of%commissions%are%preferable%to%national%
ones%because%they%afford%greater%agency%to%communities,%as%in%Prijedor%in%the%ex-Yugoslavia.
34
%Setting%
aside%questions%of%preferability%and%effectiveness,%there%is%a%growing%research%agenda%on%local%TJ,%even%
for%democracies.%Given%this%rich%area%of%study,%it%is%all%the%more%important%to%engage%the%US%case.%
The%little%work% that% exists%on%US%truth%seeking%has%focused%almost% exclusively%on%the% 2004%
Greensboro% commission,% which% investigated% the% 1979% massacre% in% Greensboro,% North% Carolina,%
where%neo-Nazis%and%Ku%Klux%Klan%members%killed%five%labour%organizers%and%wounded%10%others.
35
%
However,%this%was%not%a%government-sponsored%commission,%so%we%would%instead%characterize%it%as%
an%unofficial%truth%project.
36
%This%in%no%way%diminishes%its%work.%Rather,%it%helps%us%as%social%scientists%
to%distinguish%between%dissimilar%processes.%
%
32
!We!remark!here!on!the!timing!of!the!two!commissions!in!human!rights!dialogue!and!precedent.!The!Kerner!
Commission!was!established!between!the!adoption!of!the!Convention!on!the!Elimination!of!All!Forms!of!Racial!
Discrimination!by!the!United!Nations!General!Assembly!in!1965!and!the!treaty’s!entry!into!force!in!1969.!So!
issues!of!racial!injustice!and!violence!were!front-of-mind,!not!only!for!the!United!States!but!also!for!the!world.!
Meanwhile,!the!CWRIC!was!established!in!response!to!the!decades-long!Japanese!American!redress!movement.!
While!the!United!States!had!attempted!to!mete!out!justice!for!Germany!and!Japan’s!World!War!II-era!crimes!at!
the!Nuremberg!and!Tokyo!trials,!it!was!not!until!the!1980s!that!it!began!to!look!inward!and!address!(some!of)!
its!own!crimes.!
33
!Adam!Kochanski,!‘The!“Local!Turn”!in!Transitional!Justice:!Curb!the!Enthusiasm,’!International!Studies!Review!
22(1)!(2020):!26-50.!
34
!Dowling,!Julia,!Facing!the!Past!in!Prijedor:!A!Case!Study!of!Local!Transitional!Justice!Initiatives!(Master’s!diss.,!
University!of!Sarajevo,!2014).!
35
!Greensboro!Truth!and!Reconciliation!Commission,!Greensboro!Truth!and!Reconciliation!Report!(Greensboro:!
Greensboro!Truth!and!Reconciliation!Commission,!2006).!
36
!Louis!Bickford,!‘Unofficial!Truth!Projects,’!Human!Rights!Quarterly!29(4)!(2007):!994-1035.!
15"
The*United*States*Truth*Commissions*Dataset*
We%have% tracked%20%past,%present%and%proposed%official%US%truth%commissions,%most%of%them%at%the%
subnational%level%and%all%of%them%to%address%racial%violence%and%injustice.%Our%dataset%builds%on%the%
pioneering%Varieties(of( Truth(Commissions%to%include% not%only%national%efforts%but%also%subnational%
efforts.%In%this%section,%we%discuss%our%data%collection%protocol%and%provide%a%technical%description%of%
the%variables%to%accompany%the%published%dataset%(available%via%the%Harvard%Dataverse).%
%
Data$Sources$
The%main%coder%on%this%project%drew%on%a%variety%of%digitized%primary%and%secondary%source%materials.%
Key%search%terms%included%‘United%States,’%‘truth%commission,’%‘truth%and%reconciliation,’%‘truth% and%
healing,’%‘racial%justice,’%etc.%Primary%sources%included%commission%websites,%founding%documents%like%
executive% orders% and% legislation,% statements% by% policy% makers% and% commissions’% interim% and%
concluding%reports.%Secondary%sources%included%academic%journals%and%books,%news%features,%reports%
by%civil%society%organizations%(for%example%the%Truth,%Racial%Healing,%and%Transformation%Movement)%
and%publications%by%international%expert%groups%like%the%International%Center%for%Transitional%Justice%
(ICTJ).% We% also% drew% on% Transitional% Justice% in% the% USA,% a%network% of% US-based% academics% and%
practitioners% working% on% diverse% projects,% including% reparations,% memorialization,% public% history,%
education% and% institutional% reforms.% The% collective% hosts% public% workshops,% maintains% a% member%
listserv% and% facilitates% meetings% where% participants% are% able% to% keep% each% other% abreast% of%
developments%in%our%respective% areas% of%work.%These%resources%helped% us% ensure% that%we%had%the%
most%comprehensive%and%up-to-date%list%of%US%truth%commissions.%%
(
Defining$the$Universe$of$Cases$
We%use%Hayner’s%definition%of%a%truth%commission,%relaxing%only%the%criterion%that%it%be%created%by%a%
national%government.%To%be%included,% a% truth% commission% need%not%be%so%called.%For% instance,% our%
dataset%includes%the%Truth%and%Healing%Council%(THC)%in%the%state%of%California.%Rather,%to%be%included,%
16"
a%commission%must%be%sponsored%by%government%officials%at%either%the%city,%county,%state%or%federal%
level.%In%addition,%a%commission%must%be%temporary,%focused%on%events%in%the%past%and%set%up%to%reveal%
a% pattern% of% harm.% Consequently,% we% exclude% such% bodies% as% the% Citizens% Commission% for% Police%
Accountability%in%Louisville,%Kentucky,%which%is%a%permanent%body,%and%the%state%of%Wisconsin’s%Task%
Force%on%Racial%Disparities,%which%is%focused%on%ongoing%events.
37
%A%commission%must%also%be%tasked%
with%engaging% affected% communities.% Therefore,% we% exclude% such% cases% as% the% Virginia% Governor’s%
Commission%to%Examine%Racial% Inequity,% which%has%not%been% assigned% to%engage%communities%but,%
rather,%has%been%ordered%to%analyse%discrimination%in%the%legal%code.
38
%We%also%exclude%such%bodies%
as%the%state% of% Vermont’s%Racial%Equity% Advisory% Panel,%which%is%not% an%investigative%body.
39
%For%a%
proposed% commission% to% be% included,% it% must% be% formally% introduced% by% an% executive,% executive%
agency,% or% legislative% body.% For% now,% we% exclude% among% proposed% commissions% the% process% in%
Minneapolis,%Minnesota;%currently%there%exists%only%an%ad%hoc%subcommittee%tasked%with%developing%
a% framework%for% a% possible% truth% commission.
40
%As% a% note,% we% only% move% a% commission% from%
‘proposed’% to% ‘present’% when% it% begins% operating.% Simple% pronouncements% of% commissions% being%
launched%do%not%suffice.%
%
37
!Louisville!Metro!Police!Department,!‘Citizens!Commission!on!Police!Accountability,’!Louisville!Metro!Police!
Department,! louisville-police.org/348/Citizens-Commission-on-Police-Accountabi! (Accessed! 28! February!
2021);!Adam!Rogan,!‘State!Racial!Disparities!Task!Force!Members!Hope!It’s!Not!‘a!Dog!and!Pony!Show’,’!The!
Journal! Times,! 22! November! 2020,! journaltimes.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/state-racial-disparities-
task-force-members-hope-its-not-a-dog-and-pony-show/article_78e40efe-05ac-5471-adc7-d43c103fc25d.!
html!(Accessed!28!February!2021).!
38
!Office!of!the!Governor!of!Virginia,!‘Commission!to!Examine!Racial!Inequity!in!Virginia!Law,’!Governor!Ralph!
Northam,!governor.virginia.gov/racial-inequity-commission/about/!(Accessed!28!February!2021).!!
39
!State!of!Vermont,!‘Racial!Equity!Advisory!Panel,’!racialequity.vermont.gov!(Accessed!28!February!2021).!
40
!City!of!Minneapolis,!‘City!Council!Approves!Resolution!Establishing!Truth!and!Reconciliation!Process!for!City!
of! Minneapolis,’! City! of! Minneapolis! News,! 16! October! 2020,! news.minneapolismn.gov/2020/10/16/city-
council-approves-resolution-establishing-truth-and-reconciliation-process-for-city-of-minneapolis/!
(Accessed!28!February! 2021);! City! of! Minneapolis,!‘City!Council! Committee! Advances! Plans! For! Truth!and!
Reconciliation!Commission,’!City!of!Minneapolis!Patch,!1!July!2021,!patch.com/minnesota/minneapolis/city-
minneapolis-city-council-committee-advances-plans-truth-reconciliation!(Accessed!21!July!2021).!
17"
Technical$Description$
Here,%we%give%a%brief%technical%description%of%the%dataset’s%key%variables.%
Status,(Dates(and(Creators.(The%categorical%variable%Status%indicates%whether%a%commission%is%
‘past,’%‘present’%or%‘proposed,’%with%follow-on%date%variables%for%the%year%a%commission%was%proposed%
and,%if%applicable,%when%it%began%operating%and%concluded%its%work.%The%binary%variables%Federal(level,%
State%level,%County(level%and%City(level%capture%the%commission’s%jurisdiction,%with%follow-on%variables%
where%applicable%for%the%relevant%state,%county%or%city%name.%Creator%captures%the%individual%or%entity%
that%adopted%the%commission,%for%example%‘US%President’%for%the%Kerner%Commission.%Creator(party%
marks%the%party%affiliation%of%the%commission%creator,%‘Democratic’%in%the%case%of%President%Johnson.%
If% the% creator% was% a% legislature% or% council,% we% use% the% party% affiliation% of% the% majority% group,% for%
instance%the%Democratic%majority%in%the%US%Congress%that%helped%usher%in%the%CWRIC.%We%also%have%a%
binary%variable%Bipartisan(creator%that%marks%if%there%was%any%bipartisan%cooperation.%
Mandates.( The% categorical% variable% Victim( group%specifies% victims% of% interest% to% the%
commission,%for%example%Japanese%Americans%in%the%case%of%the%CWRIC.%Meanwhile,%Primary(abuses%
and%Secondary(abuses%capture%the%violations%at%the%centre%of%commission%investigations,%for%example%
racial%terror%lynchings%in%the%case%of%Maryland’s%Truth%and%Reconciliation%Commission%(TRC).%Primary(
perpetrator%and%Secondary(perpetrator%capture%offenders%of%interest,%for%example%local%governments%
and% private% citizens,% respectively,% in% commissions% focused% on% lynchings% like% the% one% in% Maryland.(
Mandate(start(and(Mandate(close%indicate%a%commission’s%assigned%temporal%scope.%
Leadership(and(civil(society(involvement.%The%data%also%detail%the%leadership%selection%method%
using%the%categorical%variable%Member(selection,%with%‘policy%maker%nomination,’%‘public%nomination’%
and% ‘open% application’% as% the% selection% options.% Finally,% we% capture% whether% domestic% and/or%
international%civil%society%groups%were%involved%in%the%lead-up%to%and/or%execution%of%the%commission%
using% the% binary% variables% Domestic( civil( society%and% International( civil( society,% with% a% follow-on%
description% of% the% groups% and% persons% involved,% for% example% the% ICTJ% in% the% case% of% the% Maine%
18"
Wabanaki-State% Child% Welfare% TRC%and% Chief% Willie% Littlechild% from% Canada’s% TRC% in% the% case% of%
California’s%THC.%
%
Trends*in*US*Truth*Commission*Experimentation
41
%
The%US%edition%of%the%Varieties(of(Truth(Commissions%captures%20%past,%present%and%proposed%official%
US%truth%commissions,%from%1967%to%2021.%As%seen%in% Table%1,%six% commissions%(30%percent)% were%
created%between%1967%and%2013,%seven%(35%percent)%have%been%active%since%2018%and%seven%others%
(35%percent)%have%been%proposed%since%2020%by%executives%and%in%legislatures%at%different%levels%of%
government.%As%seen%in%the%table,%commissions%are%being%proposed%and%launched%at%higher%rates%over%
time.% Whereas% the% first% six% US%truth% commissions% spanned% five% decades,% the% seven% currently% in%
operation%span%a%mere%three%years.%Further,%the%seven%under%deliberation%were%proposed%by%policy%
makers%within%a%single%year,%the%first%few%coming%within%weeks%of%George%Floyd’s%murder%in%May%2020%
and%the%ensuing%racial%justice%protest%movement.
41
!Geoff!Dancy,!Hunjoon! Kim,!and!Eric! Wiebelhaus-Brahm,!‘The!Turn! to!Truth:!Trends!in!Truth!Commission!
Experimentation,’!Journal!of!Human!Rights!9(1)!(2010):!45-64.!
19#
Table&1.&List&of&US&National&and&Subnational&Truth&Commissions.&
!
Commission'Name'
Status'
Creator'
Subject'Matter'
Start'Year'
National'Advisory'Commission'on'Civil'Disorders'(Kerner'Commission)'
Past'
US'President'
Killings,'police'abuse'
1967'
Commission'on'Wartime'Relocation'and'Internment'of'Civilians'
Past'
US'Congress'
Relocation,'internment'
1980'
A'Documented'History'of'the'Incident'Which'Occurred'at'Rosewood,'Florida''
in'January,'1923'
Past'
State'Legislature'
Killings,'forced'displacement'
1993'
Oklahoma'Commission'to'Study'the'Tulsa'Race'Riot'of'1921'
Past'
State'Legislature'
Killings,'property'destruction'
1997'
1898'Wilmington'Race'Riot'Commission'
Past'
State'Legislature'
Killings,'violent'disenfranchisement'
2000'
Maine'Wabanaki-State'Child'Welfare'Truth'and'Reconciliation'Commission'
Past'
Governor'
Family'separations'
2013'
Alachua'County'Truth'and'Reconciliation'
Present'
County'Commissioner'
Lynchings'
2018'
Maryland'Lynching'Truth'and'Reconciliation'Commission'
Present'
State'Legislature'
Lynchings'
2019'
California'Truth'and'Healing'Council'
Present'
Governor'
Genocide,'exploitation'
2020'
Iowa'City,'Iowa'Ad'Hoc'Truth'and'Reconciliation'Commission'
Present'
City'Council'
Broad'catalogue'of'abuses'
2020'
Providence,'Rhode'Island'Truth-Telling,'Reconciliation'and'Municipal'Reparations'Process'
Present'
City'Mayor'
Broad'catalogue'of'abuses'
2020'
Carlisle,'Pennsylvania'Truth'and'Reconciliation'Commission'
Present'
City'Council'
Institutional'racism'
2021'
New'York,'New'York'Racial'Justice'and'Reconciliation'Commission'
Present'
City'Mayor'
Institutional'racism'
2021'
United'States'Commission'on'Truth,'Racial'Healing,'and'Transformation'
Proposed'
US'Congress'
Broad'catalogue'of'abuses'
pending'
Truth'and'Healing'Commission'on'Indian'Boarding'School'Policy'in'the'United'States'
Proposed'
US'Congress'
Cultural'genocide'
pending'
Boston,'Massachusetts'Truth,'Justice'and'Reconciliation'Commission'
Proposed'
District'Attorney'
Racism'in'criminal'justice'
pending'
Philadelphia,'Pennsylvania'Truth,'Justice,'and'Reconciliation'Commission'
Proposed'
District'Attorney'
Racism'in'criminal'justice'
pending'
San'Francisco,'California'Truth,'Justice,'and'Reconciliation'Commission'
Proposed'
District'Attorney'
Racism'in'criminal'justice'
pending'
North'Dakota'Truth,'Healing'and'Reconciliation'Commission'
Proposed'
State'Legislature'
Physical,'psychological'and'
spiritual'violence'
pending'
Unify'Arkansas'Commission''
Proposed'
State'Legislature'
Broad'catalogue'of'abuses'
pending'
20#
National(Commissions(
The$first$US$truth$commission,$the$Kerner$Commission,$ran$from$1967$to$1968$and$investigated$the$
causes$and$circumstances$of$the$1967$nationwide$race$riots.$The$deadliest$of$the$riots$were$in$Detroit,$
Michigan,$where$43$people$were$killed,$ and$ in$ Newark,$ New$Jersey,$where$26$people$were$ killed,$
most$of$them$Black.
42
$The$commission$was$ created$via$presidential$executive$ order$ and$President$
Johnson$ hand-selected$ the$ members.$ The$ commission$ held$ public$ hearings$ with$ affected$
communities,$ and$ interviewed$ civil$ rights$ leaders,$ business$ and$ labour$ leaders$ and$ government$
officials.
43
$
In$its$ final$report,$the$commission$rejected$the$popular$claim$that$the$riots$were$caused$by$
violent$‘riff$raff’$acting$out$for$no$reason.$The$commission$determined$that$systemic$and$individual$
anti-Black$ racism$ was$ to$ blame.
44
$The$ commissioners$ were$ remarkably$ prescient,$ prescribing$ a$
series$of$remedies$that$Black$people$and$people$of$colour$are$still$fighting$for$today:$(1)$an$end$to$de$
facto$ segregation$ in$ housing,$ (2)$ affordable$ housing,$ (3)$ jobs$ creation,$ including$ in$ police$
departments,$and$(4)$the$ expansion$ of$social$assistance$programmes.$ Ultimately,$ Johnson$ ignored$
the$ commission’s$ recommendations,$ deeming$ efforts$ to$ comprehensively$ redress$ the$ Black$
community$politically$inconvenient.
45
$
The$CWRIC$came$just$over$a$decade$later$in$1980$–$the$fruit$of$a$grassroots$redress$movement$
led$by$Japanese$Americans.$Selected$by$the$US$Congress,$the$CWRIC$leadership$team$was$composed$
42
!Khorri! Atkinson! and!Rick!Rojas,!‘Five!Days!of!Unrest!That!Shaped,!and!Haunted,!Newark,’!The$New$York$
Times,!11!July!2017,!nytimes.com/2017/07/11/nyregion/newark-riots-50-years.html!(Accessed!28!February!
2021);!Traqina!Quarks!Emeka,!‘Detroit!Riot!of!1967,’!Encyclopedia$Britannica,!britannica.com/event/Detroit-
Riot-of-1967! (Accessed! 28! February! 2021);! Alice! George,! ‘The! 1968! Kerner! Commission! Got! It! Right,! But!
Nobody!Listened,’!Smithsonian$Magazine,!1!March!2018,!smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/1968-
kerner-commission-got-it-right-nobody-listened-180968318!(Accessed!28!February!2021).!
43
!Ryan,!Mary!Kathleen,!‘The!Democratic!Kaleidoscope!in!the!United!States:!Vanquishing!Structural!Racism!in!
the!US!Federal!Government.’!(PhD!diss.,!Virginia!Tech,!2019).!!
44
!Justin! Driver,! ‘The! Report! on! Race! That! Shook! America,’! The$ Atlantic,! May! 2018,! theatlantic.com/!
magazine/archive/2018/05/the-report-on-race-that-shook-america/556850!(Accessed!2!March!2021).!
45
!Steven!M.!Gillon,!‘This!Government! Report! Showed! How!Racism!Was!Dividing!America! 50! Years! Ago.! Its!
Prediction! Is! Haunting,’! TIME,! 1! March! 2018,! time.com/5180266/kerner-commission-report-anniversary/!
(Accessed!8!July!2021).!!
21#
of$ partisan$ and$ nonpartisan$ members.
46
$Commissioners$traversed$ the$ nation,$ hearing$ from$ 750$
witnesses$during$their$three-year$investigation.$They$ concluded$ in$ their$report$that$anti-Japanese$
racism$ and$ xenophobia,$ not$ genuine$ or$ imminent$ security$ threats,$ motivated$ the$ government's$
programme$of$mass$relocation$and$internment$of$an$estimated$120,000$persons$of$Japanese$ancestry$
between$ 1942$ and$ 1946.$ Among$ other$ items,$ the$ CWRIC$ recommended$ reparations,$ which$ were$
delivered$with$the$Civil$Liberties$Act$of$1988.
47
$
There$have$not$been$any$national$commissions$since,$but$there$are$two$proposals$currently$
under$consideration$in$the$US$Congress.$In$the$midst$of$the$summer$2020$Black$Lives$Matter$protests,$
California$ congresswoman$ Barbara$ Lee$ sponsored$ a$ bill$ for$ a$ Truth,$ Racial$ Healing,$ and$
Transformation$Commission$(US$TRHT).$New$Jersey$senator$Cory$Booker$introduced$a$companion$
bill$ in$ the$ upper$ chamber.$ Likewise,$ then-New$ Mexico$ congresswoman$ Deb$ Haaland$ and$
Massachusetts$senator$Elizabeth$Warren$introduced$in$the$House$and$the$Senate,$respectively,$a$bill$
for$ a$ Truth$ and$ Healing$ Commission$ on$ Indian$ Boarding$ School$ Policy$ (US$THC),$ much$ akin$ to$
Canada's$TRC.$
$
Subnational(Commissions(
Our$ data$ opens$ new$ terrain$ in$ the$ study$ of$ TJ$ generally,$ and$ truth$ commissions$ in$ particular,$ by$
including$commissions$at$the$subnational$level.$Subnational$commissions$make$up$a$significant$share$
of$US$truth$commissions,$80$percent.$As$seen$in$Figure$1,$past,$ present$and$proposed$commissions$
have$ worked,$ are$ in$ progress$ or$ are$ under$ deliberation/development$ in$ 13$ states:$ Arkansas,$
California$ (two$commissions),$ Florida$ (two$commissions),$ Iowa,$ Maine,$ Maryland,$ Massachusetts,$
46
!The!commission’s!leadership!team!included!a!member!of! the! House! of! Representatives! and! an! Associate!
Justice!of!the!US!Supreme!Court.!
47
!Commission! on! Wartime! Relocation! and! Internment! of! Civilians,! Personal$ Justice$ Denied,$ Part$ 2:$
Recommendations!(Washington!D.C.:!Commission!on!Wartime!Relocation!and!Internment!of!Civilians,!1983);!
US!Congress,! House,!Civil!Liberties!Act!of!1988,!HR!442,! 100th! Cong.,! introduced! in! House! 6! January!1987,!
govtrack.us/congress/bills/100/hr442/text!(Accessed!3!March!2021).!
22#
New$ York,$ North$ Carolina,$ North$ Dakota,$ Oklahoma,$ Pennsylvania$ (two$ commissions)$ and$ Rhode$
Island.$
$
$
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$(a)$
$
$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$(b)$
!
$$$$$$$$$$$$$Figure'1.$Subnational$US$Truth$Commissions$by$State.$(a)$City,$County$and$State$Level.$$$$$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$(b)$State$Level$Only.$Source:$The$Varieties!of!Truth!Commissions$Project.$
$
The$ earliest$ subnational$ US$truth$ commissions$ were$ in$ Rosewood,$ Florida$ and$ Tulsa,$
Oklahoma$in$1993$ and$ 1997,$respectively.$Both$ investigated$local$authorities,$white$ supremacists$
and$violent$ extremist$groups$ like$the$Ku$Klux$Klan$for$the$harassment,$injury$and$murder$of$Black$
23#
residents.$ Anti-Black$ discrimination$ and$ violence$ in$ both$ municipalities$ culminated$ in$ race$
massacres.
48
$In$1923,$a$white$mob$ravaged$the$historically$Black$community$of$Rosewood,$killing$as$
many$as$200$people,$ burning$virtually$all$buildings$and$ forcibly$ displacing$residents.
49
$Two$years$
earlier,$in$1921,$a$white$mob$in$Tulsa$was$unleashed$on$the$Greenwood$District$of$the$city,$said$to$be$
the$ ‘Black$ Wall$ Street.’
50
$A$ centre$of$ Black$ economic$ prosperity,$ Greenwood$ was$ unacceptable$ to$
neighbouring$white$ communities.$ As$ many$ as$ 300$ people$ were$ killed$ in$ the$ massacre,$ with$ 800$
injured$and$thousands$displaced.$
Racial$terror$is$also$at$the$centre$of$a$more$recent$commission,$this$time$in$Alachua$County,$
Florida.
51
$Since$2018,$the$commission$has$been$investigating$the$lynchings$regime$that$emerged$after$
the$Civil$War$and$Black$people’s$emancipation$from$slavery.$Like$several$others,$this$commission$has$
been$ assigned$ to$ analyse$the$ actions$ of$ state$ and$ nonstate$ actors,$ including$ law$ enforcement$
personnel$and$private$citizens.$
$Beyond$these$efforts$at$the$city$and$county$levels,$a$state-level$commission$was$conducted$in$
Maine,$two$are$ongoing$in$Maryland$and$California$and$two$have$been$proposed$by$policy$makers$in$
Arkansas$and$North$Dakota.$The$2013$commission$in$Maine$was$a$partnership$between$the$state$and$
the$Wabanaki$tribal$governments.
52
$For$decades,$the$state$removed$Indigenous$children$from$their$
homes$and$communities,$and$placed$them$into$the$foster$care$system$ or$ under$ adoption$ because$
48
!The!massacres!in!Rosewood!and!Tulsa!(and!later!Wilmington,!North!Carolina)!were!emblematic!of!US!racial!
violence!at!the!time:!the!culmination!of!racial!resentment!and!institutionalized!white!supremacy.!These!are!not!
single!events:!they! are!part!and! parcel!of!anti-Black! oppression!and!violence!as! the!respective!commissions!
established.!The!Wilmington!commission!went!as!far!as!to!report!on! the!impact!and!legacy!of!the!1898!coup!
for!generations!of!Black!Americans,!not!only!in!the!respective!jurisdictions!but!across!the!country.!!
49
!Carmelita!Pickett,!‘Rosewood!Massacre!of!1923.’!Encyclopedia$Britannica,!britannica.com/topic/Rosewood-
riot-of-1923!(Accessed!3!March!2021).!!
50
!Oklahoma! Commission! to! Study! the! Tulsa! Race! Riot! of! 1921,! Tulsa$ Race$ Riot:$ A$ Report$ (Oklahoma! City:!
Commission!to!Study!the!Tulsa!Race!Riot!of!1921,!2001).!
51
!Samantha!Cherry,!‘Alachua!County!to!Host!Truth!and!Reconciliation!Events!Remembering!Lynching!Victims,’!
WUFT:$ News$ and$ Public$ Media$ for$ North$ Central$ Florida,! 6! February!2020,!
wuft.org/news/2020/02/06/alachua-county-to-host-truth-and-reconciliation-events-remembering-
lynching-victims!(Accessed!5!March!2021).!!
52
!‘Maine!Wabanaki-State!Child!Welfare!Truth!&!Reconciliation!Commission,!Beyond$the$Mandate:$Continuing$
the$Conversation!(Hermon:!Maine!Wabanaki-State!Child!Welfare!Truth!&!Reconciliation!Commission,!2015).!
24#
their$families$were$purportedly$unfit$to$raise$them.$The$policy,$said$to$protect$the$‘best$interests’$of$
Wabanaki$children,$was$devastating$for$them$and$their$families,$and$necessitated$a$truth$commission$
to$establish$ the$facts,$namely$the$policy’s$racism$and$the$serious$ harms$it$caused.$The$commission$
also$created$a$space$for$individual$and$community$healing.$
The$state$of$Maryland$has$authorized$its$TRC$to$examine$the$history$and$legacy$of$lynchings,$
while$ the$ state$ of$California$has$ authorized$ its$THC$ to$study$the$genocide$ and$ exploitation$ of$
Indigenous$Californians$in$the$19th$century$and$state-sanctioned$discrimination$and$abuse$since.$The$
commissions$began$operating$in$2019$and$2020,$respectively.$
$
Victims,(Abuses(and(Perpetrators(
Past$national$truth$commissions$have$addressed$two$primary$victim$populations:$Black$and$Japanese$
Americans.$National$commissions$currently$under$debate$would$expand$on$these.$The$US$THC$would$
address$abuses$perpetrated$against$Native$Americans$in$the$Indian$boarding$school$system,$from$the$
1860s$to$the$1960s,$and$the$US$TRHT$would$study$the$oppression$of$people$of$colour$from$the$1600s$
onwards.$$
Past$ subnational$ commissions$ have$ exclusively$ examined$ abuses$ against$ Black$ and$
Indigenous$ Americans,$ and$ emphasized$ physical$ integrity$ rights$ violations,$ namely$ killings.$ By$
contrast,$most$current$and$proposed$subnational$commissions$are$set$to$investigate$the$oppression$
of$ people$ of$ colour$ in$ general.$ Innovating$ on$ past$ efforts,$ commissions$ in$ Boston,$ Massachusetts,$
Philadelphia,$ Pennsylvania$ and$ San$ Francisco,$ California$ have$ been$ tasked$ with$ addressing$
‘marginalized$groups,’$a$designation$given$by$commission$designers$to$encompass$people$of$colour,$
immigrants$and$LGBTQIA$individuals.
53
$Most$current$and$proposed$commissions$are$also$intended$
to$examine$institutional$racism$and$structural$inequality.$
53
!Truth,!Justice,!and!Reconciliation!Commission,!‘Home,’!tjrc.org!(Accessed!4!March!2021).!
25#
Policy$ makers$ understandably$ want$ commissions$ to$ encompass$ more$ groups$ and$ tackle$
more$ issues$ over$ longer$ timeframes.$ TJ$ is$ certainly$ due$ to$ many$ more$ Americans$ than$ have$
previously$ been$ included$ in$ national$ and$ subnational$ processes.$ However,$ commission$ designers$
face$a$possible$breadth-depth$trade-off.$Commissions$may$uncover$broad$systems$of$oppression$and$
abuse$but$ultimately$fail$to$offer$specific,$actionable$steps$to$transform$communities.$Commissions$
may$ also$ fail$ to$ address$ individual$ responsibility$for$ harms$ and$ miss$ the$ opportunity$ to$ provide$
individual$redress.$
Lastly,$government$actors$have$been$(and$remain)$the$perpetrators$of$primary$concern$in$US$
commissions,$with$white$citizens$as$perpetrators$of$secondary$concern.$In$the$case$of$the$former,$we$
note$a$potential$conflict$of$interest$in$Boston,$Philadelphia$and$San$Francisco,$where$the$respective$
district$attorneys$will$lead$truth$commissions$to$investigate$the$criminal$justice$system$of$which$they$
are$key$players.$The$situation$will$need$to$be$closely$monitored$so$that$the$commissions$can$conduct$
a$full$and$impartial$investigation,$and$deliver$a$report$whose$findings$are$not$abridged,$redacted$or$
diluted.$
$
Leaders(and(Leadership(Selection(
Across$ the$ board,$ US$truth$ commissions$ have$ struggled$ to$ recruit$ members$ from$ diverse$
backgrounds,$which$ is$very$problematic,$considering$commissions’$ subject$matter.$The$problem$of$
unrepresentative$commission$leadership$ is$due$in$ part$to$the$ respective$commission$inaugurators$
ostensibly$appointing$members$from$among$their$networks,$ rather$ than$ soliciting$ applications$ or$
nominations$from$the$public,$per$international$best$standards.
54
$States$like$Maine$and$California$and$
cities$like$Iowa$City$are$among$the$exceptions,$having$had$an$open$application$process.$
$
54
!Eduardo!González!and! Howard!Varney,!Truth$ Seeking:$Elements$of$ Creating$an$Effective$Truth$ Commission!
(New!York:!International!Center!for!Transitional!Justice,!2013).!
26#
Civil(Society(Involvement(
Both$ domestic$ and$ international$ civil$ society$ actors$ have$ worked$ with$ US$commissions$ in$ their$
research$and$operations.$For$example,$the$Equal$Justice$Initiative$–$which$installed$the$country’s$first$
national$lynching$memorial,$the$National$Memorial$for$Peace$and$Justice$in$Montgomery,$Alabama$–$
has$been$heavily$involved$in$truth$seeking$in$Alachua$County.$Given$the$commission’s$focus$on$racial$
terror$lynchings,$this$is$an$obvious$choice$for$an$organizational$partner.$ International$civil$society$
groups$like$ the$ICTJ$and$TJ$professionals$like$Eduardo$ González$have$also$assisted$commissions$in$
places$like$Maine.$Members$of$previous$global$commissions$have$done$likewise.$To$illustrate,$one$of$
the$Canadian$TRC$commissioners,$Chief$Willie$Littlechild,$is$supporting$the$Californian$THC.$
$
Summary'of'Findings'
Our$research$produces$several$key$insights$into$US$and$global$TJ,$with$implications$for$current$and$
future$TJ$efforts.$First,$US$truth$commissions$mirror$efforts$in$countries$like$Brazil$that$have$turned$
to$the$local.$The$local$turn$indicates$that$subnational$commissions$may$be$more$feasible$than$national$
ones$ in$ a$ US$context.$ A$ multiracial$ coalition$ of$ progressive$ lawmakers$ has$ introduced$ bills$ to$
establish$federal$commissions$on$racial$injustice.$However,$the$proposed$legislation$faces$significant$
opposition$from$conservatives,$who$are$predominantly$white$and$many$of$whom$deny$the$existence$
of$systemic$racism$in$the$United$States.
55
$With$five$subnational$commissions$launched$and$five$others$
55
!For!instance,!US!Senator! Susan!Collins,!a! Republican! from!Maine,!said! that!she!does! ‘not!believe!systemic!
racism!is!a!problem’!in!her!state!–!the!same!state!that,!until!recently,!separated!Indigenous!children!from!their!
families! because! it! considered! them! unfit! guardians.!Likewise,! Senator! Joni! Ernst! of! Iowa! has! denied! the!
existence! of! ‘systemic! racism! across! the! board’! –! the! very! issue! the! Iowa! City! TRC! is! intended! to! examine.!
Meanwhile,!Ted!Cruz,!a!US!Senator!from!Texas!who!ran!for!president!in!2016!and!is!an!early!frontrunner!for!
the!Republican!nomination!in!2024,!also!refuses!to!acknowledge!systemic!racism.!Clare!Foran,!‘Susan!Collins:!
“I! Do! Not! Believe! Systemic! Racism! is! a! Problem! in! the! State! of! Maine”,’! CNN$ Politics,! 29! October! 2020,!
edition.cnn.com/2020/10/29/politics/susan-collins-systemic-racism-maine-senate-debate/index.html!
(Accessed!5!March!2021);!Scott!McFetridge,!‘Iowa!Senate!Candidates!Debate,!Differ!on!Racism,!Privilege,’!The$
Associated$ Press.! October! 16,! 2020,! apnews.com/article/race-and-ethnicity-senate-elections-des-moines-
elections-joni-ernst-ea6f94a18c4ed805fb4403dff43c26e8!(Accessed!5!March!2021);!Savannah!Behrmann,!‘No!
Systemic!Racism!in! Police,!Society,!Say!Texas! Senators!Cruz,!Cornyn,’!The$ Columbus$ Dispatch,!17!June! 2020,!
dispatch.com/story/news/politics/2020/06/17/no-systemic-racism-in-police-society-say-texas-senators-
cruz-cornyn/112775972!(Accessed!5!March!2021).!
27#
proposed$in$2020$ and$the$first$ part$of$2021,$city$ and$state$policy$makers$seem$ to$be$faring$better$
than$their$federal$counterparts$who$have$proposed$two$but$launched$none.$We$note,$however,$that$
these$ten$subnational$commissions$have$been$led$primarily$by$Democratic$policy$makers.$As$of$July$
2021,$only$three$had$any$support$from$Republicans$–$the$Iowa$City$TRC$in$Iowa,$the$Carlisle$Borough$
TRC$ in$ Pennsylvania$ and$ the$ North$ Dakota$ Truth,$ Healing,$ and$ Reconciliation$ Commission.$
Expanding$attempts$by$Republicans$nationwide$to$ban$Critical$Race$Theory$and$to$deny$the$truth$of$
US$political$ violence,$ including$ the$ 6$ January$ 2021$insurrection,$ do$ not$ bode$ well$ for$ bipartisan$
cooperation$in$the$ quest$to$deliver$truth,$ justice,$reparations$and$guarantees$ of$non-repetition$for$
historical$and$contemporary$injustices.
56
$So$it$appears$that$US$truth$seeking,$whether$national$ or$
subnational,$will$depend$on$Democratic$majorities.$
Second,$ US$commissions’$ overall$ emphasis$ has$ historically$ been$ on$ Indigenous$ and$Black$
Americans,$ but$ recent$ commissions$ have$ been$ broadened$ to$ encompass$ other$ minoritized$ and$
marginalized$communities.$They$are$also$set$to$investigate$both$physical$and$non-physical$abuses.$
The$ move$ to$ expand$ commissions’$ scope$ will$ likely$ broaden$ constituencies$ of$ support$ for$ truth$
commissions$ and$ other$ TJ$ measures,$ and$ reveal$ important$ information$ on$ systems$ and$ agents$ of$
racial$ oppression.$ Yet$ commission$ designers$ face$ a$ breadth-depth$ trade-off,$ with$ commissions$
potentially$ uncovering$ systemic$ racism$ and$ structural$ inequality,$ but$ failing$ to$ offer$ concrete$
recommendations$to$transform$communities.$$
56
!For! example,! Florida! Governor! Ron! DeSantis,! another!2024! Republican! presidential! hopeful,! pushed! the!
Florida!Board!of!Education!to!adopt!new!rules!banning!the!teaching!of!critical!race!theory.!Senator!Josh!Hawley,!
another!2024!Republican!presidential! hopeful,! said! of!the!January!6th! rioters,! ‘I! don’t!know!which! of! those!
protesters,!if!any!of!them...participated!in!the!criminal!riot.!And!I!think!it’s!a!slur!on!the...people!who!came!to!
the! Capitol! that! day! to! demonstrate! peacefully! to! lump!them! in! with! the! criminal! rioters….’! Bobby! Calvan,!
‘Florida! Bans! “Critical! Race! Theory”! From! Its! Classrooms,’! Associated$ Press,! 20! June! 2021,!
apnews.com/article/florida-race-and-ethnicity-government-and-politics-education-
74d0af6c52c0009ec3fa3ee9955b0a8d!(Accessed!18!July!2021);!Colby!Itkowitz,!‘GOP!Sen.!Hawley!Says!He!Does!
Not! Regret! Raising! Fist! to! Pro-Trump! Mob! at! Capitol! on! Jan.! 6,’! The$ Washington$ Post,! 4! May! 2021,!
washingtonpost.com/powerpost/republicans-trump-hawley-jan-6-riot/2021/05/04/9f757304-aced-11eb-
acd3-24b44a57093a_story.html!(Accessed!18!July!2021).!!
28#
Third,$ while$ US$commissions$ resemble$ some$ aspects$ of$ global$ commissions,$ like$ South$
Africa’s$ focus$ on$ racial$ violence,$ Colombia’s$ emphasis$ on$ the$ subnational$ and$ Canada’s$ delay$ in$
enacting$ TJ,$ US$ efforts$ are$ in$ many$ ways$ inconsistent$ with$ global$ practices$ and$ expectations.$ To$
illustrate,$ US$ executives$ and$ legislatures$ often$ handpick$ commission$ leaders$ rather$ than$ invite$
nominations$from$the$public$or$have$prospective$commissioners$apply$and$be$chosen$based$on$merit$
and$experience.$This$appears$to$be$a$legacy$of$the$first$US$truth$commissions,$the$Kerner$Commission$
and$the$CWRIC,$where$the$president$and$members$of$Congress$selected$commissioners,$most$of$them$
government$ officials$ and$ few$ of$ them$ coming$ from$ multicultural$ backgrounds.$ This$ practice$ also$
indicates$a$shallow$understanding$of$global$experiences$and$international$standards$and$guidelines,$
with$potentially$negative$consequences$for$the$operation$and$effectiveness$of$US$commissions.$
Given$the$reality$ of$partisan$polarization,$ and$the$potential$sensitivity$ of$truth$commission$
investigations,$an$open$and$bipartisan$or$nonpartisan$leadership$selection$process$that$involves$civil$
society$might$build$trust$and$support$between$different$segments$of$society.$This$is$one$area$where$
ongoing$and$future$US$commissions$can$build$on$precedents.$Clergy$and$other$nonpartisan$civic$and$
social$leaders$have$figured$prominently$in$global$and$US$commissions,$lending$clout$and$credibility.$
International$advisors$can$also$lend$invaluable$expertise$and$assistance$in$the$design$and$operation$
of$current$and$future$commissions$in$the$United$States.$They$could$help$make$US$commissions$more$
effective,$ for$ example$ by$ suggesting$ and$ supporting$ coordination$ of$ commissions$ across$
jurisdictions.
57
$A$system$whereby$research$conducted$by$commissions$at$the$city$and$county$levels$
is$ shared$ with$ states$ and,$ in$ turn,$ with$ the$ federal$ government$ could$ be$ highly$ beneficial,$ as$ the$
nation$as$a$whole$grapples$with$its$racist$past$and$present.$
$
Conclusion'
57
!Eduardo! González! and! Kelebogile! Zvobgo,! ‘As! America! Seeks! Racial! Justice,! It! Can! Learn! From! Abroad,’!
Foreign$ Policy,! 14! March! 2021,! foreignpolicy.com/2021/03/14/racial-justice-truth-reconciliation-
commissions-international!(Accessed!15!March!2021).!
29#
We$end$as$ we$ began,$with$an$exercise$ in$ reflexivity$that,$combined$with$the$ initial$ analysis$of$our$
novel$ data,$ demonstrates$ the$ conceptual,$ methodological,$ empirical$ and$ normative$ importance$ of$
including$ the$ US$case$ in$ TJ$ scholarship.$ We$ believe$ it$ is$ the$ unique$ combination$ of$ our$ racial,$
geographic,$disciplinary$and$methodological$backgrounds$that$helped$us$see$and$take$seriously$the$
United$States$as$a$TJ$case.$
Coming$from$Japan$and$Zimbabwe,$and$studying$and$working$in$the$United$States,$we$are$no$
strangers$to$criticisms$of$the$field,$namely$that$it$is$biased,$even$hypocritical.$TJ$is$a$set$of$tools$that$
have$in$many$instances$been$foisted$by$countries$in$the$Global$North$on$countries$in$the$Global$South.$
This$is$despite$the$fact$that$the$Global$North$has$its$own$ catalogue$ of$ unaddressed$ historical$ and$
contemporary$ injustices$ –$ against$ its$ own$ citizens$ and$ against$ citizens$ of$ countries$ in$ the$ Global$
South.
58
$Interestingly,$and$ despite$emerging$attempts$ to$reckon$with$historical$ and$contemporary$
wrongs$by$such$a$prominent$country$as$the$United$States,$TJ$scholars$have$been$largely$silent$on$the$
case.$$
The$ failure$ to$ case$ the$ United$ States$ has$ biased$ how$ we$ think$ about$ TJ,$ especially$ truth$
commissions,$ and$ distorted$ how$ we$ measure$ and$ evaluate$ them.$ The$ field’s$ neglect$ has$ also$
effectively$shuttled$to$the$side$individuals$and$communities$that$have$suffered$political$violence$in$
the$United$States$and$who$are$demanding$and,$in$some$instances,$winning$TJ.$This$scholarly$context,$
and$social$unrest$in$our$country,$spurred$us$to$intervene.$We$undertook$a$new$data$collection$effort,$
mapping$out$and$describing$for$the$first$time$official$US$truth$commissions,$from$the$1960s$onwards.$$
We$situated$the$United$States$within$the$study$and$practice$of$TJ,$and$we$included$efforts$at$
the$subnational$level.$We$showed$that$US$commissions$are$adjacent,$for$example,$to$efforts$in$mature$
democracies$like$Canada$and$South$Korea,$on$the$one$hand,$and$efforts$at$the$local$level$in$countries$
like$ Brazil$ and$ Colombia,$ on$ the$ other$ hand.$ Our$ data$ thus$ reveals$ that$ the$ United$ States$ is$ not$
58
!Rosemary!L.!Nagy,! ‘Transitional! justice! as!global!project:!Critical!reflections,!‘Third$ World$Quarterly!29(2)!
(2008):!275-289.!
30#
exceptional$after$all$but$part$ of$ a$ global$ phenomenon.$ Addressing$the$US$case$helped$us$begin$ to$
confront$a$major$hypocrisy$in$scholarship$and$practice,$and$examining$the$case$ further$ holds$ the$
potential$to$consolidate$ the$shift$from$some$ of$the$TJ$field’s$ early$preoccupations$(e.g.,$democracy$
promotion,$peacebuilding$ and$civil$and$political$rights$in$contexts$ of$political$transition)$to$a$more$
transformative!justice!model$that$encompasses$broader,$structural$injustices$and$social$and$economic$
issues.
59
$$
With$ our$ data,$ scholars$ can$ begin$ to$ systematically$ analyse$the$ emergence,$ design,$
performance$and$impact$of$truth$commissions$in$the$United$States.$We$will$see$with$time$how$well$
US$commissions$fare$in$different$jurisdictions$covering$ different$ topics$ and$ populations.$ The$data$
also$open$a$window$of$opportunity$for$scholars$and$practitioners$to$make$recommendations$to$policy$
makers,$ activists$ and$ other$ civic$ and$ social$ leaders$ to$ improve$ upon$ current$ and$ future$ US$
commissions,$whether$with$respect$to$their$mandates,$scope$or$operation.$
$
59
!Paul!Gready!and!Simon!Robins,!‘From!Transitional!to!Transformative! Justice:!A!New!Agenda!for! Practice,’!
International$Journal$of$Transitional$Justice!8(3)!(2014):!339-361.!