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energies
Review
Review of Polygeneration Schemes with Solar Cooling
Technologies and Potential Industrial Applications
Andrés Villarruel-Jaramillo 1,* , Manuel Pérez-García2, JoséM. Cardemil 1and Rodrigo A. Escobar 1,3
Citation: Villarruel-Jaramillo, A.;
Pérez-García, M.; Cardemil, J.M.;
Escobar, R.A. Review of
Polygeneration Schemes with Solar
Cooling Technologies and Potential
Industrial Applications. Energies 2021,
14, 6450. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en14206450
Academic Editor: Pedro Dinis Gaspar
Received: 7 September 2021
Accepted: 6 October 2021
Published: 9 October 2021
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1
Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica y Metalúrgica, Escuela de Ingeniería, Pontificia Universidad Católica
de Chile, Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago 7820436, Chile; jmcardem@uc.cl (J.M.C.);
rescobar@ing.puc.cl (R.A.E.)
2CIESOL Research Center on Solar Energy, Joint Center UAL-CIEMAT, University of Almeria, Ctra.
Sacramento s/n, 04120 Almería, Spain; mperez@ual.es
3Centro del Desierto de Atacama, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Vicuña Mackenna 4860,
Santiago 7820436, Chile
*Correspondence: afvillarruel@uc.cl
Abstract:
The trend to reduce CO
2
emissions in cooling processes has made it possible to increase
the alternatives for integrating solar energy with thermal equipment whose viability depends on its
adaptation to polygeneration schemes. Despite the enormous potential offered by the industry for
cooling and heating processes, solar cooling technologies (SCT) have been explored in a limited way
in the industrial sector. This work discusses the potential applications of industrial SCTs and classifies
hybrid polygeneration schemes based on supplying cold, heat, electricity, and desalination of water;
summarizes the leading SCTs, and details the main indicators of polygeneration configurations
in terms of reductions on primary energy consumption and payback times. To achieve an energy
transition in refrigeration processes, the scenarios with the most significant potential are: the food
manufacturing industry (water immersion and crystallization processes), the beverage industry
(fermentation and storage processes), and the mining industry (underground air conditioning).
Keywords:
solar cooling technology; polygeneration schemes; industrial cooling processes;
photovoltaic; solar collector
1. Introduction
The main world organizations have focused on reducing the CO
2
emissions associated
with electricity generation through the implementation of policies and incentives that
promote renewable energies (RE) [
1
]. The International Energy Agency (IEA) projected that
with current policies, it is possible to increase the share of renewable energies from 36%
to 52% by 2050. However, it proposes reaching 84% as a response to the climate crisis [
2
].
Another strategy is to reduce the electricity demand from key high-consumption processes
by implementing energy-saving, passive, or more efficient solutions. According to the
IEA, one of these high-consumption processes is cooling processes (RP), which consumed
2075 TWh of electricity in 2018, accounting for 10% of the world’s energy consumption. If
the current trend of refrigeration energy consumption continues, in 2040, demand could
triple the current level [
2
–
4
]. Consequently, such continuous growth will hinder the
decarbonization goals in the electricity sector [
2
,
5
,
6
]. Part of the strategies for reducing
the electricity consumption in RPs considers policies along three lines: energy-efficient
buildings, optimization of conventional refrigeration equipment (CRS) and investigation
of alternative cooling equipment [7,8].
For this reason, research has been directed towards driving RPs by RE to reduce the
dependence on the electricity grid. Solar energy has advantages over wind, geothermal
or nuclear power due to its adaptability in installation, reduced costs, and availability
of resources even in remote areas. The most recurrent renewable sources for alternative
Energies 2021,14, 6450. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206450 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021,14, 6450 2 of 30
cooling equipment are solar photovoltaic (PV) and solar thermal (ST) [
9
]. In particular, PVs
tend to be used primarily for the advantage of adapting to previously installed electrical
cooling equipment. Furthermore, PVs are attractive in the residential sector due to the
increased efficiency and the current trend in cost reduction. However, the overall efficiency
of a PV system in heat processes tends to decrease due to the conversion efficiency for
heat processes. For this reason, electricity supply strategies with PVs are oriented towards
conventional cooling equipment and supplying electricity to equipment connected to the
grid. From the point of view of heat processes, the use of solar collectors (SC) makes it
possible to increase the solar fraction by improving the techno-economic relationship of
the system.
Previous reviews regarding solar thermal cooling technologies have focused on the op-
erating principles, working temperatures and equations of state of the
adsorption [10–13]
,
absorption [
14
–
16
], and thermomechanical [
17
,
18
] machines. In addition, the technical
limits of the operational aspects and the conversion efficiency were detailed [
11
,
19
–
21
].
For reducing heat losses or improving the operating strategies of cooling equipment, the
hybridization of sorption equipment and its design strategies were also evaluated [
22
–
25
].
Although several novel prototypes for solar cooling technologies have been developed in
recent years, the focus has been in increasing the coefficient of performance (COP) with
little consideration for the economic aspects of its construction. which can raise costs
substantially, having a potentially significant effect in technological selection. However,
several other studies have evaluated the technical and economic performance of solar cool-
ing technologies to analyze how well they can perform when compared to conventional
cooling systems [
22
,
26
]. These evaluations have been mainly done on residential cases of
study, which have focused on air-conditioning processes highlighting design optimization
methods, supply strategies, and the architectural integration of solar energy in buildings
for cooling [
27
–
29
]. This fact, along with the previous argument, have resulted in a lim-
ited vision of the potential of solar cooling technologies applied to other commercial or
industrial settings, where the potential to significantly impact CO
2
reduction is consider-
able. In particular, solar thermal cooling has economic disadvantages when compared to
conventional systems. Thermal cooling equipment driven by SC is expensive due to low
conversion efficiency requiring high CO
2
tax for its economic feasibility with respect to
conventional equipment. Therefore, one could argue that it is necessary to integrate solar
cooling with heating processes to improve the joint techno-economic performance [30].
The feasibility of the application of the systems depends on the ability to maximize
the use of the solar field. In this perspective, the trend in the design and evaluation of
polygeneration plants has increased in recent years, but has focused so far on the residential
sector [
9
]. The reviews conducted on polygeneration have focused on evaluating in the
residential sector the simultaneous supply of cooling, electricity and heating with combined
PV-SC schemes and the integration of photovoltaic thermal systems (PVT). In addition,
the possibility of its adaptation to the market based on primary energy savings and CO
2
reduction compared to a conventional system has grown [
9
,
31
–
33
]. However, studies
focusing on residential sector are significantly different in terms of the thermal loads
observed for the industrial sector. This is because the industry requires temperature control
in processes that vary between <0
◦
C to >30
◦
C. Industrial processes like deodorization,
pasteurization, crystallization, refrigeration, etc. can work simultaneously. In addition,
due to quality standards, temperatures must be kept constant despite external and internal
changes due to climatic seasons or variations in the volume of the product.
In this sense, the most widely used alternative equipment are reversible heat pumps
and absorption cooling equipment. Consequently, solar cooling systems have been eval-
uated in the residential sector to supply cold with sorption equipment with a nominal
capacity greater than 1000 kW, comparable to cooling equipment used in the mid-scale
food industry [34].
In addition to the above, except for the agro-industry and food industry, solar re-
frigeration applied in the industrial sector has hardly been investigated despite the strict
Energies 2021,14, 6450 3 of 30
requirements of constant temperature control and the high energy demand in refrigeration
processes [
35
–
37
]. In the current context of a reduction of the environmental impact of
productive activities, the possibility of optimizing RE integration in RP by the adoption of
polygeneration schemes as well as the huge potential that industries offer in terms of the
magnitude and the multiplicity of their energy demands make it interesting to review the
main solar cooling technologies adapted to polygeneration schemes and to discuss their
potential integration in the industrial sector.
This work, after providing a technical and historical overview of development of the
refrigeration equipment and the ways in which they can use solar energy as a primary
energy source, includes a comprehensive analysis of the scientific literature on how solar
cooling systems can be integrated into hybrid schemes for cooling, heating, electricity, and
desalinated water. In addition, aiming to serve as a reference for project implementation
this work also analyses the published figures of the key techno-economical indexes for
these systems as well as the realizations and case studies implemented all over the world.
2. Historical Evolution of Cooling Equipment and Main Solar Cooling Technologies
Studies of cooling processes for their integration with solar energy have grown con-
sistently during the last 40 years due to the benefits of harnessing solar radiation as a
source of direct renewable energy [
30
,
38
–
40
]. The operating principles and first patents
began to be developed in the 19th century. Regarding solar energy, absorption equipment
(ABS) was the first to be integrated with solar collectors (SC) [
10
,
26
,
41
]. However, the
low costs of coal added to the technological limitations of SC and the temperature control
system relegated ABS to rural applications during the first half of the 20th century [
42
,
43
].
Furthermore, in the same period, commercial alternatives to adsorption equipment (ADS)
emerged that were economically more attractive on a small scale than ABS [
42
,
44
]. On the
other hand, vapor compression cycle (VCC) cooling equipment has remained the leading
technology since the beginning of the 20th century due to the adaptation of VCC to electric
currents [
43
,
45
,
46
]. Research on solar energy for cooling processes was resumed due to
the oil crisis in 1973 and the restrictions on chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants (CFCs) with
the Montreal Protocol [
26
,
27
,
43
]. The first evaluations of photovoltaic refrigeration (PVR)
configurations emerged in the 1970s and have been evaluated in vaccine storage, air condi-
tioning in residential buildings, and vehicles [
47
–
50
]. PVRs can achieve primary energy
savings of between 20% and 70% due to the supply of electricity to other equipment when
the CRS is not in operation [
51
,
52
]. In recent years, studies have focused on reversible heat
pump systems and the removal of the battery set for direct drives, reducing the investment
cost of the system by up to 84% [53–55].
In the 1970s, new proposals for solar-powered equipment, such as Stirling refrigeration
equipment (SCE), emerged. Although ECSs were marketed during the first half of the
20th century with an electric drive, prototypes were also developed for their drive with
thermal energies using the reversible liquid piston cycle [
18
,
56
–
60
]. Research has focused
on improving performance by modifying the geometry of the evaporator and condenser,
increasing performance up to 32% [
61
]. Furthermore, working fluids, such as hydrogen,
have been tested to reach a COP of 0.53, similar to commercial ADS machines [
62
]. However,
the integration with solar heat remains at the stage of evaluating the performance of the
equipment using solar collectors. and Fresnel lenses [22,58,63].
Another device developed was thermoelectric devices (TE) in the 1940s for electricity
generation and, later modified for refrigeration (TEC) in the military industry [
64
,
65
].
The devices have the advantage of working with direct current, which facilitates their
integration with PV panels [
66
–
69
]. However, due to the low efficiency of TEC, studies have
focused on developing materials that enable improving ZT efficiency, which is an indicator
relating the material to thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and Seebeck coefficient
as a function of device temperature [
70
]. In recent years, TECs have been integrated into
photovoltaic modules with Fresnel lenses to dissipate heat in PV plants [
71
–
73
]. In addition,
TECs were combined with PV panels for applications of refrigeration, freezing and radiant
Energies 2021,14, 6450 4 of 30
walls in buildings [
22
,
29
,
33
,
64
,
74
,
75
]. The prototypes integrated into the façade of buildings
are called building-integrated photovoltaic thermoelectric (BIPVT) [
76
–
78
]. BIPVTs in clear
sky conditions in summer reach peaks in electricity consumption savings of up to 100%
compared to a CRS [
79
–
81
]. Furthermore, devices have been designed that replace the
condenser-evaporator assembly with the TEC and are integrated with a TES for heating
in a CRS. The configuration manages to reduce electricity consumption by up to 8.5%
compared to the CRS [
82
,
83
]. Despite the technical advantages due to the small size, the
possibility of reaching freezing temperatures, and the lack of moving parts, the TEC lacks
an analysis of the economic sensitivity with respect to other solar cooling technologies.
Ejector cooling systems (EJC) have been evaluated since the 1970s but became more
relevant during the 1990s [
26
,
84
–
86
]. The EJCs are sensitive to meteorological variations
and the size of the solar field, being of interest to improve the global COP of the system
(SC-TES) -EJC [
17
,
87
–
91
]. In this sense, the use of cold storage with phase change material
(PCM) and a variable geometry ejector nozzle is proposed [
92
–
96
]. However, increased
components and a more robust control system can negatively affect equipment costs [
97
,
98
].
In addition, EJC systems integrated into reversible heat pumps and the heat supply for
sanitary water have been developed [
99
–
101
]. In addition, the EJCs have been evaluated
by substituting the R141b refrigerant for isobutane, reducing the EJC of the generator
temperature to ranges below 80
◦
C, achieving competitive performance against adsorption
cycles [102,103].
At the beginning of the 2000s, desiccant refrigeration equipment (DES) was developed,
operation of which is based on sorption and desorption processes [
104
]. DES has been
tested for low-irradiation tropical environments, but DES efficiency is highly sensitive
to relative humidity [
21
,
105
]. On the other hand, ADS equipment can be classified like
adsorption by phisisorption (ADS-PH) and adsorption by chemisorption (ADS-CH). ADS
equipment has been commercialized for small-scale domestic refrigeration and ice-making
applications [
26
,
42
,
44
]. In addition, at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of
the 21st, applications of solar ADS for food preservation and air conditioning for bus and
train locomotives have deepened [
20
,
22
,
40
,
106
]. Similarly, ABS equipment since the late
1970s is being evaluated for HVAC applications, vaccine storage, and food preservation.
ABS equipment can be classified like ABS of half effect (ABS-HE), ABS of simple effect
(ABS-SE), ABS of double effect (ABS-DE) and generation absorption heat exchange (ABS-
GAX) [10,38].
Despite the potential of alternative cooling equipment, heat-driven solar cooling sys-
tems have not achieved significant market penetration. According to general review articles
focused on the design and operation of solar cooling, systems are significantly affected in
the short and long term due to the natural variability of the solar
resource [25,28,31,105]
.
Therefore, to overcome climate variability, systems require thermal storage (TES) and large
solar fields that increase the initial investment cost. Consequently, at the end of the 2010s,
solar heat cooling was considered unfeasible for the urban sector and PV-VCC systems
were positioned as the best option for the residential sector [51,107,108].
However, with the declining costs of solar technology in recent years, research on
optimizing energy delivery and demand has been highlighted to improve the viability
of sorption systems [
11
,
102
,
109
]. New prototypes have also been developed, and the
working fluids have been evaluated to decrease the generation temperature or increase
the COP, as shown in Table 1. In addition, the trend to hybridize refrigeration equipment
such as ADS-ABS, ABS-VCC, ABS-VCC, EJC-ABS, EJC-ADS, EJC-VCC to improve system
performance and decrease generator temperature open alternatives to maximize solar field
energy [12,23,24,31,110].
Energies 2021,14, 6450 5 of 30
Table 1. Sorbent/refrigerant prototyping and testing of sorption cooling equipment.
Ref. Technology Qch [kW] COP TGen [◦C] TEvap [◦C] Work Flow Scope
[
111
]
ADS-PH 0.371 0.293 85 14 Zeolite
13X/CaCl12
The 13X zeolite/CaCl2pair work reduces
the COP of the equipment but increases the
specific cooling power by 30% compared to
the silica gel.
[
112
]
ADS-PH NA 0.139 100 26
Nano-
activated
car-
bon/methanol
Adding carbon nanoparticles (NMAC) to
activated carbon increased the adsorption
capacity by 33%.
[
113
]
ADS-PH NA 0.329 110 5
Silica
gel/water,
ethanol, NH3
The adsorbents with the best
technoeconomic performance and the
minor environmental damage for air
conditioning and cold storage applications
are AC, ACF and SiO2.
[
114
]
ADS-PH 1–2 0.24 53,1–75,3 16 Zeolite
13X/CaC12
Using the electrostatic coating method
with 13X zeolite/CaCl2coated adsorbents
and adding a preheat phase, the cooling
capacity improves by 92.5%.
[
115
]
ADS-PH 0.8 0.63 94.85 9.85 Silica
gel/water
A device was designed to operate
continuously during night and day by
adapting three adsorption/desorption
beds that are activated depending on the
energy available in the generator.
[
116
]
AD-PH NA 0.47 80 -
Zeolite/Water
A method was developed to estimate the
performance of an ADS composed of
multiple modules by a full-scale analysis of
one tube containing multiple tubes with
hundreds of fins.
[
117
]
ADS-PH NA 0.14 92.35 -
Activated car-
bon/methanol
A numerical model was developed that can
be adapted with another type of adsorbate
to evaluate the performance of a tubular
adsorption system with solar energy.
[
118
]
ADS-CH 0.15 0.15 105 - CaCl2/AC-
Ammonia
A prototype ice maker was evaluated for
producing 50 kg of ice in summer. The
system can operate without valve control,
in a simple combination with the storage
tank. The prototype could be viable for
industrial or residential applications.
[
119
]
ADS-CH 1.4 0.33 70 10 NaBr/EG-
NH3
An adsorption chiller was designed that
uses a compound made of sodium bromide
impregnated in expanded graphite as a
sorbent and ammonia as a coolant.
[
120
]
ADS-CH 0.656
kW/kg 0.5 110 0
SrC12—
expanded
graphite
composite
The strontium chloride (SrCl2)/NH3
working pair was evaluated, impregnating
the expanded graphite SrCl2to determine
the thermodynamic equilibrium properties
with different concentrations and fitting a
kinetic model employing a small-scale
experimental prototype
[
121
]
ADS-PCM C: 47W &
H: 47 0.42 NA NA LiCl
The performance of a chiller prototype for
cooling and heating applications that
integrates ADS equipment with vacuum
tubes and phase change material is
evaluated.
Energies 2021,14, 6450 6 of 30
Table 1. Cont.
Ref. Technology Qch [kW] COP TGen [◦C] TEvap [◦C] Work Flow Scope
[
122
]
ABS-SE 3.2 0.53 180 13 NH3
A compact ABS (NH3) equipment was
designed with mass exchangers and
monolithic microscale exchange for space
conditioning.
[
123
]
ABS-SE NA 0.61 - - NH3
The generator was redesigned by changing
the heat exchanger for a column of a
bundle of tubes that allows a distributed
heat transfer to improve waste and
low-quality heat utilization.
[
124
]
GAX Split
ABS 39.8 0.55–
0.95 160 −30 NH3
A heat recovery configuration of an
ABS-GAX split was developed for unified
operation for space heating, air
conditioning, and refrigeration
applications.
[
125
]
ABS-DL 2.5 0.3 7 NH3
A double lift cycle is experimentally
evaluated under different operating
conditions that modify the COP, including
generator temperature, fan speed, and
evaporator temperature.
[
126
]
ABS
Semi-Gax 2.20–2.33 0.455–
0.428 7 NH3
The COP can be optimized by adjusting
the intermediate pressure through the split
ratio at each air temperature.
[
127
] ABS GAX-DL
1.88 0.25 −5 NH3
The design of a double lift ABS device with
two self-adjusting pumps was evaluated to
operate with evaporation temperatures
below 0 ◦C.
[
128
] ABS GAX-DL
39.2 0.308 −30 NH3
The maximum internal heat recovery of an
ABS-DL coupled to mass is evaluated by
the pinch method.
[
129
]
ABS
Semi-Gax NA 0.494 90 5 NH3
Five air absorption refrigeration prototypes
were evaluated to determine design
parameters based on the risk of
crystallization.
[
130
]
EJE-ABS 10 0.95 185–215 7 LiBr
ABS-EJC works with two heat sources at
different temperatures; a 20% increase in
COP was achieved compared to ABS-SE.
[
131
]
EJE-ABS 100 1.65 246.4 12.5 LiBr
An EYC-ABS system integrated with
parabolic trough collectors was evaluated
and it was determined that the
performance reached an increase of up to
60.78% compared to conventional ABS.
[
132
]
SE-DE 91–134 0.88 105–150 8.4–7 LiBr
The hybridization allows increasing the
COP from 0.79 to 1.09 with inlet
temperatures lower than 155 ◦C.
Figure 1shows a timeline that marks significant advances in the development of solar
cooling equipment. In the last decade, research has intensified to improve the viability of
solar cooling processes for urban applications with polygeneration plants. The intention
is to maximize the continuous use of the energy generated by the solar field, which
is characteristic of residential applications that supply process heat, refrigeration, and
electricity production [9,133].
Energies 2021,14, 6450 7 of 30
Figure 1. Timeline of the main cooling technologies according to their driving energy source.
Energies 2021,14, 6450 8 of 30
For this reason, the systems combine various energy sources such as PV panels, SC,
biomass boilers, and geothermal energy that must be optimized to maximize primary
energy savings [
32
,
134
,
135
]. However, to optimize the systems, it is necessary to select the
cooling equipment by relating the nominal chiller power (
QCh
) with the COP, generator
temperature (
TGen
) and evaporator temperature (
TEvap
). According to the literature of
the present review, Figures 2and 3detail the operating ranges of prototypes and the
main commercial heat-driven cooling chillers. ADS by physisorption (ADS-Ph) equipment
has a COP between 0.13–0.62 and requires a
TGen
between 50–130
◦
C [
14
,
136
–
142
]. The
most widely used adsorbate-adsorbent is silica gel/water and reaches
TEvap
of up to
5◦C [15,143–145].
Figure 2.
Nominal coefficient of performance (COP) vs. nominal operating temperature according to the studies in
Sections 2and 3.
Figure 3. Evaporator temperature vs nominal capacity according to the studies in Sections 2and 3.
Energies 2021,14, 6450 9 of 30
Systems with activated carbon/methanol have also been evaluated, but the COP
and the
TGen
increase with respect to silica gel/water [
16
,
146
–
149
]. In comparison, ABS
equipment has a COP between 0.7–1.8 and a
TGen
between 80–220
◦
C [
13
,
109
,
150
,
151
].
Before crystallization, using LiBr/H
2
O as working fluid, the evaporator temperature is
5◦C
, while using NH
3
/H
2
O as working fluid, the system can reach temperatures as low
as
−
5
◦
C [
152
–
158
]. The difference in the performance of the ABS equipment of medium
effect (ABS-HE), single effect (ABS-SE), double effect (DE-ABS) can be evaluated based
on increasing the COP to optimize the heat received by the generator, reduce the risk
of crystallization of the equipment due to low evaporator temperatures, or increase the
cooling capacity [19,159–162].
3. Polygeneration Schemes Integrated with Solar Cooling Technologies
According to the literature, the feasibility of the success of heat-driven refrigeration
equipment is directly related to the use of the energy supply from the solar field. In this
sense, thermomechanical generators (TMG) have been evaluated for joint operation with
VCC and reversible heat pumps (RHP) [
163
]. The systems are composed of an organic
Rankine cycle generator (ORC) and concentration manifolds to deliver temperatures above
100
◦
C [
164
,
165
]. However, TMGs are also subjected to polygeneration systems to achieve
their economic viability. This section describes the main solar cooling studies integrated
into the polygeneration scheme for cooling, heating, electricity, and desalinated water.
3.1. Cooling Heat/Electricity Generation (CH/E)
The generation of cold and heat or electricity (CH/E) combines two or more renewable
energy sources such as SC, PV, or external sources such as biomass. Figure 4shows the
integration schemes for refrigeration-heat (CH) or refrigeration-electricity (CE). On the
other hand, Table 2summarizes the main configuration schemes. Table 2, like Figure 4, is
divided according to solar technology (SEH), auxiliary electric heating equipment (EH), fuel
for the auxiliary boiler (F), integration of auxiliary heat (I1), integration of heat generated by
renewable sources (I2), unconventional refrigeration equipment (UR), electrical generation
unit (GPU), conventional air-conditioning equipment (HVAC), energy consumption lines
produced (I3), type of energy generated (generation), process (P), supply (S) and electricity
generation (E). BIPVT applications have also been adapted for electricity supply and
cooling; the excess electricity produced by the PV panel is used to power the electrical grid.
Evaluations for residential applications show a 70% potential to reduce heat from a typical
wall [
166
]. Reversing the polarity of TEC also makes it possible to supply heat in winter,
obtaining a COP of 0.45 with thermal efficiencies of 12.06% and electrical efficiencies of
10.27% [
167
]. On the other hand, in an ORC electricity generation plant, replacing the VCC
with ABS or ADS equipment allows cold generation by cogeneration [
168
]. In this sense,
the results show a higher exergetic efficiency for the ORC-ADS equipment because the
residual heat from the ORC feeds the ADS equipment [
169
]. Evaluation of the ORC-ABS
configuration for cooling agricultural soil with a capacity of 3.5 kW and 7 kW allowed a
payback of 9.4 years with the highest capacity [170].
ABS systems can be combined with a power generation unit (PGU) that recovers heat
(HR) for domestic hot water (DHW). The electricity generated is supplied to a reversible
heat pump (RHP) to produce CH. The configuration could reduce the annual demand
of a building by approximately 87% in heating, DHW, and cooling processes [
171
,
172
].
However, the configuration can increase investment costs because the profitability of the
cogeneration system depends on the cost of heat generation fuel and local electricity.
Energies 2021,14, 6450 10 of 30
Figure 4.
Integration schemes of the main cooling heat/electricity generation (CH/E) configurations described in the
literature for space cooling (SC), heating (HE), domestic hot water (DHW) and electricity (PW).
Table 2. Summary of the main configurations for supply cooling-heat (CH) and cooling-electricity (CE).
SEH EH F I1 I2 UR PGU HVAC I3 Production P S E Reference
PTC BM HP S2–S3–S4
ABS
c (DHW-HE)-SC • • [107]
ETC G HP S2–S3–S4
ABS
c (DHW-HE)-SC •[108]
ETC G HP S2–S3–S4
ABS
WCH c (DHW-HE)-SC •[108]
ETC G HP S2–S3
ABS
WCH b HE-SC •[109]
ETC G HP S2–S3
ABS
b HE-SC •[109]
PV TE a–b SC-PW •[166,167]
PTC S1
ABS ORC
a–b SC-PW • • [168]
G HP S2
ADS ORC
a–b SC-PW • • [169]
G HP HR S1
ADS ORC
a–b SC-PW • • [169]
ETC S1
ABS ORC
a–b SC-PW • • [170]
ETC G HT S2–S3
ABS
b HE-SC •[171]
PV
AWHP
HX S1 TE b–d (DHW-HE)-SC • • [172]
Energies 2021,14, 6450 11 of 30
Table 2. Cont.
SEH EH F I1 I2 UR PGU HVAC I3 Production P S E Reference
CPC EH S1–S3
ABS
VCC c (DHW-HE)-SC •[172]
ETC S3–S4
ABS
EHP a–c (DHW-HE)-SC • • [173]
ETC BM HP HX S3–S5
ABS
WCH b DHW-SC •[174–176]
ETC BM HT HX S2–S4
ABS
b–d HE-SC •[176]
ETC PV G HT HP S1–S3
ABS
STR VCC a–c,d SC-PW • • [177]
ETC
AWHP
G S2
ABS
c DHW-SC •[178]
The evaluations of Calise F. et al. [
173
] suggest eliminating the auxiliary boiler and
designing the ABS to cover 20% of the demand with constant operation that, together with
an electric heat pump (EHP), supplies cold to a storage tank (TC). The proposed approach
saves 64.7% of primary energy with a solar fraction of 46.2% in winter and 27.7% during
summer [
173
]. However, a multi-objective optimization considering an auxiliary heater’s
application shows greater energy efficiency by preheating the fluid before entering the ABS.
Despite the encouraging results in energy saving, it is concluded that public financing is
necessary for its profitability [
108
]. In this sense, Shirazi A. et al. [
109
] propose to include
the penalty costs for CO
2
production in the economic analysis. Under this approach, the
optimized system achieves an annual cost balance equal to zero with savings of between
44.5 and 53.8 tons of CO
2
[
109
]. On the other hand, by incorporating a fuel boiler with a
solar field of ETC of 230 m
2
for heat generation, a simple payback (SPB) of 20.3 years is
achieved and a solar fraction (SF) of 0.275 [
108
]. In comparison, a CPC with a 500 m
2
solar
field and a hot water boiler (HWB) integrated with a diesel generator engine minimize the
SPB to five years [
174
]. However, there was an increase in pollutants derived from diesel
combustion. In this sense, the combining of a biomass boiler (BM) with SC-TES has the
peculiarity that the burning of BM is considered carbon neutral. Therefore, incorporating
800 m
2
of CPC makes it possible to achieve an FS of 81.8% and an SPB of 9.33 years [
107
].
The BM-SC-TES-ABS system was also evaluated for restaurants in China with four possible
configurations that reached solar fractions between 17% and 32% [
175
]. Furthermore,
preheating the fluid before entering the ABS allows energy savings of 30% in summer and
60% in winter, minimizing the use of BM [
175
,
176
]. The reason is that BM provides heat
during climate variability without oversizing SC-TES systems, which is attractive when
considering penalties for CO
2
production from the electricity grid [
174
]. However, the main
limitation of biomass is that it requires drying before combustion to reduce the humidity of
the granules. Otherwise, it increases pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
and other particulate matter.
3.2. Cooling, Heat and Electricity Generation (CHG)
Trigeneration configurations combine electrical and mechanical drive technologies to
produce cold, heat, and power generation (CHG). These systems tend to increase the solar
field area because they are designed to meet the higher energy demands around electricity
generation. Figure 5shows the CHG schemes and can be interpreted from reading Table 3.
ElHelw M. et al. [
179
] adapted conventional cooling equipment with hot and cold coils, an
enthalpy wheel and a radiant wall TEC powered by PV and SC. The study shows savings in
cities such as Cairo of up to 60% of primary energy consumption compared to conventional
equipment [
179
]. On the other hand, Buonomano A. et al. [
180
] evaluated the performance
of a system to generate electricity, cold and heat by comparing the performance between
hybrid solar collectors CPVT and PVT coupled to an ABS-SE cooler and two ADS coolers.
Energies 2021,14, 6450 12 of 30
Figure 5.
Integration schemes of the main cooling, heat and electricity generation (CHG) configurations described in the
literature for space cooling (SC), heating (HE), domestic hot water (DHW), heating pool (HEP) and electricity (PW).
Table 3. Summary of the main configurations for supply cooling, heat and electricity (CHG).
SEH F I1 I2 UR PUG HVAC I3 Production P S E Reference
PVT
CPVT G
HP HX
S1–S2–S3–S4
ADS
ABS WCH
c–f (DHW-HEP-HE-SC-PW) • • [180]
G HX S2
ABS STR
b–f (HE-SC-PW) • • [181,182]
ETC PV HT S2–S3
ABS VCC
c–f (DHW-HE-SC-PW) • • [183]
ETC PV G HT S2–S3
ABS VCC
c–f (DHW-HE-SC-SP) • • [183]
PV
RHP
c–f (DHW-HE-SC-PW-SP) • • [183]
ETC PV G-BM
HP HX
S3–S4
ABS ORC
b–f (DHW-SC-PW) • • [184]
ETC GT HT HP S3-S4
ABS ORC
b–f (DHW-SC-PW) ••• [185]
DC PVT G HR S2-S3
ABS ORC RHP
b-e-f (HE-SC-PW) • • [186]
DC GPS-
BM HR S1–S2–S6
ABS ICE
b–f (DHW-HE-SC-PW) • • [187]
PVT PV G
HT HR
S1–S2–S3
ABS ORC
a–f (DHW-HE-SC-PW-SP) • • [188]
Energies 2021,14, 6450 13 of 30
The heat generated also allows for pool water heating (HEP). The results show that
the best combination of CPVT-PVT is the ABS equipment for high radiation conditions,
reaching 84% of SF with an SPB of fewer than 13 years [
180
]. In addition, the generation of
electricity with PV panels opens up the possibility of using HP as an auxiliary equipment
for heat generation. However, HP systems tend to be suitable on a small scale, with the
use of photovoltaic panels coupled to an RHP being even more beneficial to produce
HEP, DHW, HE and SC. On the other hand, Lu, Zu. [
181
] developed a prototype that
combines ABS and ORC equipment. The system can operate with a hot water heat source
between 80–95
◦
C and industrial waste heat between 100–140
◦
C [
181
]. On the other hand,
a PGU integrated to a gas HP as auxiliary heat was compared, achieving 38% energy
savings compared to conventional equipment. However, the configuration with a Stirling
engine (STR) with ABS equipment, powered by solar thermal and photovoltaic panels,
shows favorable results for the residential sector [
182
]. In that sense, simulations in the
United States of PV-SC-ORC-ABS schemes reduced annual costs by up to 48% compared
to conventional equipment [
177
]. The configuration SC-PVT-ABS-PUG was evaluated for
harnessing the residual heat of ORC and supply heat to ABS equipment, space heating,
DHW and HEP [
183
–
185
]. On the other hand, the inclusion of geothermal energy (GT) and
the ability to take advantage of its annual power allows obtaining an SPB between
7.6 years
and 2.5 years considering the worst and best-operating conditions, respectively [
186
]. On
the other hand, a biomass gasifier was included replacing the solar collector system with
solar dish collectors (DC). The gas drives an internal combustion generator, and the waste
heat is used for heating, cooling and DHW [187].
The integration of technologies requires a technical and economic analysis to de-
termine the optimal configuration of the system. For this reason, Sameti M. et al. [
188
]
developed an optimization with the mixed-integer linear programming method (MILP).
The objective was to determine the minimum cost of the system based on investment costs,
operation, electricity and carbon emissions [
188
]. Furthermore, the SHC-TASK-53 project
makes it possible to compare integration schemes for the residential sector in Mediter-
ranean climatic conditions [
184
]. However, residential applications tend to have design
differences compared to the demand for industrial applications.
3.3. Cooling, Heat, Electricity Generation and Desalinization (CHGD)
Although CHG systems have a high potential to be integrated into residential and
industrial processes due to the generation of medium and high-temperature process heat,
CHGD systems are often designed as high-capacity thermal power plants. Figure 6and
Table 4show diagrams in which the use of ABS equipment predominates and there is the
desalination of water in the condenser of ADS equipment. Multi-effect desalination plants
(MED) integrated with ORC-ABS-SC-TES are attractive for desert climates, high irradiation,
and lack of water. Depending on the need to be supplied, the MED polygeneration plant can
be configured to produce heat and cold that contribute to the electricity generation process,
the MED desalination process. Therefore, the proposed configurations can simultaneously
contribute heat, refrigeration, electricity, and desalinated water (CHGD) [
189
]. In this sense,
the schemes have been evaluated by integrating Kalina cycle absorption refrigeration
and freeze desalination (CPCD) technologies. The results show that even though high
evaporator temperatures produce more refrigerant, the energy and exergy efficiencies of
CPCD are better under low-temperature conditions [190].
Energies 2021,14, 6450 14 of 30
Figure 6.
Integration schemes of the main cooling, heat, electricity generation and desalinization (CHGD) configurations
described in the literature for space cooling (SC), heating (HE), domestic hot water (DHW), desalinated water (DW) and
electricity (PW).
Table 4. Summary of the main configurations for supply cooling, heat, desalinated water, and electricity (CHG).
SEH F I1 I2 UR PUG I3 Generation P S E Reference
DC HR S1 ABS ORC b (DW-SC-PW) • • [189,190]
DC G HT HX HR S2,S3 ABS ORC b (DW-HE-SC-PW) •••[191,192]
ETC HX HR S3 ADS ORC b–d (DW-SC) • • [193,194]
In order to identify the techno-economic and exergetic advantages of the system,
thermo-economic evaluations were recommended due to the precision to consider the
exergetic destruction of the solar thermal circuit and the power block [
191
]. Furthermore,
according to integration evaluations, the configurations with the most significant potential
in high solar irradiation conditions were the plants that replace the power cycle condenser
with the MED plant, and the refrigeration plant and the process heat plant were coupled
to the turbine [
192
]. On the other hand, the production of heat, cooling, and desalination
is possible from an ADS-SC-TES configuration that includes two adsorption beds. In
this system, the water evaporates by the suction effect of the adsorbent. Later, the water
vapor from the adsorber bed is sent to the condenser and, as the temperature drops, the
desalinated water is collected in a collection tank [
193
,
194
]. The advantage of adsorption
Energies 2021,14, 6450 15 of 30
desalination systems is that the system has few moving parts. However, its viability in
relation to size is limited by the low efficiency of the adsorption cycle. In contrast to
MED-ORC configurations, the ADS-DES system does not produce electricity. Therefore,
when considering annual assessments, ADS-DES could be affected by annualized costs for
large-scale applications. In this sense, there is no integration analysis that evaluates the
best selection criteria for industrial applications and their life cycle in terms of primary
energy saving and investment. On the other hand, integration configurations are limited to
heat recovery to power the MED plant and the air-conditioning equipment, minimizing
the power loss of the PGU.
4. Discussion of Potential Applications of Solar Cooling Technologies
Solar systems require an analysis of parameters such as the levelized cost of energy
(LCOE), simple pay back (SPB), and primary energy savings (PES). In addition, it is crucial
to evaluate the cooling loads based on the target cooling process. This section is divided
into the costs of polygeneration integrated cooling systems and the potential applications
of cooling systems in the industry.
4.1. Costs of Polygeneration Integrated Cooling Systems
Solar cooling systems have shown that their viability is possible with schemes that
supply heat and electricity simultaneously. Even the integration of polygeneration systems
has shown better exergetic performance than conventional equipment, the main limitation
being the efficiency and cost of the solar system. In that sense, solar systems must be
evaluated based on their useful life cycle since the initial investment tends to be high due
to the solar field and the cost of alternative cooling equipment. In addition, the viability of
solar cooling systems varies depending on the application site and the economic factors
given by local policies. An example is an ABS system in Dubai, which despite increasing the
initial investment to almost 93%, the SPB is 2.49 years. This is possible because the system
reduces 303.68 tCO
2
/yr being highly beneficial due to the CO
2
taxes [
174
]. Whereas ABS-SC
configurations in Sidney reduced emissions by 166 tCO
2
/yr, but the SPB is
63 years [109]
.
Table 5summarizes the costs, and key indicators of some case studies of cooling systems
with energy polygeneration.
Table 5. Summary of costs and key indicators of case studies of cooling systems with energy polygeneration.
Ref. Sche. App. City Space
[m2]
Cooling
Tech. Qch[kW] Solar
Tech. Area [m2]Total Cost
[k€]
Key
Indicators
[
108
]
CH/E Office
Building
Naples
1600 ABS-SE - ETC 230 470.28
ηG: 0.27
PES: 0.444
SPB: 31.3 yr
SF: 0.876
1600 ABS-SE - ETC 100 656.56
ηG: 0.263
PES: 0.408
SPB: 32.3 yr
SF: 0.885
6400 ABS-SE - ETC 230 442.79
ηG: 0.268
PES: 0.424
SPB: 25.2 yr
SF: 0.882
[
109
]
CH/E Hotel
Sydney
11,624 ABS-SE 1023 PTC 3.134 589.96
ηG: 0.7
PES: 0.60
ER: 138 tCO2/yr;
SPB: 58.444 yr
SF: 0.63
[
109
]
CH/E Hotel
Sydney
11,624 ABS-DE 1163 PTC 3.278 611.83
ηG: 1.31
PES: 0.65
ER: 153.85 tCO2/yr
SPB: 52.017 yr
SF: 0.74
Energies 2021,14, 6450 16 of 30
Table 5. Cont.
Ref. Sche. App. City Space
[m2]
Cooling
Tech. Qch[kW] Solar
Tech.
Area
[m2]
Total Cost
[k€]
Key
Indicators
[
109
]
CH/E Hotel Sydney
11,624
ABS-TE 1163 PTC 3.426.2 640.54
ηG: 1.62
PES: 0.69
ER: 166.43 tCO2/yr;
SPB: 63.82 yr
SF: 0.72
[
107
]
CH/E School
cooling Marseille - ABS-DE 250 PTC 800 - PES: 0.956SPB: 13.7
yrSF: 0.966
[
109
]
CH/E Office Sydney
11,624
ABS-SE 1023 PTC 1.986 454.60
ηG: 0.68
PES: 0.39
ER: 72.64tCO2/yr
SPB: 63.14 yr
SF: 0.69
11,624
ABS-DE 1163 PTC 1.885 471.69
ηG: 1.31PES: 0.31_ER:
81.58tCO2/yrSPB:
58.17 yrSF: 0.76
11,624
ABS-TE 1163 PTC 1.912 485.36
ηG: 1.61
PES: 0.37
SF: 0.75
ER: 97.80 tCO2/yr
SPB: 71.19
[
160
]
CH/E District
cooling Qatar - ABS 12,000 FPC 5.342.2 1.746.96 -
[
170
]
CH/E
Soil
cooling
(Alstroe-
meria)
Kuala
Lumpur - ABS-SE 3.5 ETC 22 12.44
ER: 4.5 tCO2
Annual Savings:
977.57 €
SPB: 14.2 yr
[
170
]
CH/E
Soil
cooling
(Alstroe-
meria)
Kuala
Lumpur - ABS-SE 7 ETC 44 19.13
ER: 32 tCO2
Annual Savings:
1880.11 €
SPB: 10.8
[
172
]
CH/E
Heating
and
cooling
space
Abu
Dhabi,
Kjakarta,
Amman,
Milan,
New York
1246 RHP 160 CPC 500 165.53 LCOE: 0.122 €/kWh
1246 RHP 160 PV 497 211.37 LCOE: 0.0939 €/kWh
1246 VCC 160 - - 170.17 LCOE: 0.0921 €/kWh
1246 RHP 160 - - 120.49 LCOE: 0.1029 €/kWh
1246 RHP 160 - - 487.92 LCOE: 0.0994 €/kWh
1246 VCC+
ABS 160 CPC 500 274.45 LCOE: 0.0784 €/kWh
1246 RHP 160 PV 297.23 LCOE: 0.0355 €/kWh
[
173
]
CH/E School
cooling
Naples 2250 ABS-SE 300 PTC 200 -
ηG: 0.458
PES: 0.647
SPB: 19 yr
SF: 0.462
Milan 2250 ABS-SE 300 PTC 200 -
ηG: 0.433
PES: 0.524
SPB: 31.4 yr
SF: 0.325
Trapani 2250 ABS-SE 300 PTC 200 -
ηG: 0.461
PES: 0.614
SPB: 18.9 yr
SF: 0.263
[
174
]
CH/E
Residential
Building Dubai
400
ABS-DE-
Air
cooled
109.8 PTC 290.9 1381.1
ER: 303.68 t CO2/yr
SPB: 2.49 yr
Energy savings:
519 MWh/yr
400
ABS-DE-
Air
cooled
76 PTC 193.9 1025.3
ER: 139.7 t CO2/yr
SPB: 4.75 yr
Energy savings:
175.64 MWh/hr
400 Air
cooled 366 - - 713.3 -
Energies 2021,14, 6450 17 of 30
Table 5. Cont.
Ref. Sche. App. City Space
[m2]
Cooling
Tech. Qch[kW] Solar
Tech.
Area
[m2]
Total Cost
[k€]
Key
Indicators
[
175
]CH/E
Ecological
Restau-
rant
Jinan - ABS-SE - PTC 1538 - SF: 0.27
Loudi - ABS-SE - PTC 1538 - SF: 0.25
Yinchuan - ABS-SE - PTC 1538 - SF: 0.28
Lhasa - ABS-SE - PTC 1538 - SF: 0.32
Hyderabad - ABS-SE - PTC 1538 - SF: 0.24
[
176
]CH/E
Wine
industry Curicó
- ABS-SE 200 FPC 250 329.99 Annual Savings:
29,758.62 €SPB: 10
- ABS-SE 200 FPC 500 379.11 Annual Savings:
29,991.24 €SPB: 12
- ABS-SE 200 FPC 750 428.23 Annual Savings:
30,390.68 €SPB: 14
- ABS-SE 200 FPC 1000 477.35
Annual Savings:
30,935.62 €
SPB: 15
[
178
] CH/E
Space
cooling
building
Cagliari 2460 ABS-SE 70 ETC 230 300 to 400 ηG: 0.84 to 0.87
[
177
]
CHG Office
Building
San
Francisco
Boston
Miami
46,320
ABS-SE 530 - - 836.66 -
46,320
ABS-SE 700 - - 788.99 -
46,320
ABS-SE 830 - - 1090.5 -
[
185
]
CHG Hotel
Building Changsha - ABS - - - - Cost Savings: 31.59%
[
186
]
CHG Hotel
Building Ischia - ABS-SE 30 ETC 25–80 91.24 SPB: 7.6
ηG: 0.592
[
179
]
CHG Building
Cairo
25,8129
TEC-Cell
Enthalpy
Wheel
- PVSP - 26.49 Annual Savings:
2613.82 €
Alexandria
25,8129
TEC-Cell
Enthalpy
Wheel
- PVSP - 26.49 Annual Savings:
3162.24 €
Hurghada
25,8129
TEC-Cell
Enthalpy
Wheel
- PVSP - 26.49 Annual Savings:
2019.61 €
[
180
]
CHG Office
Building
Berlin - ABS-ADS 258.7 CPVT 2,069 1005.5
Annual Savings:
1710.21 €
SPB: 12.5 yr
SF: 0.82
Energy savings:
1839 MWh/yr
Bordeaux - ABS-ADS 237 CPVT 1896 822.06
Annual Savings:
1979.26 €SPB: 10.3SF:
0.63 Energy savings:
2126 MWh/yr
Athens - ABS-ADS 325.6 CPVT 2821 1875.9
Annual Savings:
3778.85 €
SPB: 16.7SF: 0.78
Energy savings:
4059 MWh/yr
[
188
]
CHG District
cooling Risch-Rotkreuz 8500 AD-ABS 1517.6 PTC 50–76 67.50 k€/yr -
On the other hand, PV, SC, and conventional renewable energy prices are described
widely in the literature. However, even though solar collectors have lowered costs in the
last two decades, thermal cooling systems have made modest progress in reducing costs.
Cooling systems reduce the cost per kW as a function of increasing the nominal capacity
(NC) of the equipment. Table 6shows the main functions (F) considered in the literature
to estimate the specific cost of refrigeration equipment according to NC. F1 was obtained
from Broad Air Conditioning Ltd. Suppliers, while F2 was performed under a polynomial
relationship developed by Waier P. in 2008 [157].
Energies 2021,14, 6450 18 of 30
Table 6. Thermally powered refrigeration equipment cost estimating functions.
N◦Equipment Type Cost Functions Unit Ref.
F1 ABS DE (small size) 500 ×NC USD [157]
F2 ABS DE (large size) 147.3×NC +100, 680 USD [157]
F3 ABS SE 585 ×NC AUD [109]
F4 ABS DE 705 ×NC AUD [109]
F5 ABS TE 855 ×NC AUD [109]
F6 ADS High temperature 500 ×NC €[180]
F7 ADS Low temperature 400 ×NC €[180]
F8 ABS — 300 ×NC €[180]
F9 ADS — 1680 ×NC−0,17 €/kW [184]
F10 ABS SE 3700 ×NC−0,45 €/kW [184]
F11 ABS DE 4300 ×NC−0,45 €/kW [184]
The values determined by Shirazi A. et al. [
109
] for F3, F4 and F5 were estimated from
supplier data obtained between 2012 and 2014. On the other hand, F6, F7, and F8 were based
on estimates referring to 2016 [
180
]. While F8, F9, and F10 are approximation functions
obtained from the Task-53 project, based on 2012 data from Central Europe [
184
]. Thermal
cooling equipment costs change depending on the manufacturer, year of production,
equipment type, capacity, COP, transportation, taxes, etc. Regarding the technical aspects,
it is expected that ABS equipment increases as a function of COP. However, the functions
detailed in Table 6are estimates based on the capacity and type of equipment, leaving out
several technical and economic parameters that directly influence the final costs.
In this sense, Figure 7shows the reported nominal capacity versus the specific prices
per kW of cooling, and Figure 8shows the relationship between specific cost, COP and
equipment capacity. The values reported are studies described in this document and com-
pared with the estimated values described by Hang Y. et al. [
157
] and Neyer D. et al. [
184
]
for ABS-SE ABS-DE equipment transforming into Euros using the exchange closing rate as
of 31 December 2020, for USD, AUD, AED, and MYR. The figures show a clear difference
between the cost functions assumed and the costs reported by other authors. Consequently,
using the reported functions to determine costs without adapting to the local market could
limit the precision of a techno-economic analysis.
Figure 7.
Comparison of heat-driven refrigeration equipment based on nominal capacity versus specific costs reported in
the literature. Own figure based on [184].
Energies 2021,14, 6450 19 of 30
Figure 8.
Comparison of heat-driven refrigeration equipment based on COP versus specific costs reported in the literature.
4.2. Potential Applications of Cooling Systems in the Industry
The adaptations of PV panels with HR or VCC equipment for air-conditioning and
CH/E schemes are most commonly found in the residential sector. The challenges of
residential air conditioning are based on reaching the comfort temperature, which is stan-
dardized according to the ASHRAE standards and adapted according to each country’s
local legislation. District refrigeration systems have also been evaluated to supply heat and
cold, requiring them to cover cooling loads of 12 MW [
160
]. However, evaluations for indus-
trial applications have hardly been evaluated, limiting themselves to the agricultural sector
for soil cooling for alstroemeria cultivar with temperature control in greenhouses [
170
]. The
temperature control requirements for the above processes require
Tset >
3
◦C
. The cold stor-
age of fruit, pre-cooling, and cooling pork meat after cutting has been evaluated [
151
,
152
].
Based on the review developed in this document, Figure 9shows location maps of solar
cooling plants in which residential sector applications predominate.
Solar cooling systems have potential because the industry requires controlling the
temperature for manufacturing processes, and the economic viability of solar thermal
systems tends to be improved in polygeneration schemes. In this sense, the fruit and
vegetable industry require reducing the temperature from 23
◦
C to
−
1
◦
C. Cooling time
is essential to avoid deformations in vegetables such as cabbage and spinach. On the
other hand, the storage of meat derivatives requires set temperatures of the evaporator
equipment that can reach up to
−
35
◦
C, being unfeasible for sorption equipment. In
this sense, studies suggest evaluating processes derived from canned foods. The process
requires cooling from 70
◦
C to 4
◦
C but must occur between 565 and 855 min to prevent
microorganism growth [196].
Energies 2021,14, 6450 20 of 30
Figure 9.
Location of solar cooling plants described in Sections 2and 3. (
a
) Europe and the Middle East. (
b
) Southeast Asia.
Own figure based on [195]: Yearly DNI.
Table 7. Operating parameters of cooling processes applied in the food industry.
Ref. Process Product Initial T
[◦C] Final T [◦C] Qext[kWh] Cooling Time
[min]
[196] Forced-air cooling Cabbage, spinach 23 −1 1.13 188
[196] High flow hydrocooling Cabbage, spinach 23 −1 0.67 64
[196] Low flow hydrocooling Cabbage, spinach 23 −1 0.78 84
[196] Air blast cooling Cooked pork 70 4 - 565
[196] Water immersion cooling Cooked pork 70 4 - 855
[197] Cooling on crystallization Shortening production 60 12 - 100
[197] Cooling on crystallization Shortening production 60 12 - 100
In addition, chemical processes such as crystallization are required in the food industry,
which is part of the reduction of production [
197
]. The cooling on crystallization is also
present in other manufacturing processes in the chemical industry. Table 7summarizes the
food industry processes with the potential to be evaluated with solar cooling systems.
Supermarket applications require cooling demands of more than 100 kW, comparable
to medium-scale winemaking processes. However, the advantage in winemaking processes
Energies 2021,14, 6450 21 of 30
is the possibility to take advantage of the heat of the solar field, even when the sorption
chiller is not in operation [
176
]. Solar systems have only been evaluated on a small scale
for fermentation processes and storage in white wine warehouses.
On the other hand, mining applications require strict control of the cooling temper-
ature to guarantee the thermal comfort of the workers. The temperature should be kept
below 28
◦
C, but activities stop if it exceeds 32
◦
C [
198
]. Refrigeration loads will vary
depending on the location, depth, number of workers, machinery, etc. A mine’s cooling
system can be centralized on the surface or underground.
Therefore, mine cooling systems can be classified as icy refrigeration, cooled air stream,
ventilation cooled air stream, etc. In that sense, to obtain an optimal result, it is important
to consider the disposition of the equipment in the mine. According to some authors, coal
mines require equipment between 4 MW and 16.3 MW and gold mines between 0.8 MW
and 39 MW, as shown in Table 8. Although absorption systems have been evaluated with
cooling equipment of 12 MW, the systems have not been evaluated for mining applications.
Table 8. Thermally powered refrigeration equipment cost estimating functions.
Ref. Country Apply Process Tprocess[◦C] Tset[◦C] Cooling System NC [kW]
[
198
]
England Supermarket Supermarket Comfort
Temp. - Air-cooled system 125–400
[
198
]
England Supermarket Supermarket Comfort
Temp. - Water-cooled system 130–180
[
198
]
England Supermarket Supermarket Comfort
Temp. - Hybrid system 125–180
[
199
]
Italy Winemaking Barrel cellar 15–16 2 Air-cooled water chiller 458
[
199
]
Italy Winemaking Wine Storage
warehouses 20–21 2 Air-cooled water chiller 458
[
199
]
Italy Winemaking Alcoholic fermentation 18 2 Air-cooled water chiller 458
[
199
]
Italy Winemaking Malolactic fermentation 17 2 Air-cooled water chiller 458
[
199
]
Italy Winemaking
Cold (static)
stabilization
pre-filtration
−4−7Air-cooled water chiller
with heat recovery 466
[
199
]
Italy Winemaking
Cold (static)
stabilization cold new
wine
2−7Air-cooled water chiller
with heat recovery 466
[
199
]
Italy Winemaking Wine dynamic cooler −4Air-cooled direct
expansion cooler 197.6
[
200
]
China Mine Coal <30 18 Icy refrigeration 6250
[
200
]
China Mine Coal <30 18 Icy cooling system 12,000
[
200
]
China Mine Coal <30 18
Centralized refrigeration
system on the surface 10,000
[
200
]
China Mine Coal <30 18
Centralized refrigeration
system underground 6250
[
201
]
Australia Mine Coal 22 - Cooled air stream 4000
[
202
]
China Mine Coal 30–32 7.03 Ventilation and cooling
system 16,250
[
203
]
South Africa Mine Gold <27.5 Refrigeration plant 3000 to
16,400
[
203
]
South Africa Mine Gold <27.5 - Variable speed drive
(VSD) 816
[
204
]
South Africa Mine Gold <27.5 3–9 Refrigeration plant 39,000
5. Conclusions
Achieving the decarbonization of electricity in 2050 requires reducing electricity con-
sumption growth, and cooling processes are responsible for 10% of such consumption. The
investigations have been oriented to using renewable energies with alternative equipment
Energies 2021,14, 6450 22 of 30
integrated with thermal or PV panels. However, there is a marked imbalance in the number
of studies in the residential sector, despite the potential benefits of reducing electricity and
CO2with renewable energies This present work details polygeneration schemes focusing
on solar refrigeration and the potential application in the industry. In this sense, the review
presented the unconventional refrigeration equipment, polygeneration schemes, and scope
of applicability in industry.
•
Alternative solar cooling technologies have energy limitations due to their low COP
and limiting their overall efficiency. However, the hybridization of cooling devices to
reduce heat transfer losses allows the COP to be maximized. In this sense, STR and
TEC devices combined with conventional refrigeration equipment and facades must
be evaluated to determine their viability.
•
PV-VCC or PV-HPR configurations outperform typical SC-TES systems and thermal
cooling equipment schemes due to the economic viability and SPB of fewer than
10 years. The reason is that conventional refrigeration equipment is preserved, and
excess electricity production is used by other equipment connected to the electrical
network. However, the economic viability of photovoltaic systems must be evaluated
considering simultaneous heat and cold thermal loads to determine the sizing limits
of PVR systems in industrial applications.
•
The literature presented confirms that the viability of alternative equipment depends
on its adaptation to polygeneration schemes that allow CE and CH to be supplied. The
schemes evaluated for simultaneous production of electricity and cold have managed
to reduce up to 64.7% of primary energy. However, the operating and investment costs
of the system remain high. Therefore, they require CO
2
taxes to achieve a financial
balance with an SPB of fewer than 20 years.
•
The CHG polygeneration schemes designed to meet the demand of the ORC generator
and the absorption chiller allow reaching solar fractions of up to 84% with an SPB
of fewer than 13 years. The reason is that DHW and heating are obtained from the
residual heat of the ORC subsystem.
•
The CHGD schemes have been evaluated based on their exergetic performance but,
the systems must be studied and adapted to meet energy demand conditions in the
industrial and residential sectors. In this sense, district refrigeration systems can
be convenient scenarios to assess the viability of the system. On the other hand,
the mining industry sector is conditioned to reduce its environmental footprint in
extraction processes. In the same way methods for evaluating the economic benefits of
reducing CO
2
have been extensively detailed; assessing the positive ecological impact
of CHGD systems in the mining industry is pertinent.
•
In Industries with processes that have different demand levels for cooling, a consensus
has not been established regarding heat integration schemes that improve the technical
and economic performance of cooling systems powered by thermal energy. In this
sense, solar cooling has been partially evaluated for industrial applications, obtaining
favorable results in small-scale agriculture and for the wine sector. However, it
is necessary to deepen the technological limits and cooling times required by the
precooling and crystallization processes in the food industry.
•
The solar system made up of collector fields and thermal storage is responsible for the
largest share of the investment expenses, which can be as high as 70%. Meanwhile,
alternative refrigeration equipment can reach up to 30% of the initial investment cost.
The costs of solar thermal and photovoltaic technologies tend to be updated based
on IEA publications, while storage costs are estimated using different methodologies.
However, the potential for using thermal refrigeration equipment reported in the
literature is based on local prices that, in some cases, are more than eight years old. In
this sense, to obtain results with less economic uncertainty, a cost update of thermal
cooling equipment is necessary.
•
Finally, the economic viability of the systems is subject to balance in the size of the solar
field with the savings of primary energy. In this sense, optimization studies focus on
Energies 2021,14, 6450 23 of 30
the system’s sizing based on the TMY. However, the industrial trend is in a transition
towards a dynamic diagnosis of refrigeration systems. In other words, operation of
the system is based on the dynamic prediction of thermal loads to automate energy
dispatch strategies and detect cooling system faults. In this sense, it is reasonable to
propose forecasting methods that will allow the adaption of alternative refrigeration
equipment powered by solar energy.
In summary, future work focused on solar cooling is the integration of Stirling cooling
equipment in polygeneration systems and, in turn, determining the viability of hybridiza-
tion with sorption equipment. Regarding the relationship of the solar resource and the
presented polygeneration schemes, it is pertinent to develop selection methods that allow
the systems to be adapted to medium and low solar radiation conditions depending on the
characteristics of industrial demand. On the other hand, the industries with the most sig-
nificant potential for integration with CHG schemes are the beverage and food-processing
industries due to multiple heat and cold processes. In contrast, underground mines close
to the sea have a high potential for implementing CHGD systems. In this regard, it is
necessary to develop an optimization method that integrates the benefits of saving water
and CO2without affecting the techno-economic viability of the CHGD systems.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization A.V.-J. and R.A.E.; methodology, A.V.-J. and R.A.E.; formal
analysis, J.M.C., M.P.-G. and R.A.E.; investigation, A.V.-J.; writing—original draft preparation, J.M.C.,
M.P.-G. and R.A.E.; writing—review and editing, J.M.C., M.P.-G. and R.A.E.; visualization, A.V.-J.;
supervision, R.A.E.; project administration, J.M.C., M.P.-G. and R.A.E.; funding acquisition, J.M.C.,
M.P.-G. and R.A.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was partial funded by National Agency for Research and Development
ANID BECAS/DOCTORADO NACIONAL 21200821 and ANID/FONDAP 15110019. The APC was
funded by the International Joint Programming Initiative of the State Research Agency (Spain), grant
PCI2019-103378 in the framework to the Iberoamerican Program on Science and Technology for the
Development (CYTED) project “Microgrids for solar self-supply in isolated productive environments
(MICROPROD-SOLAR)”, grant ANID P981PTE0258.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments:
The authors wishes to thank Armando Castillejo-Cuberos and Josue F. Rosales
for their support during the submission and review stage of the document. A. Villarruel would
like to acknowledge the funding from National Agency for Research and Development ANID
BECAS/DOCTORADO NACIONAL 21200821 and the International Joint Programming Initiative of
the State Research Agency (Spain), grant PCI2019-103378.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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