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social sciences
Article
Self-Compassion and Empathy as Predictors of Happiness
among Late Adolescents
Attiya Inam 1, Hafsa Fatima 1, Hira Naeem 1,2 , Hamna Mujeeb 1, Roquyya Khatoon 3,4, Tallat Wajahat 5,
Liviu Catalin Andrei 6, Sla ¯
dana Starˇcevi´c 7and Farooq Sher 8, *
Citation: Inam, Attiya, Hafsa Fatima,
Hira Naeem, Hamna Mujeeb,
Roquyya Khatoon, Tallat Wajahat,
Liviu Catalin Andrei, Sla ¯
dana
Starˇcevi´c, and Farooq Sher. 2021.
Self-Compassion and Empathy as
Predictors of Happiness among Late
Adolescents. Social Sciences 10: 380.
https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10100380
Academic Editor: Michaela Rogers
Received: 28 July 2021
Accepted: 8 October 2021
Published: 12 October 2021
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1Department of Human Development and Family Studies, University of Home Economics,
Lahore 54660, Pakistan; attiyainam@uhe.edu.pk (A.I.); hafsafatima28@gmail.com (H.F.);
hiranaeem2706@gmail.com (H.N.); hamnamujeeb9990@gmail.com (H.M.)
2International Society of Engineering Science and Technology, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
3Centre for South Asian Studies, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan; roquyyazafar@gmail.com
4Civil Services Academy, Lahore 54660, Pakistan
5Institute of Education and Research School, University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan;
zarishhussain1@gmail.com
6Faculty of Public Administration, National University of Political Studies and Public Administration,
012244 Bucures
,ti, Romania; liviucandrei@yahoo.com
7Department of Economics and Management, FEFA Faculty, Metropolitan University,
Bulevar Zorana Ðin ¯
di´ca 44, 11070 Belgrade, Serbia; sstarcevic@fefa.edu.rs
8Department of Engineering, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University,
Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
*Correspondence: Farooq.Sher@ntu.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-(0)115-84-86679
Abstract:
Happiness is a fundamental characteristic of life, helping individuals to become healthy
and productive members of society. Pakistan has been ranked as the 67th happiest country out
of 156 countries in the world. Self-compassion (SC) and empathy are considered some of the
finest emotions and moral values of human beings leading to a happier life. This is the first study
in South Asia that examined self-compassion as a moderator between empathy and happiness.
Furthermore, we also determined self-compassion and empathy as predictors of happiness among
late adolescents. Data collected from 566 students, selected randomly from different educational
institutions in Lahore, suggested that self-compassion (r= 0.273) and empathy (r= 0.131) had a
significant positive relationship with happiness. Self-compassion and empathy both significantly
predicted happiness. Male adolescents had slightly higher self-compassion and mindfulness than
females. Self-compassion (F(3, 562) = 29.74, p= 0.000) was found to significantly moderate the
relationship between empathy and happiness. Self-compassion can be highly beneficial to relate to
oneself, specifically for adolescents who are involved in developing their identities and self-worth,
and it makes their transition from adolescence to adulthood easy.
Keywords: social science; self-compassion; empathy; happiness; well-being; late adolescent
1. Introduction
Adolescence is a challenging time period for the individuals going through this phase;
it follows numerous psycho-social and physiological changes (Backes and Bonnie 2019).
Researchers identified a decrease in happiness during adolescence (Uusitalo-Malmivaara
2014;Chen 2020). Many adolescents report developing stress during adolescence (Endedijk
et al. 2020), which may predict behaviour problems (Juruena 2014) and can increase the
risk of psychiatric illness (Sheth et al. 2017). Several studies (Kyoung Hwang and Lee
2018;Mahmoodi et al. 2019) reported an inverse relationship between stress and happiness.
As youth is one of the most important parts of the population for any nation because
they contribute most to the development of the nation, it is requisite to ensure well-being
and proper development during this age group. Thus, it is important to identify factors
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci10100380 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/socsci
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 2 of 15
that enhance the well-being of individuals during this time period. For this purpose, the
current research explored self-compassion (SC) and empathy as predictors of happiness
among adolescents. Self-compassion is a fundamental resource of happiness (persistent
and meaningful life) (Barnard and Curry 2012), and empathy is linked positively with both
happiness and well-being (Vinayak and Judge 2018).
1.1. Self-Compassion
Self-compassion (SC) is defined as “being open to and moved by one’s own suffering,
experiencing feelings of caring and kindness toward oneself, taking an understanding,
non-judgmental attitude toward one’s inadequacies and failures, and recognizing that
one’s experience is part of the common human experience” (Neff 2016). Higher levels of
self-compassion are found to be associated with greater positive affect and life satisfaction,
whereas it is negatively associated with aggression, perceived stress, rumination, and
symptoms of depression and anxiety (MacBeth and Gumley 2012). Self-compassion helps
individuals feel calm, cared for, and connected with people, thus promoting happiness
(Gilbert 2005). Individuals with higher self-compassion levels reported being happier as
compared to less self-compassionate individuals (Smeets et al. 2014). Self-compassion is
linked with feelings of competence, connectedness, independence, and self-determination
(Magnus et al. 2010), which are fundamental requisites of well-being and happiness. SC
works as an emotion regulation strategy that helps people to handle negative emotions
with kindness resulting in increased well-being (Neff 2004).
1.2. Empathy
One other factor that plays an important role in happiness is empathy. Empathy
usually refers to “the ability to understand or share others’ feelings and to respond with
appropriate emotions” (Baron-Cohen 2011). It has been identified that empathy positively
influences emotional well-being (Khajeh Amirhesam and Fatemeh 2014;Bourgault et al.
2015;Choi et al. 2016) and helps individuals to have a positive self-image and to maintain
relationships (Chung 2014) that result in the happiness of the individuals. Research
states that greater happiness results in improved health (Kushlev et al. 2020), long life
(Diener and Chan 2011), life satisfaction (Nemati and Maralani 2016), and better social
interactions (Quoidbach et al. 2019). Happiness focuses on “how people themselves feel
and evaluate their lives on the whole; it is commonly referred to as subjective well-being
because it captures well-being subjectively and comprehensively” (Hendriks and Bartram
2019). Positive psychology directed attention towards the positive constructs such as well-
being, happiness, personal strengths, wisdom, creativity, imagination, and characteristics
of positive experiences. Happiness has been identified as being well and experiencing
gratification or as an inborn or satisfying experience (Myers and Diener 1995). Subjective
well-being is a scientific term given to various forms of happiness (Diener 2016), which
means happiness is a sentiment that shares the constructiveness of other positive measures
causing subjective well-being.
1.3. Gender and Institution Type in Regards to Study Variables
The postulation that individual differences such as gender or institution type differ
in the ability to be self-compassionate, empathetic (Singer and Lamm 2009), or happy is
one of the common stereotypical beliefs still present. As per this stereotypic assumption,
females are assumed to be more empathetic and interpersonally oriented than males
(Christov-Moore et al. 2014). According to research, one of the possible factors is the cultural
expectations regarding gender roles (Löffler and Greitemeyer 2021), which postulates that
females are supposed to focus more on others, which is directly related to women being
more empathetic (Chen et al. 2014). One other factor is the change in the physiological
structure. As they grow older, women have greater levels of oxytocin hormone, which
leads to more emotional empathy, whereas men have greater testosterone hormone, which
is negatively related to empathy, thus leading to differences in empathy. These factors may
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 3 of 15
also lead to gender differences in happiness as well as self-compassion, reporting females
to have greater levels of anxiety, depression, and mood disorders as compared to men
(Eaton et al. 2012). Similarly, several studies found males to have higher levels of happiness
(Ading et al. 2012;Jaisri 2015;Kamthan et al. 2019) as well as self-compassion (Yarnell et al.
2015;Zessin et al. 2015;Muris et al. 2016) as compared to females.
1.4. Rationale of the Study
Empathy has a significant relationship with happiness (Meyzari Ali and Bozorgi
2016), which increases emotional as well as psychological well-being (Bourgault et al. 2015;
Choi et al. 2016;Morelli et al. 2017). Empathetic individuals reported experiencing less
negative affect and greater happiness and well-being (Tkach 2005). By being helpful and
kind to others, people feel more connected and satisfied. Empathy helps individuals to
have a positive self-image and to maintain relationships (Chung 2014), which result in the
happiness of the individuals. The above studies concluded that being compassionate is
beneficial for individuals and improves self-esteem and happiness. These all contribute to
the general health and development of adolescents. Therefore, it is important to investigate
these variables with reference to adolescents in Pakistan.
1.5. Study Hypotheses
The present research in this regard intended to test the following hypotheses:
•
H
1
: Male adolescents are more likely to have high levels of self-compassion, empathy,
and happiness than female adolescents.
•
H
2
: There is likely to be a relationship between self-compassion, empathy, happiness,
gender, and institute type of late adolescents.
•H3: Self-compassion and empathy are likely to predict happiness.
•
H
4
: Self-compassion is likely to moderate the relationship between empathy and
happiness.
•
H
5
: Self-compassion, empathy, and happiness are likely to be affected by an adoles-
cent’s gender and institute type.
2. Materials and Methods
The study was quantitative and utilized a cross-sectional research design. The sample
included five hundred and sixty-six (N= 566) late adolescents (both males and females)
within an age range of 17–21 years, who were studying in various public and private
educational institutes of Lahore, Pakistan. Sampling was done using probability random
sampling.
2.1. Questionaries
The study data were collected using three instruments in addition to a demographic
information sheet, which was used to obtain the information about the participant’s gender
and institute type, and a consent form delivered to each participant by hand who were
then invited to complete the entire set of tools. Firstly, to measure the SC of participants
the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form (SCS-SF) developed by Raes, Pommier, Neff, and
Van Gucht was used (Raes et al. 2011). The SCS-SF is comprised of 12 items. Items were
rated on 5-point Likert scale ranging from “1,” which means almost never, to “5,” which
means almost always. A total score was calculated by taking the mean of all 12 items after
reverse-scoring negatively worded items (i.e., 1, 9, 4, 8, 11, and 12); higher scores indicated
greater self-compassion and vice-versa. The Cronbach alpha reliability of this scale was
measured to be 0.52.
Secondly, the Basic Empathy Scale (BES) developed by Jolliffe and Farrington was
used to measure empathy among participants (Jolliffe and Farrington 2006). The BES
contains a total of 20-items, out of which 9 measure cognitive empathy and the other
11 measure affective/emotional empathy. It is a 5-point Likert scale in which 1 means
“strongly disagree” and 5 means “strongly agree.” Averages were computed, after which
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 4 of 15
higher scores indicated a high empathy level and vice versa. The Cronbach alpha reliability
of this scale was measured to be 0.70. Lastly, the Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) was used
to measure participants’ perceived happiness. This scale was developed by Lyubomirsky
and Lepper and consists of 4 items (Lyubomirsky and Lepper 1999). Item number 4 was
reverse-scored. The scale measured the construct on a 7-point Likert scale. Scoring was
cumulative, and a higher score indicated greater happiness. The Cronbach alpha reliability
of this scale was measured to be 0.65.
2.2. Ethical Approval
Certain ethical considerations were maintained during this research such as approval
of the research proposal, which was received from the Board of Studies, University of
the Punjab, Lahore. Formal permission was granted by the corresponding authors for
all three data collection instruments used in this research. Moreover, consent was also
taken from participants, which stated that anonymity of their identity and confidentiality
of the provided information was maintained. Participants were not harmed in any way
(physically, psychologically) during the conduction of this study.
2.3. Data Collection and Statistical Analysis
For the data collection, a total of 6 educational institutes were selected from both
public and private sectors. Then, for selecting the nnumber from the Nnumber such that
each participant has an equal chance of being selected, every 3rd student from each class
was selected. For this, the researcher asked teachers for the attendance list of the students.
These students were informed that they have been selected to participate in research and
were asked to sign the consent form if they were willing to participate. As participants
were not familiar with the variables of the research, the researcher told them the meaning
of the variables and what they are intended to measure. Respondents took 10–15 min to fill
all the questionnaires. To obtain more reliable responses, the researcher read all items one
by one so that students could understand items and remained focused.
After completing data collection, the researcher examined the responses, and incom-
plete questionnaires were discarded. The total number of respondents approached was
659, out of which 93 questionnaires were discarded because of incomplete responses, and
566 questionnaires were taken as the final sample of the study. The finalized responses
were entered in the “Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)” software for data
analysis. Firstly, composite scores for all measures were calculated in order to organize
multiple correlated variables into meaningful information and to control type 1 error
(Song et al. 2013). Descriptive as well as inferential statistics were applied for data analysis.
Spearmen product coefficient correlation and regression coefficient were used to assess the
relationship among study variables and to find an impact of self-compassion and empathy
on happiness. Moreover, one-way ANOVA (for late adolescents’ age and institute type)
and an independent-sample t-test (for adolescent’s gender) was computed to explore the
effect of demographic characteristics on the study variables.
3. Results
3.1. Description of Participants
After discarding 93 questionnaires (as mentioned in the above section), a total of
566 questionnaires
were analyzed, and the demographic characteristics showed that 54.1%
of participants were females and 45.9% were males. The data contained 125 males and
221 girls
from all-boys and all-girls institutes, respectively, whereas, 115 boys and 85 girls
were from a co-education system.
3.2. Levels of Self-Compassion, Empathy, and Happiness among Late Adolescents (N = 566)
In order to test the 1st study hypothesis, i.e., that male adolescents are likely to have
higher levels of self-compassion, empathy, and happiness than female adolescents, we
firstly identified levels of all three variables into three categories, i.e., low, moderate, and
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 5 of 15
high. For this, the mean scores for overall self-compassion, empathy, and happiness scales
were computed. Then, to calculate the cut-off points for all these scales, we subtracted
the maximum score of all scales (i.e., “5” for SCS-SF and BES and “7” for the happiness
scale) with a minimum score of these scales (i.e., 1) and divided it by the intended number
of categories (i.e., 3). Upon calculation, we obtained the interval value i.e., 1.33 (for
SCS-SF and BES) and 2.00 (for the happiness Scale). After that, this interval value was
added up to the three categories giving 3.67 (SCS-SF and BES) and 5.00 (happiness) for
the moderate level and 5.00 (SCS-SF and BES) and 7.00 (happiness) for the high level.
The results of the 1st hypothesis are presented in Figure 1. The findings show that male
adolescents had comparatively higher levels of self-compassion (28.8%) and happiness
(51.5%) but lower levels of empathy (40%) than female adolescents (19.6, 44.1, and 44.1%
for self-compassion, happiness, and empathy, respectively). It also showed that the overall
majority of late adolescents showed moderate levels of self-compassion (64.6; 70.6%) and
empathy (58.8; 54.6%) but showed higher levels of happiness (51.5; 44.1%) for males and
females, respectively. Thus, the 1st study hypothesis was partially accepted.
Soc. Sci. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15
girls from all-boys and all-girls institutes, respectively, whereas, 115 boys and 85 girls
were from a co-education system.
3.2. Levels of Self-Compassion, Empathy, and Happiness among Late Adolescents (N = 566)
In order to test the 1st study hypothesis, i.e., that male adolescents are likely to have
higher levels of self-compassion, empathy, and happiness than female adolescents, we
firstly identified levels of all three variables into three categories, i.e., low, moderate, and
high. For this, the mean scores for overall self-compassion, empathy, and happiness scales
were computed. Then, to calculate the cut-off points for all these scales, we subtracted the
maximum score of all scales (i.e., “5” for SCS-SF and BES and “7” for the happiness scale)
with a minimum score of these scales (i.e., 1) and divided it by the intended number of
categories (i.e., 3). Upon calculation, we obtained the interval value i.e., 1.33 (for SCS-SF
and BES) and 2.00 (for the happiness Scale). After that, this interval value was added up
to the three categories giving 3.67 (SCS-SF and BES) and 5.00 (happiness) for the moderate
level and 5.00 (SCS-SF and BES) and 7.00 (happiness) for the high level. The results of the
1st hypothesis are presented in Figure 1. The findings show that male adolescents had
comparatively higher levels of self-compassion (28.8%) and happiness (51.5%) but lower
levels of empathy (40%) than female adolescents (19.6, 44.1, and 44.1% for self-compas-
sion, happiness, and empathy, respectively). It also showed that the overall majority of
late adolescents showed moderate levels of self-compassion (64.6; 70.6%) and empathy
(58.8; 54.6%) but showed higher levels of happiness (51.5; 44.1%) for males and females,
respectively. Thus, the 1st study hypothesis was partially accepted.
Figure 1. Levels of self-compassion, empathy, and happiness among males and females.
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 6 of 15
3.3. Relationship between Late Adolescents’ Gender, Institute Type, Self-Compassion, Empathy,
and Happiness
A Spearman product coefficient correlation was conducted to test the 2nd study hy-
pothesis, i.e., that there is likely to be a relationship between self-compassion, empathy,
happiness, and demographic characteristics of late adolescents. For this, firstly, assumptions
of the Spearman and Pearson coefficient correlation were checked, and it was found that
the data contained some outliers, that it was not normally distributed, and that the majority
of the variables showed a monotonic relationship; therefore, Spearman correlation was
used. The results are shown in Table 1. The correlation revealed that self-compassion had
no significant relationship with overall empathy (r= 0.59) but had a significant positive
relationship with cognitive empathy (r= 0.147) and happiness (r= 0.273). It further showed
a significant positive relationship of self-compassion with all its positive subscales, i.e.,
self-kindness (r= 0.512), common humanity (r= 0.447), and mindfulness (r= 0.495), and a
significant negative correlation with all its negative subscales, i.e., self-judgment (r=
−
0.484),
isolation (r=
−
0.479), and over-identification (r=
−
0.410). Furthermore, empathy revealed
no significant relationship with self-compassion but had a significant positive relationship
with its own subscales, i.e., cognitive and affective empathy
(r= 0.877
;r= 0.791 respectively)
as well as with happiness (r= 0.131). Moreover, it was found that self-compassion and
mindfulness had a significant negative relationship with gender. Overall empathy, as well
as affective empathy, had a significant negative relationship with institute type, whereas
gender revealed no relationship with happiness and empathy. Thus, hypothesis 2 was
partially accepted.
3.4. Multiple Linear Regression
Multiple linear regression was applied to find the prediction of self-compassion
and empathy for happiness (H
3
). The results (Table 2) showed that an overall model was
significant with (F(2, 563) = 35.224; p< 0.05). Furthermore, it indicated that self-compassion
(
β
= 0.31, t(565) = 8.01, p< 0.00) and empathy (
β
= 0.08, t(565) = 2.17,
p< 0.03
) positively
predicted happiness among late adolescents, meaning that the higher the level of self-
compassion and empathy the higher was the levels of happiness. Overall, R
2
= 0.111
indicated that 11.1% variance in happiness was explained by self-compassion and empathy
among late adolescents. Furthermore, Figure 2shows the regression line between self-
compassion and happiness as well as empathy and happiness. Thus, 3rd study hypothesis
was accepted.
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 7 of 15
Table 1. Relationship between self-compassion, empathy, happiness, gender, and institute type of late adolescents (N= 566).
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1. Gender - −0.522 ** −0.096 * −0.085 * −0.017 −0.117 ** 0.042 0.025 0.028 0.040 0.007 0.066 −0.058
2. InstituteType - 0.023 0.061 −.058 0.070 0.058 −0.045 −0.020 −0.207 ** −0.082 −0.266 ** 0.002
3. Self.Compassion - 0.512 ** 0.447 ** 0.495 ** −0.484 ** −0.479 ** −0.410 ** 0.059 0.147 ** −0.021 0.273 **
4. Self.Kindness - 0.274 ** 0.403 ** −0.051 0.099 * 0.090 * 0.109 ** 0.150 ** 0.051 0.238 **
5. Common.Humanity - 0.151 ** 0.010 0.005 −0.012 0.123 ** 0.086 * 0.115 ** 0.179 **
6. Mindfulness - −0.048 0.054 0.082 0.136 ** 0.211 ** 0.038 0.195 **
7. Self.Judgment - 0.196 ** 0.140 ** −0.124 ** −0.175 ** −0.053 −0.173 **
8. Isolation - 0.325 ** 0.185 ** 0.114 ** 0.190 ** −0.059
9. Over.Identification - 0.183 ** 0.114 ** 0.179 ** −0.037
10. Empathy - 0.791 ** 0.877 ** 0.131 **
11. Coginitive.Empathy - 0.427 ** 0.177 **
12. Affective.Empathy - 0.057
13. Happiness -
Note. ** p< 0.01. * p< 0.05.
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 8 of 15
Table 2.
Self-compassion and empathy as a predictor of happiness among late adolescents (N= 566).
B SE βt p R2
(Constant) 4.224 1.974 2.140 0.033 * 0.111
Self-Compassion 0.274 0.034 0.319 8.011 0.000 ***
Empathy 0.048 0.022 0.087 2.176 0.030 *
Dependent variable: happiness. Note. *** p < 0.001. * p < 0.05.
Soc. Sci. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
Multiple linear regression was applied to find the prediction of self-compassion and
empathy for happiness (H
3
). The results (Table 2) showed that an overall model was sig-
nificant with (F (2, 563) = 35.224; p < 0.05). Furthermore, it indicated that self-compassion
(β = 0.31, t (565) = 8.01, p < 0.00) and empathy (β = 0.08, t (565) = 2.17, p < 0.03) positively
predicted happiness among late adolescents, meaning that the higher the level of self-
compassion and empathy the higher was the levels of happiness. Overall, R
2
= 0.111 indi-
cated that 11.1% variance in happiness was explained by self-compassion and empathy
among late adolescents. Furthermore, Figure 2 shows the regression line between self-
compassion and happiness as well as empathy and happiness. Thus, 3rd study hypothesis
was accepted.
Table 2. Self-compassion and empathy as a predictor of happiness among late adolescents (N =
566).
B SE β t p R
2
(Constant) 4.224 1.974 2.140 0.033 * 0.111
Self-Compassion 0.274 0.034 0.319 8.011 0.000 ***
Empathy 0.048 0.022 0.087 2.176 0.030 *
Dependent variable: happiness. Note. *** p < 0.001. * p < 0.05.
Figure 2. Regression plot of (a) self-compassion and happiness and (b) empathy and happiness.
3.5. Self-Compassion as Moderator between Empathy and Happiness
In order to check if self-compassion moderate empathy and happiness, Hayes PRO-
CESS moderation analysis was conducted (Table 3), which revealed that the overall model
was significant with p < 0.01; moreover, F (3, 562) = 29.74, p = 0.000 and R
2
= 0.1370 deter-
mined that 13.7% of the variance was caused by the predictor. The conceptual model is
shown in Figure 3.
Happiness
Self-
compassion
M
XY
Empathy
Figure 2. Regression plot of (a) self-compassion and happiness and (b) empathy and happiness.
3.5. Self-Compassion as Moderator between Empathy and Happiness
In order to check if self-compassion moderate empathy and happiness, Hayes PRO-
CESS moderation analysis was conducted (Table 3), which revealed that the overall model
was significant with p< 0.01; moreover, F(3, 562) = 29.74, p= 0.000 and R
2
= 0.1370 deter-
mined that 13.7% of the variance was caused by the predictor. The conceptual model is
shown in Figure 3.
Table 3. Self-Compassion as a moderator between empathy and happiness (N= 566).
RR2MSE F df1 df2 p
0.3702 0.1370 21.89 29.74 3 562 0.000 ***
Note. *** p< 0.001.
Soc. Sci. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
Multiple linear regression was applied to find the prediction of self-compassion and
empathy for happiness (H
3
). The results (Table 2) showed that an overall model was sig-
nificant with (F (2, 563) = 35.224; p < 0.05). Furthermore, it indicated that self-compassion
(β = 0.31, t (565) = 8.01, p < 0.00) and empathy (β = 0.08, t (565) = 2.17, p < 0.03) positively
predicted happiness among late adolescents, meaning that the higher the level of self-
compassion and empathy the higher was the levels of happiness. Overall, R
2
= 0.111 indi-
cated that 11.1% variance in happiness was explained by self-compassion and empathy
among late adolescents. Furthermore, Figure 2 shows the regression line between self-
compassion and happiness as well as empathy and happiness. Thus, 3rd study hypothesis
was accepted.
Table 2. Self-compassion and empathy as a predictor of happiness among late adolescents (N =
566).
B SE β t p R
2
(Constant) 4.224 1.974 2.140 0.033 * 0.111
Self-Compassion 0.274 0.034 0.319 8.011 0.000 ***
Empathy 0.048 0.022 0.087 2.176 0.030 *
Dependent variable: happiness. Note. *** p < 0.001. * p < 0.05.
Figure 2. Regression plot of (a) self-compassion and happiness and (b) empathy and happiness.
3.5. Self-Compassion as Moderator between Empathy and Happiness
In order to check if self-compassion moderate empathy and happiness, Hayes PRO-
CESS moderation analysis was conducted (Table 3), which revealed that the overall model
was significant with p < 0.01; moreover, F (3, 562) = 29.74, p = 0.000 and R
2
= 0.1370 deter-
mined that 13.7% of the variance was caused by the predictor. The conceptual model is
shown in Figure 3.
Happiness
Self-
compassion
M
XY
Empathy
Figure 3. Conceptual model of self-compassion moderation.
Furthermore, we analyzed the effect of empathy on happiness having self-compassion
as moderator. The model of self-compassion is shown in Figure 4. The results shown
(Table 4) that the regression coefficient for the interaction effect of empathy ×self-compassion
was statistically significant (
β
= 0.0145, t(562) = 4.099, p< 0.0001), which revealed that the
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 9 of 15
relationship between empathy and happiness was significantly moderated by self-compassion,
and the effect of empathy on happiness significantly depended on the effect of self-compassion
on happiness.
Soc. Sci. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15
Figure 3. Conceptual model of self-compassion moderation.
Table 3. Self-Compassion as a moderator between empathy and happiness (N = 566).
R R2 MSE F df1 df2 p
0.3702 0.1370 21.89 29.74 3 562 0.000 ***
Note. *** p < 0.001.
Furthermore, we analyzed the effect of empathy on happiness having self-compas-
sion as moderator. The model of self-compassion is shown in Figure 4. The results shown
(Table 4) that the regression coefficient for the interaction effect of empathy x self-com-
passion was statistically significant (β = 0.0145, t (562) = 4.099, p < 0.0001), which revealed
that the relationship between empathy and happiness was significantly moderated by
self-compassion, and the effect of empathy on happiness significantly depended on the
effect of self-compassion on happiness.
Figure 4. Model of self-compassion moderation.
Table 4. Effect of empathy on happiness and self-compassion as a moderator (N = 566).
B SE t p LLCI ULCI
Constant 42.6302 9.5686 4.4552 <0.000 *** 23.8356 61.4249
Empathy × Self-compassion 0.0145 0.0035 4.0995 <0.000 *** 0.0076 0.0215
Note. *** p < 0.001.
Lastly, we checked the change in variance after the interaction effect of empathy and
self-compassion on happiness (Table 5). The ΔR2 = 0.0258, p = <0.01 was statistically signif-
icant, which determined that the effect of empathy was significantly dependent on the
effect of self-compassion, which, in return, affected individual happiness. Thus, this de-
termined that individuals who are more empathetic and self-compassionate are happier,
leading us to accept hypothesis 4.
Table 5. Interaction effect of empathy and self-compassion on happiness (N = 566).
ΔR2 F df1 df2 p
Empathy × self-compassion 0.0258 16.806 1 562 <0.01 **
Note. ** p < 0.01.
3.6. Effect of Institute Type and Gender on Self-Compassion, Empathy, and Happiness
For testing of 5th study hypothesis, i.e., that there are likely to be differences in self-
compassion, empathy, and happiness in relation to adolescents’ gender and institute type,
we computed a one-way ANOVA (for institute type) and an independent sample t-test
(for gender). Table 6 shows that self-compassion, empathy, and happiness had significant
mean differences in relation to adolescents’ institute type. It also shows that institute type
explained small variance in self-compassion (η2 = 0.034), empathy (η2 = 0.044), and happi-
ness (η2 = 0.011).
Table 6. Effect of late adolescents’ institute type on self-compassion, empathy, and happiness (N =
566).
All Girls
(n = 221)
All Boys
(n = 145)
Co-Education
(n = 200)
Predictor
×
Moderator
(Empathy
×
Self-compassion)
Outcome
(Happiness)
0.0145
Figure 4. Model of self-compassion moderation.
Table 4. Effect of empathy on happiness and self-compassion as a moderator (N= 566).
B SE t p LLCI ULCI
Constant 42.6302 9.5686 4.4552 <0.000 *** 23.8356 61.4249
Empathy ×Self-compassion 0.0145 0.0035 4.0995 <0.000 *** 0.0076 0.0215
Note. *** p< 0.001.
Lastly, we checked the change in variance after the interaction effect of empathy
and self-compassion on happiness (Table 5). The
∆
R
2
= 0.0258, p= <0.01 was statistically
significant, which determined that the effect of empathy was significantly dependent on
the effect of self-compassion, which, in return, affected individual happiness. Thus, this
determined that individuals who are more empathetic and self-compassionate are happier,
leading us to accept hypothesis 4.
Table 5. Interaction effect of empathy and self-compassion on happiness (N= 566).
∆R2F df1 df2 p
Empathy ×self-compassion 0.0258 16.806 1 562 <0.01 **
Note. ** p< 0.01.
3.6. Effect of Institute Type and Gender on Self-Compassion, Empathy, and Happiness
For testing of 5th study hypothesis, i.e., that there are likely to be differences in self-
compassion, empathy, and happiness in relation to adolescents’ gender and institute type,
we computed a one-way ANOVA (for institute type) and an independent sample t-test
(for gender). Table 6shows that self-compassion, empathy, and happiness had significant
mean differences in relation to adolescents’ institute type. It also shows that institute
type explained small variance in self-compassion (
η2
= 0.034), empathy (
η2
= 0.044), and
happiness (η2= 0.011).
Table 6.
Effect of late adolescents’ institute type on self-compassion, empathy, and happiness
(N= 566).
All Girls
(n= 221)
All Boys
(n= 145)
Co-Education
(n= 200)
M((SD) M(SD) M(SD) F p η2
Self-compassion
37.63 (5.73) 40.22 (5.78)
37.93 (5.72) 9.88 0.000 *** 0.034
Empathy
70.68 (9.45) 68.99 (8.31)
66.29 (8.63) 12.93 0.000 *** 0.044
Happiness
17.76 (5.06) 18.94 (5.23)
17.72 (4.76) 3.10 0.045 * 0.011
Note. *** p< 0.001. * p< 0.05.
Then, post hoc analysis (LSD) was conducted to explore which institute type re-
sults in more self-compassion, empathy, and happiness (Table 7). The results of LSD
revealed that participants from all-boys institutions (
M= 40.22
;SD = 5.78) were more
self-compassionate than participants from all-girls (M= 37.63; SD = 5.73) and co-education
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 10 of 15
institutions
(M= 37.93;
SD = 5.72). Participants from all-girls (M= 70.68; SD = 9.45) and
all-boys (M= 68.99; SD = 8.31) institutions were more empathetic than participants from
co-education institutes (M= 66.29; SD = 8.63). Moreover, participants of all-boys institutes
(M= 18.94; SD = 5.23) were happier than participants of all-girls (M= 17.76; SD = 5.06) and
co-education (M= 17.72; SD = 4.76) institutes. The graphical presentation of this has also
been shown in Figure 5.
Table 7.
Post hoc analysis (LSD) of late adolescents’ self-compassion, empathy, and happiness with
institute type (N= 566).
Institute Type
Group I
Institute Type
Group J
Mean
Difference I-J p
Self-compassion All Boys All Girls 2.58268 * 0.000 ***
Co-Education 2.28569 * 0.000 ***
Empathy All Girls Co-Education 4.39278 * 0.000 ***
All Boys Co-Education 2.69810 * 0.006 **
Happiness All Boys All Girls 1.18465 * 0.027 *
Note. *** p< 0.001. ** p< 0.01. * p< 0.05.
Soc. Sci. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15
M((SD) M(SD) M(SD) F p η2
Self-compassion 37.63 (5.73) 40.22 (5.78) 37.93
(5.72) 9.88 0.000 *** 0.034
Empathy 70.68 (9.45) 68.99 (8.31) 66.29
(8.63) 12.93 0.000 *** 0.044
Happiness 17.76 (5.06) 18.94 (5.23) 17.72
(4.76) 3.10 0.045 * 0.011
Note. *** p < 0.001. * p < 0.05.
Then, post hoc analysis (LSD) was conducted to explore which institute type results
in more self-compassion, empathy, and happiness (Table 7). The results of LSD revealed
that participants from all-boys institutions (M = 40.22; SD = 5.78) were more self-compas-
sionate than participants from all-girls (M = 37.63; SD = 5.73) and co-education institutions
(M = 37.93; SD = 5.72). Participants from all-girls (M = 70.68; SD = 9.45) and all-boys (M =
68.99; SD = 8.31) institutions were more empathetic than participants from co-education
institutes (M = 66.29; SD = 8.63). Moreover, participants of all-boys institutes (M = 18.94;
SD = 5.23) were happier than participants of all-girls (M = 17.76; SD = 5.06) and co-educa-
tion (M = 17.72; SD = 4.76) institutes. The graphical presentation of this has also been
shown in Figure 5.
Table 7. Post hoc analysis (LSD) of late adolescents’ self-compassion, empathy, and happiness with
institute type (N = 566).
Institute Type
Group I
Institute Type
Group J
Mean Difference
I-J p
Self-
compassion All Boys All Girls 2.58268 * 0.000 ***
Co-Education 2.28569 * 0.000 ***
Empathy All Girls Co-Education 4.39278 * 0.000 ***
All Boys Co-Education 2.69810 * 0.006 **
Happiness All Boys All Girls 1.18465 * 0.027 *
Note. *** p < 0.001. ** p < 0.01. * p < 0.05.
Soc. Sci. 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15
Figure 5. Comparison of (a) self-compassion, (b) empathy, and (c) happiness among adolescents from different types of
institutes.
Furthermore, Table 8 shows that male adolescents were more self-compassionate
than female adolescents. However, no significant differences were found in adolescents’
empathy and happiness in relation to their gender. Moreover, the value of Cohen’s d
shows that gender explained a small variance in self-compassion (d = 0.20), whereas it had
a trivial effect on empathy (d = 0.10) and happiness (d = 0.12). Thus, we partially accepted
hypothesis 5.
Figure 5.
Comparison of (
a
) self-compassion, (
b
) empathy, and (
c
) happiness among adolescents from different types of
institutes.
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 11 of 15
Furthermore, Table 8shows that male adolescents were more self-compassionate
than female adolescents. However, no significant differences were found in adolescents’
empathy and happiness in relation to their gender. Moreover, the value of Cohen’s d shows
that gender explained a small variance in self-compassion (d= 0.20), whereas it had a
trivial effect on empathy (d= 0.10) and happiness (d= 0.12). Thus, we partially accepted
hypothesis 5.
Table 8. Effect of late adolescents’ gender on self-compassion, empathy, and happiness (N= 566).
Male
(n= 260)
Female
(n= 306)
M(SD) M(SD) t df p Cohen’s d
Self-compassion 39.05
(5.97)
37.85
(5.67) 2.437 564 0.015 ** 0.20
Empathy 68.18
(8.32)
69.14
(9.65) −1.250 564 0.212 0.10
Happiness 18.38
(5.16)
17.76
(4.89) 1.457 564 0.146 0.12
Note. ** p< 0.01.
4. Discussion
Firstly, the current study found that male adolescents had higher levels of self-
compassion and happiness but lower levels of empathy than female adolescents. Past
studies reported mixed findings regarding levels of self-compassion and empathy, but anal-
ogous outcomes regarding levels of happiness among adolescents have been discovered.
Researchers found similar results reporting low self-compassion (Yarnell et al. 2015) and
well-being (happiness) (Bluth and Blanton 2015) in females than males. However, Muris
and colleagues observed no differences in self-compassion between both genders (Muris
et al. 2016). Similarly, researchers also reported a high score of empathy in young females
as compared to young males (Garaigordobil et al. 2009). The current study found male
adolescents to be happier than female adolescents. Similar results have been found in a
previous study that found girls having lower satisfaction with life than boys (Moksnes and
Espnes 2013). Similarly, several researchers found males to have higher levels of happiness
as compared to females (Ading et al. 2012;Jaisri 2015;Kamthan et al. 2019). However, a
study done by Sharma and colleagues found contrasting results reporting females having
higher levels of happiness than males (Sharma and Gulati 2015).
This conflict in the findings may be the result of the difference in the sample as the
present study explored happiness only among late adolescents, while the studies in contrast
had samples with different age groups. Research suggests that such gender differences may
be due to cultural expectations (Löffler and Greitemeyer 2021) or physiological structure
(Chen et al. 2014). The current study discovered a non-significant association between
self-compassion and empathy. These results are in line with the previous study done
by Wei, which concluded similar results (Wei et al. 2011). However, some studies found
contrasting results and detected a significant association between self-compassion and
other focused concerns (empathetic concern) (Daltry et al. 2018). Moreover, the results
revealed a significant positive relationship as well as the prediction of both self-compassion
and empathy with happiness among adolescents. These outcomes are in line with prior
studies on the prediction of happiness by self-compassion that found it to be a predictor of
happiness and wellbeing (Barnard and Curry 2012). Another study evaluated the predictive
role of self-compassion on happiness among students and detected a significant correlation
between aspects of SC and found that it predicts happiness in people (Akin and Akin 2014).
Furthermore, the current study also found empathy as a predictor of happiness. For-
mer researchers also discovered identical results. A study done by Vinayak and colleagues
assessed the prediction of psychological well-being (PWB) by resilience and empathy
among adolescents (Vinayak and Judge 2018) and found resilience and empathy to be
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 12 of 15
predictors of well-being among girls; whereas, for boys, only resilience was found to be a
predictor of PWB. A study purported to explore the relationship between empathy, coping
strategies, and the well-being of Spanish students concluded that understanding others
emotions (affective empathy) and state of mind (cognitive empathy) as well as accept-
ing one’s own emotions (self-compassion) improve well-being (Carnicer and Calderón
2014). Another study investigated the level to which the Interpersonal Reactivity Index
(
a measure
of empathy) sub-scales predicted psychological well-being in Japanese students
and concluded that a component of empathy (perspective taking) enhances psychological
well-being (Choi et al. 2016).
Furthermore, the present study discovered that self-compassion significantly mod-
erated the relationship between empathy and happiness. No such evidence was found
from previous literature, as, to the researcher’s knowledge, to date no such study has been
reported that evaluated SC as a moderator between empathy and happiness. However, sev-
eral studies have evaluated SC as a moderator (Ferreira et al. 2014;Kelly et al. 2014;Homan
and Tylka 2015). The effect of SC on empathy has also been well explored, and a significant
association between SC and other focused concerns (empathetic concern) has been detected
(Neff and Pommier 2013). A study that examined the association between SC and empathy
among students found a significant association between both variables (Daltry et al. 2018).
As the results of these studies indicate a positive effect of SC on empathy, which in turn
increases happiness, we can conclude that SC positively moderates the empathy–happiness
relationship. The study found significant differences in SC among male participants and
female participants. Male adolescents had slightly higher self-compassion than female
adolescents.
Past researchers have also found females having low self-compassion than males. A
meta-analysis intended to identify self-compassion differences among genders concluded
women having lower self-compassion than men (Yarnell et al. 2015). Previous studies
detected low SC and well-being in elderly females as compared to younger males and
females (Bluth and Blanton 2015;Bluth et al. 2017), whereas Muris discovered no differences
in SC between both genders (Muris et al. 2016). The current study detected significant
differences in self-compassion and empathy related to the institute type of late adolescents.
Late adolescents who were studying at all-boys institutes had higher SC than adolescents
who were studying at all-girls and co-education institutes. Adolescents from all-girls
institutes were more empathetic than adolescents from all-boys and co-education institutes,
and adolescents of all-boys institutes were more empathetic than adolescents from co-
education institutes. To the best of the researchers’ knowledge, to date there has been no
research done on self-compassion, empathy, and happiness that compares it specifically
with the institute type of participants.
Limitations and Recommendations
The study was limited to some facts, such as that this study only included healthy
adolescents, and adolescents having any kind of physical or psychological illness were
excluded. However, researchers suggested that SC is more needed in individuals who
are challenged in any way, so this can be termed as a limitation of this study. Based on
the findings of this study, some recommendations are suggested. For instance, the study
evaluated the association of SC and empathy with happiness, but maybe this association
becomes stronger or weaker with age or over time. It is suggested to conduct a longitu-
dinal study on moderating the role of time, age, and other controlling variables on SC,
empathy, and happiness. This study explored SC as a moderator between empathy and
happiness. Future researchers are recommended to explore other potential mediators
(virtues, character strengths) of the empathy–happiness relationship.
5. Conclusions
Self-compassion and empathy are considered amongst the distinctive ethics of human-
ity. These routes are of vital importance to life. On the basis of findings, the study concludes
Soc. Sci. 2021,10, 380 13 of 15
that happiness increases when people understand themselves and give acceptance and
care to themselves in critical times (self-compassion) and understand other thoughts and
emotions and respond to them kindly (empathy). On the contrary, individuals who are
less empathetic and less self-compassionate are more self-judgmental and self-criticizing,
which makes them unhappy. Though being able to understand other people’s thoughts
and emotions (empathy) brings greater happiness, it is highly dependent on being able
to understand oneself first (self-compassion). So, the emergence of both self-compassion
and empathy must be the priority for parents and teachers to ensure greater happiness,
specifically for adolescents who are in their critical developmental period (puberty) or
experiencing a transition from adolescence to adulthood.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, A.I., H.N., H.F., and H.M.; software, H.N., R.K., and S.S.;
validation, A.I. and H.F.; formal analysis, A.I. and H.N.; resources, R.K. and F.S.; writing—original
draft preparation, A.I., L.C.A., H.N., R.K., and T.W.; writing—review and editing, L.C.A., F.S., T.W.,
and S.S.; visualization, L.C.A.. and F.S.; supervision, A.I. and F.S.; project administration, F.S.; funding
acquisition, F.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments:
The authors are grateful to the respective institutes for the financial support to
carry on this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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