No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The Debate on IC, Smart Technologies, and Digitalization
Abstract
Intellectual Capital (IC) literature has developed over 20 years, attracting many scholars and generating several contaminations across business economics, accounting, and management studies. Recently, many literature reviews have been provided, with the aim of systematizing the main areas of IC literature, contributing to grasp the state of the art, and in identifying emerging research trends of specific IC clusters. Also relevant are the conceptual papers that aim to develop new frameworks to manage IC, both in private and in public domains, following multiple dimensions of value (economic, social, environmental) and multiple levels of analysis (firms, ecosystems, networks). These contributions reveal that the IC debate needs to refocus on new directions, attempting to explore new critical ways to interpret future issues in accounting and management fields derived by new technologies and new accounting information systems.
... The logistics sector is a main economic driver for Lithuania. A local shared logistics infrastructure should enable continuous operations without any costly significant disruptions during crisis situations [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. Services of e-logistics became central for promulgating the digitalization of the logistics sector in the shared economy. ...
This paper analyses the shared economy model to sustainably manage the tangible and in- tangible resources of logistics systems. A critical review of literature on the current supply chain management policy and technological platform in current use that supports it was done to suggest a new conceptual framework for logistics processes' sustainable management on a shared economy platform. This was examined according to how the concepts of new technologies influence logistics and the role of sustainable management platforms of the shared economy in enabling greater improved logistics processes. The inductive methodology approach was applied using multi-criteria analysis interpretive research method. The impact of the shared business model on each stakeholder and beneficiary varies according to how resources are consumed and its adoption according to the core business models requirements of each. Current scientific literature does not identify the impact this phenomenon has on companies in different sectors, as there is a lack of detailed analysis and evidence to fill this gap, particularly as the Internet of Things (IoT) monetize digital assets autonomously through the Economy of Things (EoT) marketplaces. From the analysis conducted, the findings provide a concept of the prototype framework required for the shared economy in the e-logistics' ecosystems rather than traditional ones, modelled using multi-criteria analysis interpretive methods as a strategic resource within the shared economy of supply chain management systems.
Scientific research on digitalization and its impact on business models has been growing exponentially in recent years. This has been particularly evident from 2010 onwards, following a landmark special issue published in Long Range Planning. This article offers an overview of the development of academic literature published between 2010 and 2019 with regards to the relationship between digitalization and business models in 198 peer-reviewed articles. By applying a novel methodological approach to compare results from different bibliometric analyses, such as the analysis of citations, co-citations, bibliographic coupling, and co-occurrences of keywords, we have identified the most influential journals, authors, and articles, as well as three thematic clusters (technological innovation, strategic management, and digital transformation). For each cluster, the most relevant contributions are presented. Promising research areas and future research directions are identified to address the existing gaps in knowledge.
Purpose
This paper aims to provide a synthesis of the evolution of the global internet markets through an assessment of their economic strength. It is an attempt to describe the various segments of the internet value chain and the evolution of the markets. It aims at briefly summing up the very dynamics of the sector, of the various subsectors while looking at the business models and the market capitalization.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper is a descriptive paper, presenting market trends, based on desk research and trade press. It is not meant to provide any theoretical contribution but attempting to reconstruct the views from the industry as documented by trade literature. Hence, the paper relies mostly on industry and consultancy data. The paper builds on a database collected by the author over the past 30 years and the selection of the relevant data to document and identify the trends and offer a synthesis of the views of the industry.
Findings
The paper shows how over the past 30 years the internet has changed dramatically from both a quantitative (reaching more and more users worldwide and witnessing a dramatic growth of all markets) and qualitative (offering an array of innovative products and services enabled by the deployment of new networks) and the availability of new devices. The paper reveals how each technological wave ushered in a series of innovation and new services, boosted the foundation and the growth of pioneering companies.
Research limitations/implications
Taking into account the lack of official data, the industry data used should be treated as just signals of potential trends, but sufficient to give an overview of the evolution of the global internet markets. Furthermore, detailed studies should complement this descriptive approach. The approach does have obvious methodological and theoretical limits, not providing a robust methodological framework just offering a reconstruction of the trends as documented by the trade publications. However, it concludes highlighting some of the tensions and contradictions.
Practical implications
The paper closes with a summary of the main transformations and considers some future developments. The paper draws some lessons from some failures and from the strategies of firms.
Social implications
The paper hints at the way users developed “unique” behaviors using social media, taking advantage of the new opportunities to exchange with others. The paper hints at some regulatory issues and challenges.
Originality/value
The paper briefly sums up the very dynamics of the global internet market(s). It attempts to characterize some of the main features of their evolution and of the main segments. If offers a comprehensive overview of available data.
The intellectual capital research and practice entered in the last years into a visible decline due to some barriers in understanding its intangible nature and designing Newtonian metrics for its measurement and reporting. Inertial thinking is very powerful in promoting new approaches for the need of a new perspective in working with intellectual capital. Unfortunately, even some top journals in the domain of intellectual capital remained trapped into this Newtonian logic and standard statistical analysis, as a result of the mind-set of their editorial staff and reviewers. The purpose of this paper is to present a critical analysis of the intellectual capital research and practice today and to reveal some of the most important barriers in understanding the complexity and nature of the intellectual capital. These barriers manifest like myths in approaching the research into intellectual capital, myths that create a false reality and false research questions, which enter into collision with the real life of companies and their business. The paper identifies seven myths which created a Newtonian version of the non-Newtonian reality, and a golden rule for further research into the intellectual capital of organizations. The conclusion of the present critical analysis is that we need a new approach to understand the complexity of the intellectual capital and new metrics to measure it.
As knowledge has become a key factor of competitive advantage for organizations, regions, and nations, its measurement has gained tremendous importance. During the last two decades, the intellectual capital school of thought has produced numerous measurement frameworks and models for capturing the intangible bases of value creation, which currently occupy a well-established position in academia. In this paper, we argue that something important might have been lost along the way, namely, a thorough understanding of knowledge as the basis for human and organizational productive behavior. We argue that in order to remain relevant in the face of the increasing knowledge intensity of work, organizing, and value creation, the measurements of intellectual capital (IC) should revisit the foundations of what knowledge is. In order to regain this understanding, this paper draws on a knowledge-based perspective and proposes four critical themes that should be better recognized in IC measurement: multi-dimensionality, human agency and action, contextuality, and temporality and dynamics. We discuss the challenges that each theme poses for IC measurement and construct a set of criteria and applications for a more adequate measurement of IC.
Technology is generating a huge and growing availability of observations of diverse nature. This big data is placing data learning as a central scientific discipline. It includes collection, storage, preprocessing, visualization and, essentially, statistical analysis of enormous batches of data. In this paper, we discuss the role of statistics regarding some of the issues raised by big data in this new paradigm and also propose the name of data learning to describe all the activities that allow to obtain relevant knowledge from this new source of information.
Based on a dataset of 84 papers and industry studies, we analyse the impact of digital transformation on the insurance sector using Porter’s value chain (The Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, The Free Press, New York, 1985) and Berliner’s insurability criteria (Limits of Insurability of Risks, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1982). We also present future research directions from the academic and practitioner points of view. The results illustrate four major tasks the industry is facing: enhancing the customer experience, improving its business processes, offering new products, and preparing for competition with other industries. Moreover, we identify three key areas of change with respect to insurability: the effect of new and more information on information asymmetry and risk pooling, the implications of new technologies on loss frequency and severity, and the increasing dependencies of systems through connectivity.
Big data has been considered to be a breakthrough technological development over recent years. Notwithstanding, we have as yet limited understanding of how organizations translate its potential into actual social and economic value. We conduct an in-depth systematic review of IS literature on the topic and identify six debates central to how organizations realize value from big data, at different levels of analysis. Based on this review, we identify two socio-technical features of big data that influence value realization: portability and interconnectivity. We argue that, in practice, organizations need to continuously realign work practices, organizational models, and stakeholder interests in order to reap the benefits from big data. We synthesize the findings by means of an integrated model.
This paper examines the future of IC reporting by offering critical reflection on different forms of reporting, with a particular focus on Integrated Reporting ( ). While, the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) framework for corporate social responsibility disclosures, the International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC), and the various financial reporting regulators appear to be in a contest for supremacy, what does this mean for IC? We examine how IC is reported under each of these frameworks and conclude that is unlikely to subsume traditional financial statement reporting, nor will it be able to provide all the information currently reported in GRI-type reports. The interplay of these reporting frameworks and their future development bodes well for IC, because different kinds of IC information will be reported under each of , GRI-type reports and in financial statements; that is IC does not compete with these forms of reporting forms, but forms an essential part of each.
Purpose
Universities concerned with third mission activities are engines that increase regional competitiveness since their primary role in the knowledge-based economy is to stimulate innovation by transferring new knowledge and technologies to industry and society. The purpose of this paper is to show how IC can be mobilized by university technology transfer offices (TTOs) due to the correlation between efficient university technology transfer and intellectual capital (IC), thus contributing to the third stage of IC research.
Design/methodology/approach
The application of the Maturity Model developed by Secundo et al. (2016) is expanded by collecting data from 18 universities in the European countries to illustrate how IC can be used as a strategy and solution to the barriers faced by TTOs.
Findings
TTOs with increased access to and utilization of IC tend to have higher maturity levels. This new application of the Maturity Model, proves that IC can be utilized to manage and improve the efficiency of TTOs.
Research limitations/implications
An indication of the level of access that TTOs have to university IC is given leading to recommendations to improve university technology transfer. Future research should include a wider sample of universities to increase the validation of the Maturity Model and to prove it as a suitable and strategic approach for IC management at TTOs.
Practical implications
Knowing which IC components are essential for the efficiency of TTOs, and which IC needs greater utilization, will provide insights into policy and practical interventions to improve their efficiency, resulting in increasing universities’ competitiveness.
Originality/value
A new approach and perspective on utilizing IC to improve university technology transfer to contribute to the third stage of IC research calling for more practice-oriented research.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the literature on intellectual capital (IC) in light of the emerging paradigm of Big Data. Through a literature review, this paper provides momentum for researchers and scholars to explore the emerging trends and implications of the Big Data movement in the field of IC.
Design/methodology/approach
A literature review highlights novel and emerging issues in IC and Big Data research, focussing on: IC for organisational value, the staged evolution of IC research, and Big Data research from the technological to the managerial paradigm. It is expected that identifying these contributions will help establish future research directions.
Findings
A conceptual multi-level framework demonstrates how Big Data validates the need to shift the focus of IC research from organisations to ecosystems. The framework is organised into four sections: “why” – the managerial reasons for incorporating Big Data into IC; “what” – the Big Data typologies that enhance IC practice; “who” – the stakeholders involved in and impacted by Big Data IC value creation; and “how” – the Big Data processes suitable for IC management.
Research limitations/implications
The paper provides many avenues for future research in this emerging area of investigation. The key research questions posed aim to advance the contribution of Big Data to research on IC approaches.
Practical implications
The paper outlines the socio-economic value of Big Data generated by and about organisational ecosystems. It identifies opportunities for existing companies to renew their value propositions through Big Data, and discusses new tools for managing Big Data to support disclosing IC value drivers and creating new intangible assets.
Originality/value
This paper investigates the effects and implications Big Data offers for IC management, in support of the fourth stage of IC research. Additionally, it provides an original interpretation of IC research through the lens of Big Data.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to provide an up-to-the-minute literature review of intellectual capital disclosure (ICD) to: identify the major themes developed within this research stream; investigate the evolution of the theory; and derive insights to guide future research agendas for the benefit of researchers and ICD users.
Design/methodology/approach
Research articles from ten relevant journals for the 17-year period between 2000 and 2017 are categorised and analysed in a structured literature review (Massaro et al. , 2016) to answer these three research questions. This study adds to a data set established by Guthrie et al. (2012) and presents the results in a consistent and comparable manner across the studies.
Findings
A lack of significant innovation in the evolution of ICD indicates that this research stream may have been a victim of its own success (Dumay and Guthrie, 2017). Stuck in overview mode, studies continue to fixate on general issues, largely drawing their analysis from the corporate reports of publicly listed companies in Europe. Very few studies examine ICD in the USA and beyond, nor do they drill down to organisational level to examine ICD in practice.
Practical implications
We academics need to leave our ivory towers and base future research on how organisations, in different contexts, using different languages, harness intangible assets to create value. Without discouraging content analysis from corporate reports, we need to be more innovative in searching for IC from the rich variety of media resources modern corporate communication channels offer, and recognise that, while we are all working towards the same thing, we may not be using the same language to get there.
Originality/value
Despite extending previous work, this study highlights some of the new insights revealed from ICD research, especially over the last two years. The findings regarding differing use of terminology across continents, a general decline in published research due to lack of interest or new ground to cover, and zero evidence for a “groundswell” of IC disclosures by listed companies should motivate further reading in many researchers.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to present a method for a structured literature review (SLR). An SLR is a method for examining a corpus of scholarly literature, to develop insights, critical reflections, future research paths and research questions. SLRs are common in scientific disciplines dominated by quantitative approaches, but they can be adapted in accounting studies since quantitative and qualitative approaches are commonly accepted.
Design/methodology/approach
– A literature review, as a piece of academic writing, must have a logical, planned structure. The authors also argue it requires tests based on qualitative and quantitative methods. Therefore, the authors describe ten steps for developing an SLR.
Findings
– The SLR method is a way that scholars can stand “on the shoulders of giants” and provide insightful and impactful research that is different to the traditional authorship approaches to literature reviews.
Research limitations/implications
– Traditional literature reviews can have varied results because of a lack of rigour. SLRs use a process that, through a set of rules, potentially offers less bias and more transparency of the execution and measures and techniques of validation and reliability.
Practical implications
– SLRs provide an approach that can help academics to discover under-investigated topics and methods, nurturing, therefore, the development of new knowledge areas and research approaches.
Originality/value
– The paper presents accounting researchers with an opportunity to develop insightful and publishable studies, and also serves as a basis for developing future research agendas in the accounting field. The authors advocate the SLR method especially to higher degree research students and emerging scholars as a way of potentially developing robust and defensible research agendas and questions.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to offer a personal critical reflection on the future of intellectual capital (IC) based on my experience as an IC researcher, author, editor, teacher and practitioner.
Design/methodology/approach
– Offers a first-hand reflection on the future of IC, using evidence collected from IC in the field and the author’s personal reflections.
Findings
– I argue that the authors need to abandon reporting and instead concentrate on how an organisation discloses what “was previously secret or unknown”, so that all stakeholders understand how an organisation takes into consideration ethical, social and environmental impacts in keeping with an eco-systems approach to IC.
Research limitations/implications
– While much of the empirical evidence presented in this paper is freely available to all scholars, the interpretation and findings is subjective. Other researchers, given the same opportunity and evidence, may not necessarily make the same conclusions.
Social implications
– We are now on the cusp of the fourth stage of IC research (Dumay, 2013), whereby IC expands its boundaries into the wider eco-system, to “go beyond IC reporting” (Edvinsson, 2013, p. 163).
Originality/value
– Offers a critical review of the impact of IC reporting which is relevant to consider because of the newfound resurging interest in IC, based on the current push for integrated reporting ( < IR > ), which arguably contains IC information targeted at investors.
The literature on accounting for intellectual capital (IC) and, in particular, IC reporting suggests a preoccupation with measurement. While foundational for a calculative practice, this may eclipse the socially embedded facets of this accounting technology. The consequences include bringing into question the usefulness of IC reporting. Accordingly, we argue for a reflexive analysis of IC as a material, social phenomenon facilitating organisational change. In this paper we examine and reflect on how IC practices influence individual understanding of organisational change, developing insights into how social relations are identified, communicated and transformed. The overall contribution of the paper is to highlight how calculative practices, such as accounting for IC, are balanced with judgment in understanding and managing IC during periods of organisational change.
Size is the first, and at times, the only dimension that leaps out at the mention of big data. This paper attempts to offer a broader definition of big data that captures its other unique and defining characteristics. The rapid evolution and adoption of big data by industry has leapfrogged the discourse to popular outlets, forcing the academic press to catch up. Academic journals in numerous disciplines, which will benefit from a relevant discussion of big data, have yet to cover the topic. This paper presents a consolidated description of big data by integrating definitions from practitioners and academics. The paper's primary focus is on the analytic methods used for big data. A particular distinguishing feature of this paper is its focus on analytics related to unstructured data, which constitute 95% of big data. This paper highlights the need to develop appropriate and efficient analytical methods to leverage massive volumes of heterogeneous data in unstructured text, audio, and video formats. This paper also reinforces the need to devise new tools for predictive analytics for structured big data. The statistical methods in practice were devised to infer from sample data. The heterogeneity, noise, and the massive size of structured big data calls for developing computationally efficient algorithms that may avoid big data pitfalls, such as spurious correlation.
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to explore the consistence of an ecosystem framework within
the cultural sector and investigate the potential role of intellectual capital (IC) in cultural ecosystems.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper presents the results of an empirical research carried
out within a specific Italian area, the Po Delta. It was based on sound theoretical analysis and group
interviews focusing on three main discussion topics.
Findings – The research validated the consistence of ecosystem frameworks in relation to the cultural
sector and the key role played by IC in their design, creation and implementation. It also highlighted
the idea that this perspective is part of a broader rethinking process of the cultural field.
Research limitations/implications – The research was carried out within a specific geographical
area. The results, however, indicate the need for further research on the potential of IC in cultural
ecosystems, in light of both a comparative and international perspective.
Practical implications – The research highlights the emergence of new frameworks and highlights
the role of IC in new governance models in the cultural sector.
Social implications – The analysis underlines the need for new governance systems based on
a bottom-up approach, multi-level and multi-stakeholder frameworks, and potentially bringing
important societal changes.
Originality/value – The concept of IC ecosystems remains a relatively unexplored field within the
cultural sector. This paper could make a valuable contribution to the debate on new governance
systems in this field.
We are living in an era of data deluge and as a result, the term "big data" is appearing in many contexts, from meteorology, genomics, complex physics simulations, biological and environmental research, finance and business to healthcare. One interesting example is that a press release of SAP AG, dated 11 June 2014 reported, "SAP and the German Football Association turn big data into smart decisions to improve player performance at theWorld Cup in Brazil." An International Data Corporation (IDC) report [1] predicts that "from 2005 to 2020, the digital universe will grow by a factor of 300, from 130 Exabyte to 40 000 Exabyte" and that "from now until 2020 will about double every two years." As the name implies, big data literally means large collections of data sets containing abundant information. However, it has some special characteristics that distinguish it from "very large data" or "massive data" that are simply enormous collections of simple-format records, typically equivalent to enormous spreadsheets. Big data, being generally unstructured and heterogeneous, is extremely complex to deal with via traditional approaches, and requires real-time or almost real-time analysis. A short definition can therefore be that "big data" refers to data sets whose size is beyond the ability of typical database software tools to capture, store, manage, and analyze. For a thorough discussion on various aspects of big data and the challenges it presents, together with some potential research directions, the reader is referred to [2].
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to analyse, through a temporal lens and from a managerial perspective, the role played by intellectual capital (IC) and intellectual liabilities (ILs) “in practice” within the value creation and value destruction processes. In particular, this study is based on the following research question: to what extent are time and its attributes considered, measured, and discussed with reference to IC and ILs and their influence on financial capital (FC)? In order to achieve this purpose, the author has carried out a field study.
Design/methodology/approach
– A field study method is adopted in order to understand IC and ILs “in action” from a temporal perspective.
Findings
– This study highlights the relevance of time when IC and ILs are analysed from a dynamic perspective. In particular, the main findings are the following. First, it emerges that the time dimension of IC tends not to be measured due to the complexity of IC itself and to the lack of adequate accounting practices. Second, IC time is generally considered to be non-cyclical and random. Third, even if time is not measured, some companies talk about it and when this is done with regularity, time perceptions move from an individual sphere to a collective one and they become more and more reliable. Moreover, IC performance is perceived to be “distant” from FC performance: the succession of events and the time lags are difficult to define and quantify as the influence of IC on FC is mediated by several resources and events. Lastly, the value destruction process related to ILs tends to generate negative effects faster than the value creation one, especially with reference to the impacts of IC on FC.
Research limitations/implications
– The main limitations of this study are twofold. The first is related to the methodology adopted and the related risks that the results may be subject to both interviewee and interviewer bias and interpretation. The second is related to the fact that the constructs to be discussed were not proposed by the firms but by the author, in order to make the results comparable.
Practical implications
– This study contributes to the literature on IC and ILs “in action” and “in practice”. Moreover, this study enriches the extant IC and ILs literature focusing on time, a variable that is generally assumed to be a natural unchangeable phenomenon that does not deserve attention. In particular, the findings highlight the different behaviours and perceptions that occur when IC and ILs are looked at through a temporal lens. Finally, this study pinpoints that value creation and value destruction processes seem to have different timings as it takes more time to create value than to destroy it.
Originality/value
– In comparison to previous studies, this study does not focus on the positive and negative effects of IC separately, but combines the two issues, also comparing the value creation and the value destruction processes in order to offer a complete picture. Moreover, it adopts a temporal lens, which has been applied only with reference to IC but not to ILs as well. Finally, while the extant literature on ILs tends to investigate them from a theoretical perspective and adopting a static approach, this research investigates ILs empirically from a dynamic perspective.
Big data and the mechanisms by which it is produced and disseminated introduce important changes in the ways information is generated and made relevant for organizations. Big data often represents miscellaneous records of the whereabouts of large and shifting online crowds. It is frequently agnostic, in the sense of being produced for generic purposes or purposes different from those sought by big data crunching. It is based on varying formats and modes of communication (e.g., texts, image and sound), raising severe problems of semiotic translation and meaning compatibility. Crucially, the usefulness of big data rests on their steady updatability, a condition that reduces the time span within which this data is useful or relevant. Jointly, these attributes challenge established rules of strategy making as these are manifested in the canons of procuring structured information of lasting value that addresses speci␣c and long-term organizational objectives. The developments underlying big data thus seem to carry important implications for strategy making, and the data and information practices with which strategy has been associated. We conclude by placing the understanding of these changes within the wider social and institutional context of longstanding data practices and the significance they carry for management and organizations.
The purpose of this paper is to review and critique the field of Intellectual Capital Accounting Research (ICAR). The literature indicates that an organisational and business revolution is in progress concerning the need to understand the value of knowledge resources and how to manage them. The paper explores the field of ICAR by examining a decade of published research since Petty and Guthrie's (2000) seminal paper on ICA, “Intellectual capital literature review: Measurement, reporting and management” as published in the Journal of Intellectual Capital.The paper has four specific contributions. The first contribution is to identify the field of scholarship associated with ICAR. The second is to provide a comprehensive picture of what has happened in the field of ICAR over the past decade. Third, it provides evidence as to how and why the field of ICAR is changing. Fourth, it highlights areas for future research and policy developments.From these four contributions our definition of Intellectual Capital Accounting (ICA) emerges. That is, ICA is an accounting, reporting and management technology of relevance to organisations to understand and manage knowledge resources. It can account and report on the size and development of knowledge resources such as employee competencies, customer relations, financial relationships and communication and information technologies. Additionally, the analysis highlights several interesting patterns and worrying trends in the field of ICAR.
A university's most valuable resources are its researchers and students with their relations and organisational routines;
their most important output is knowledge. These resources can be interpreted as intangible assets or intellectual capital,
even though the term has so far not been used within the context of universities. Intellectual capital (IC) reporting seems
to be a rich source for the development of management and reporting systems for universities. IC reports deliver information
about the development and productive use of investments in intangible assets. The Austrian Ministry for Education, Science
and Culture has developed an IC model that incorporates the knowledge-production process of universities.
Few authors have examined the intellectual capital of non-profit organizations or discussed their strategic management in terms of intangibles. The Australian Red Cross Blood Service (ARCBS), a third sector organization, is the subject of this study. The purpose of the study is to better understand the value dimensions of the ARCBS from an external stakeholder perspective. Outcomes include the creation of a value hierarchy, inclusive of the views of 11 stakeholder groups. The results show overall agreement amongst stakeholders about the four most highly valued key performance areas (KPAs) of ARCBS (safe product, product sufficiency, donor and volunteer management and public confidence). However, there were many differences between different stakeholder groups in their perceptions of the relative importance of the nine KPAs and their constituent attributes. As a result of the study ARCBS has a basis to manage strategy, organizational performance and communication with stakeholders.
This introductory editorial to the special issue “IC at the crossroads: theory and research” explains the rationale and background to the studies. In addition it outlines reasons why the field of intellectual (IC) capital is at the crossroads. It seems that awareness of the importance of IC has been created. It is now the role of researchers as well as practitioners to move to the next level. This next level involves issues around taxonomies as well as research methodologies. In order to move on, precise definitions of concepts such as IC, better justifications of why organizations need to measure and manage IC, and increased clarity about terms such as measurement, assessment, or valuation are needed. In addition, more rigorous research methods are needed in order to test and validate existing theories in the field.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to discuss whether the mechanisms used to measure and manage intangibles in companies can be applied to universities and other research institutions.
Design/methodology/approach
The characteristics of the issues is addressed by companies in relation to their intellectual capital (IC) and how they manage them are reviewed to discuss whether universities can apply the same framework. External pressures for change and barriers universities encounter, particularly due to the current governance system, are discussed. The experience of some universities are briefly described.
Findings
The companies' framework is possible to be used by universities, with some specificity.
Research limitations/implications
The number of universities actually applying this framework is small and therefore the results cannot be generalized.
Practical implications
Policy measures are needed to encourage research institutions and universities to measure and manage their IC. In a knowledge‐based society, the main knowledge producers should be more accountable for their activities.
Originality/value
The use of IC concepts to analyze universities' performance is still scarce. This is an attempt to fill such lacuna.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine intellectual capital research (ICR) methods and critically analyse how they have been utilised. The data set for this analysis is based on examining IC papers published in specialist IC and important generalist accounting journals from the years 2000 to 2011.
Design/methodology/approach
The basis of the analysis is Alvesson and Deetz's critical management framework of “Insight”, “Critique” and “Transformative redefinition” with the goal of widening the discourse about how to research IC. This paper is motivated by Guthrie et al. , who identify a third stage of ICR which is “based on a critical and performative analysis of intellectual capital (IC) practices in action”.
Findings
This paper argues that there is an increasing performative research agenda however many researchers appear caught in an “evaluatory trap” (Olson et al. ) whereby the researchers’ approach to ICR remains stuck in an ostensive approach (see Mouritsen) that characterises second stage ICR (see Petty and Guthrie). The paper also identifies how many accounting researchers are impacted by a “dominance structure” and suggests that they need to break free from the dominance of “accounting” practice before they can understand and realise the potential of IC.
Research limitations/implications
The implication of this paper for ICR and practice is to create a continued discourse about evolving approaches to ICR so we can continue communicating leading edge, third wave ICR, which develops IC theory in practice and effective IC management through praxis.
Originality/value
From 2004 onwards, Guthrie et al. claim the third stage was gaining impetus and thus this paper is novel because it investigates how ICR has transitioned and how ICR might continue to develop.
The intellectual capital of a nation (or a region of nations) requires the articulation of a system of variables that helps to uncover and manage the invisible wealth of a country. Most importantly, an emphasis on human capital allows for a better understanding of the hidden values, individuals, enterprises, institutions, and communities that are both current and potential future sources of intellectual wealth. This paper endeavours to address the five research questions. The main outcomes of this paper are the development of a national intellectual capital measurement methodology and index. The NICI is also used within a structural equation model to test several hypotheses related to national intellectual capital development.
The sharing economy could be said to disrupt who does what in exchanges. This paper categorises the roles played by users, providers, and platforms in different interpretations of the sharing economy. It asks: What different roles do the users, providers, and platforms play in the sharing economy? And: How do the roles differ in various interpretations of the sharing economy? The paper classifies the different interpretations based on their market/non-market logic and concludes that roles are more extensive for users and providers in non-market logic interpretations, while market logic suggests that the platform acts more roles. The user is, despite the peer-to-peer connotation of the sharing economy, often quite passive. Contributions are made to the emerging literature on the sharing economy through highlighting its many different interpretations, where roles help to systematise these. The paper furthermore contributes to the literature on roles through highlighting them as transitory and expanding beyond expectations related to digitalisation. Practically, the systematisation of roles helps to navigate among various business model designs and makes informed decisions when launching platforms in the sharing economy. Additionally, the focus on roles raises important questions on risk sharing, resource provisions, and the creation of value for each participating party.
This paper aims to provide a Structured Literature Review (SLR) about the strategic role of Intellectual Capital (IC) for achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It offers an outline of past and present literature and frames a future research agenda. It analyses papers published in journals from 2003 – 2018 with the aim of deriving significant insights about IC's determinants for achieving SDGs. Although empirical and theoretical
studies have shown a positive relationship between IC and sustainability, the research remains an emerging area of growing importance. Although no explicit specialisation in the topic currently exists, findings highlight the “sustainability imperative” and convergence toward the following research areas: IC components for Sustainable
Development in Private Sector, IC for Sustainable Regional Development in the Knowledge Economy, and IC for Sustainable Development in the Public Sector. Discussions indicate that some SDGs are starting to be explored more than others (e.g., quality education, infrastructure, health, cities and communities) and that only recently some studies are specialising specifically in the importance of technology to address the SDGs. Implications for technology policy have been highlighted to frame a future research agenda for academics and practitioners.
Information systems (IS) research has explored “effective use” in a variety of contexts. However, it is yet to specifically consider it in the context of the unique characteristics of big data. Yet, organizations have a high appetite for big data, and there is growing evidence that investments in big data solutions do not always lead to the derivation of intended value. Accordingly, there is a need for rigorous academic guidance on what factors enable effective use of big data. With this paper, we aim to guide IS researchers such that the expansion of the body of knowledge on the effective use of big data can proceed in a structured and systematic manner and can subsequently lead to empirically driven guidance for organizations. Namely, with this paper, we cast a wide net to understand and consolidate from literature the potential factors that can influence the effective use of big data, so they may be further studied. To do so, we first conduct a systematic literature review. Our review identifies 41 factors, which we categorize into 7 themes, namely data quality; data privacy and security and governance; perceived organizational benefit; process management; people aspects; systems, tools, and technologies; and organizational aspects. To explore the existence of these themes in practice, we then analyze 45 published case studies that document insights into how specific companies use big data successfully. Finally, we propose a framework for the study of effective use of big data as a basis for future research. Our contributions aim to guide researchers in establishing the relevance and relationships within the identified themes and factors and are a step toward developing a deeper understanding of effective use of big data.
Purpose
This paper aims to define a conceptual framework for transforming Big Data into organizational value by focussing on the perspectives of service science and activity theory. In coherence with the agenda on evolutionary research on intellectual capital (IC), the study also provides momentum for researchers and scholars to explore emerging trends and implications of Big Data for IC management.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper adopts a qualitative and integrated research method based on a constructive review of existing literature related to IC management, Big Data, service science and activity theory to identify features and processes of a conceptual framework emerging at the intersection of previously identified research topics.
Findings
The proposed framework harnesses the power of Big Data, collectively created by the engagement of multiple stakeholders based on the concepts of service ecosystems, by using activity theory. The transformation of Big Data for IC management addresses the process of value creation based on a set of critical dimensions useful to identify goals, main actors and stakeholders, processes and motivations.
Research limitations/implications
The paper indicates how organizational values can be created from Big Data through the co-creation of value in service ecosystems. Activity theory is used as theoretical lens to support IC ecosystem development. This research is exploratory; the framework offers opportunities for refinement and can be used to spearhead directions for future research.
Practical implications
The paper proposes a framework for transforming Big Data into organizational values for IC management in the context of entrepreneurial universities as pivotal contexts of observation that can be replicated in different fields. The framework provides guidelines that can be used to help organizations intending to embark on the emerging paradigm of Big Data for IC management for their competitive advantages.
Originality/value
The paper’s originality is in bringing together research from Big Data, value co-creation from service ecosystems and activity theory to address the complex issues involved in IC management. A further element of originality offered involves integrating such multidisciplinary perspectives as a lens for shaping the complex process of value creation from Big Data in relationship to IC management. The concept of how IC ecosystems can be designed is also introduced.
Purpose
This paper aims to give an integrated framework for analysing the main opportunities and threats related to the exploitation of Big Data (BD) technologies within intellectual capital (IC) management.
Design/methodology/approach
By means of a structured literature review (SLR) of the extant literature on BD and IC, the study identified distinctive opportunities and challenges of BD technologies and related them to the traditional dimensions of IC.
Findings
The advent of BD has not radically changed the risks and opportunities of IC management already highlighted in previous literature. However, it has significantly amplified their magnitude and the speed with which they manifest themselves. Thus, a revision of the traditional managerial solutions needed to face them is required.
Research limitations/implications
The developed framework can contribute to academic discourse on BD and IC as a starting point to understanding how BD can be turned into intangible assets from a value creation perspective.
Practical implications
The framework can also represent a useful decision-making tool for practitioners in identifying and evaluating the main opportunities and threats of an investment in BD technologies for IC management.
Originality/value
The paper responds to the call for more research on the integration of BD discourse in the fourth stage of IC research. It intends to improve this understanding of how BD technologies can be exploited to create value from an IC perspective, focussing not only on the potential of BD for creating value but also on the challenges that it poses to organizations.
Purpose
This paper aims to build on current analytics and Big Data definitions and strategies from the literature to develop an overall strategic model connecting knowledge management strategy (KMS) for intellectual capital (IC) acquisition and business use. It also extends the IC research stages to a fifth stage of IC research including IC strategic intent.
Design/methodology/approach
A literature review highlights the connections among strategic intent, firm strategy, KMS and a data analytics strategy aligned with firm and KMS strategic intent. An extended model of the interrelationships is developed from the prior research.
Findings
A model framework was developed from the literature that connects Big Data to achieve the goals of a firm KMS and demonstrates how Big Data analytics (BDA) needs to shift from being a tactical tool to a strategic knowledge management tool directed by the overall strategy and strategic intent of the firm.
Research limitations/implications
The model presented needs to be empirically tested over a sample of companies and periods to determine if performance improves using this model.
Practical implications
Use of this model proposes that strategic intent will be enhanced and improve the capture of intellectual property derived from advanced analytics and increase sustainable advantages at firm.
Social implications
The social implications of lack of strong privacy laws coupled with the possible elimination of millions of knowledge worker jobs creates a pressing need for more research into and identification of firm’s and government’s Big Data strategic use for both good and perhaps evil.
Originality/value
The research in this paper extends current models of IC development and adds strategic intent and collective intelligence as the fifth stage of IC research and presents an overall KMS/BDA model.
The purpose of this chapter is to explore and discuss, in the context of Smart Cities (SC), the relations between three concepts: Intellectual Capital (IC), Innovation Process (IP) and Sustainability (S). It is important to note that, in this context, the concept of IC refers to Smart Cities Intellectual Capital (SCIC), which is characterised by four components (Human Capital, Process Capital, Renewal Capital, Clients Capital), also used for Nations IC. The Innovation analysis considers two models: the first one expresses the dependencies and limits of innovation, resulting from physical limitations such as city area and city population; and the second one is the N-Tuple of Helices model. The concept of Smart City will be modelled as a living being capable of rational behaviour, knowledge production, and intellectual activity.
Purpose
The purpose of paper is twofold. First, it provides a consolidated overview of the existing literature on “big data” and second, it presents the current trends and opens up various future directions for researchers who wish to explore and contribute in this rapidly evolving field.
Design/methodology/approach
To achieve the objective of this study, the bibliographic and network techniques of citation and co-citation analysis was adopted. This analysis involved an assessment of 57 articles published over a period of five years (2011-2015) in ten selected journals.
Findings
The findings reveal that the number of articles devoted to the study of “big data” has increased rapidly in recent years. Moreover, the study identifies some of the most influential articles of this area. Finally, the paper highlights the new trends and discusses the challenges associated with big data.
Research limitations/implications
This study focusses only on big data concepts, trends, and challenges and excludes research on its analytics. Thus, researchers may explore and extend this area of research.
Originality/value
To the knowledge of the authors, this is the first study to review the literature on big data by using citation and co-citation analysis.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to outline an agenda for researching the relationship between technology-enabled networks – such as social media and big data – and the accounting function. In doing so, it links the contents of an unfolding area research with the papers published in this special issue of Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal .
Design/methodology/approach
The paper surveys the existing literature, which is still in its infancy, and proposes ways in which to frame early and future research. The intention is not to offer a comprehensive review, but to stimulate and conversation.
Findings
The authors review several existing studies exploring technology-enabled networks and highlight some of the key aspects featuring social media and big data, before offering a classification of existing research efforts, as well as opportunities for future research. Three areas of investigation are identified: new performance indicators based on social media and big data; governance of social media and big data information resources; and, finally, social media and big data’s alteration of information and decision-making processes.
Originality/value
The authors are currently experiencing a technological revolution that will fundamentally change the way in which organisations, as well as individuals, operate. It is claimed that many knowledge-based jobs are being automated, as well as others transformed with, for example, data scientists ready to replace even the most qualified accountants. But, of course, similar claims have been made before and therefore, as academics, the authors are called upon to explore the impact of these technology-enabled networks further. This paper contributes by starting a debate and speculating on the possible research agendas ahead.
Scholars recently urged for research able to unlock the link between sustainable development (SD) strategy and intellectual capital (IC) at the organization level. In line with this call, the present paper aims at investigating strategic planning for sustainability within healthcare organizations (HCOs), and the role that IC plays in SD. Indeed, this latter has been claimed to be a potential enabler of Italian HCOs’ shift towards SD which is a major challenge posed by international institutions. Focusing on IC assets that emerged from the institutional context, the authors designed a model of “Sustainable Intellectual Capital for HCOs” and conducted a survey of a sample of General Directors (GDs) of Italian hospitals. The aim was to determine: whether GDs were adopting formalized SD strategies, the kind of organizational positions that managed sustainability issues, the sustainability projects/actions adopted, and the effect of IC in incentivizing those initiatives. The results showed that the majority of GDs had adopted a formalized sustainability plan in which informal and/or occasional structures or collegial bodies dealt with sustainability. Finally, a stochastic ordering test showed an alignment between the GDs who attributed higher relevance to information and communication technologies and advanced technologies for sustainability and the adoption of formal sustainability strategy. Further research should deepen the role of connectivity among different assets for SD. The developed model of sustainable IC for HCOs can support healthcare managers to test the contribution of IC assets to sustainability.
Strategic systems design is essential to structuring and governing a supply chain for competitive advantage. To effectively co-create value, decision makers must manage the three rights of supply chain design: right players, right roles, and right relationships. Doing this well requires managers discern how the unwritten competitive rules are changing as well as determine firm readiness to compete. As part of this analysis, we briefly explore five emerging “game changers” that represent potential supply chain design inflection points: (1) Big Data and predictive analytics, (2) additive manufacturing, (3) autonomous vehicles, (4) materials science, and (5) borderless supply chains. We also consider four forces that impede transformation to higher levels of value co-creation: (1) supply chain security, (2) failed change management, (3) lack of trust as a governance mechanism, and (4) poor understanding of the “luxury” nature of corporate social responsibility initiatives. How well managers address sociostructural and sociotechnical issues will determine firm survivability and success.
Knowledge cities are the most capable of producing sustainable economic growth. Cities, where relationships between people are more extensive, provide the most natural environment in which to look for evidence of the knowledge spillovers so emphasized by the endogenous growth theory. The intellectual capital approach considers the ability to transform knowledge and intangible resources into sustainable long-term wealth. The approach does not only contemplate sustainability and social wellbeing, but also intangible factors such as human development, economic structure, trade, image and innovation. This paper proposes a novel methodology to measure intangible capital as the growth capacity of knowledge cities based on intellectual capital using a composite index of seven intangible factors, disaggregated into 19 dimensions with 73 different indicators. Using this methodology, we rank 158 European cities for which information is available. The results show clear differences between northern and southern European cities. The top positions in the ranking are occupied by cities with a favorable balance in human capital; the most important growth factors in the most developed cities being research, development and innovation and image components, whilst these together with the human components are the most important growth factors in the poorest cities.
The rise of the “new economy”, one principally driven by information and knowledge, is attributed to the increased prominence of intellectual capital (IC) as a business and research topic. Intellectual capital is implicated in recent economic, managerial, technological, and sociological developments in a manner previously unknown and largely unforeseen. Whether these developments are viewed through the filter of the information society, the knowledge-based economy, the network society, or innovation, there is much to support the assertion that IC is instrumental in the determination of enterprise value and national economic performance. First, we seek to review some of the most significant extant literature on intellectual capital and its developed path. The emphasis is on important theoretical and empirical contributions relating to the measurement and reporting of intellectual capital. The second part of this paper identifies possible future research issues into the nature, impact and value of intellectual management and reporting.
Purpose
– Intellectual capital theory and practice predominantly focus on measuring and managing intangible assets. However, if one wants to balance the intellectual capital books, one should recognise both intellectual assets and intellectual liabilities. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to present a theoretical framework for measuring intellectual liabilities.
Design/methodology/approach
– Identifying intangible liabilities is identifying the risk of the decline and fall of organisations. One of the first extensive studies related to the causes of decline and fall is Gibbon's The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. It seems as if the main lessons that were drawn from the study are also applicable to today's business environment. Therefore, the framework that is developed here is based not only on intellectual capital literature, but also on Gibbon's study into the causes of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire.
Findings
– The findings are combined in a framework for measuring intellectual liabilities. The main distinction within the proposed framework is the distinction between internal and external liabilities. Internal liabilities refer to the causes of deterioration that arise from the sources of value creation within the organisation. External liabilities refer to the causes of deterioration that come from outside and are beyond the control of the organisation.
Originality/value
– The article explores a relatively new topic (intellectual liabilities) from a perspective (historical sciences) that is rarely used in management science.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to identify and discuss the key policy challenges for OECD countries both at macro and micro level to develop and use their intellectual assets in order to obtain economic returns.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper takes the approach of econometrics studies to gauge the impact of intellectual assets on national accounts and a stocktake of all existing initiatives, frameworks and guidelines relating to extra‐financial corporate reporting on intellectual assets.
Findings
The paper provides macro data on the contribution of investments in intellectual assets to productivity and economic growth in OECD countries and presents the challenges in terms of corporate reporting and corporate governance that result from the increasing importance of intellectual assets for growth and competitiveness. It then provides a stock‐take of existing guidelines and frameworks in OECD countries that encourage companies to report on their intellectual assets and their strategies to create value.
Practical implications
The paper provides policy recommendations to better understand the role of intellectual assets, improve their contribution to economic growth, and to enhance information on intellectual assets and the diffusion of good practices.
Originality/value
The value of the paper is that it contributes to mitigating the difficulties to assess the contribution of intellectual assets on national accounts that is crucial to obtain an accurate picture of economic growth, downturns and investments. It also contributes to the debate on how to overcome the limits of accounting standards to recognize intellectual assets so as to improve companies' valuation and lower their cost of capital.
This paper discusses intellectual capital (IC) accounting in the context of organisational boundary theory, building upon insights provided by Llewellyn [Llewellyn S. Managing the boundary. How accounting is implicated in maintaining the organisation. Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal 1994;7(4):4–23]. The impetus towards accounting, via recognition and measurement, or via description, for IC is examined from a boundary theoretical perspective, as it affects both financial reporting to parties outside the organisation and internal reporting in the form of management accounting. The notion of intellectual ‘capital’, as it has been developed so far, is criticised in this paper as an incomplete terminology that emphasises only certain aspects of intellectual assets, failing to take into account the ‘dark side’ of the asset base, intellectual liabilities or intellectual contingent liabilities. Further, the application of IC measurement in management control, and the creation and employment of IC metrics are criticised from an ethical standpoint. Clarification of the complex issues involved in IC accounting is offered by Grandori's (2000) proposal of a multiplicity of organisational boundaries, the related idea of a range of different accountability elements, and, ultimately, of a matching multiplicity of modes of accounting.
Given the increased discussion on the development of metrics to manage intangible resources, there is a need for a review of the most important tools available to managers for this purpose. This article reviews four measurement systems currently popular among practitioners: (i) human resource accounting; (ii) economic value added; (iii) the balanced scorecard; and (iv) intellectual capital. The assumptions and details of each tool are discussed, as well as the operationalisation procedures to apply them correctly. Strengths and shortcomings of each system are also analysed in order to supply `knowledge managers' with the instruction sheet to the knowledge toolbox.