Content uploaded by Isaac Burt
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Isaac Burt on Dec 28, 2021
Content may be subject to copyright.
Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60 197
© 2021 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.
Received 08/21/20
Revised 03/23/21
Accepted 04/02/21
DOI: 10.1002/johc.12165
Flow State as an Existential Tool
to Increase Optimal Experience
and Life Enjoyment
Isaac Burt and Tiphanie Gonzalez
♦ ♦ ♦
This article introduces the concept of flow state as an existential-humanistic tool to
increa se optimal exper ience and life enjoy ment. We define what is flow state, discu ss its
connect ions to existentia l-human istic thought, and provide a case exemplar for f uture
applications to self and counseling, as well as identify limitations and implications.
Keywords: flow state, existentialism, humanistic counseling, optimal experience,
strength-based
♦ ♦ ♦
Although contemporary life has several viable prospects, benefits, and
opportunities for enjoyment well beyond that experienced by our ances-
tors, people still struggle to find meaning and satisfaction (NORC at the
University of Chicago, 2020; Twenge et al., 2016). Despite being afforded
technological luxuries (e.g., smartphones) that just a few years ago would
have seemed far-fetched, many individuals do not appear happier or more
fulfilled (Parker et al., 2019; Twenge et al., 2018). Thus, for some, everyday
living can be a daily challenge to survive with little perceived hope for
change (Twenge, Cooper, et al., 2019). As bleak as that may appear, it is,
unfortunately, a reality for numerous American adolescents and adults (Schif-
frin et al., 2021; Twenge, Spitzberg, & Campbell, 2019) and reflects trends
worldwide (Helliwell et al., 2019). However, for some individuals, this is
not the case. There are instances of people taking charge of their existence,
enjoying it to the fullest, and living a fulfilling life (Ruiz-Martínez et al.,
2021; Tse et al., 2021). Even when faced with insurmountable odds, these
individuals manage to cherish life and accomplish goals unprecedented
by others (Peterson et al., 2005; Riva et al., 2016; Schutte & Malouff, 2020).
Mirroring the philosophy of existentialism, these individuals can lose
everything in life (e.g., possessions, social status, friends), yet if they main-
Isaac Burt, Department of Counseling, Recreation, and School Psychology, Florida International
University; Tiphanie Gonzalez, Department of Counseling and Psychological Services, State Univer-
sity of New York Oswego. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Isaac Burt,
Department of Counseling, Recreation, and School Psychology, Florida International University,
11200 SW 8th Street, Miami, FL 33199 (email: iburt@fiu.edu).
198 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60
tain their attitude, they can choose a meaningful existence despite less than
satisfactory conditions (Frankl, 1946/2006; Ley et al., 2017; Momartin et al.,
2019). However, a lingering question remains: How does one gain the skill
to tap into this ability? Although this skill may appear unreachable, the
capability to attain peak states is quite achievable, given certain conditions.
Coined as flow state, this state of consciousness is within every person’s
ability to utilize (Borovay et al., 2019; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Wu et al.,
2021). Contrary to the notion that only a privileged few can attain this state
(e.g., elite athletes, artists), ordinary people are learning to achieve their
maximum potential and live optimal lives (Riva et al., 2016; Ruiz-Martínez
et al., 2021). Although we intend to elaborate on flow state further in this
article, a working description may help to better clarify what the concept
entails. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990), flow state is a state of op-
timal experience that occurs when “people are so involved in an activity
that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is so enjoyable that
people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it” (p. 4).
The purpose of this article is to present the concept of flow state to the
counseling profession and how to utilize it therapeutically. Flow state is
a notion not currently associated with the profession, yet its premise has
a long history within humanistic literature, in that it corresponds with
strength-based, growth-oriented, and existential models. For example, when
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) questioned a participant about flow, he responded,
You make your body go and everything hurts; then you look back in awe at the self,
at what you have done, and it blows your mind. It leads to ecstasy, to self-fulfillment.
If you win this battle for the self, at least for a moment, it becomes easier to win the
battle of the world. (p. 40)
Flow allocates to people a sense of personal enhancement and achieve-
ment through deep embodiment, meaning, suffering, and control. These
principles are mainstays in humanistic and existential literature, as evi-
denced by Frankl’s (1966) emphasis on self-transcendence and Rogers’s
(1961) belief of remaining true to one’s core values. Succinctly stated,
humanism is a progenitor for optimal experiences such as flow state
(Maslow, 1961). That said, humanistic and existential thought needs to
evolve while still maintaining its strength-based roots and philosophy of
overcoming human tragedy (Copley & Carney, 2020). Although currently
utilized in other fields (Boudreau et al., 2020; Gold & Ciorciari, 2019;
Swann et al., 2017), flow state has its roots in humanistic and existential
thought (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 2014). It is our belief that flow state
can be a part of the next transformation in counseling with a focus on
optimal experience and life enjoyment. For example, preliminary research
applying flow state with therapy indicates encouraging results. These
studies have investigated flow state among survivors of war, survivors
of torture, and oppressed individuals, with positive outcomes (Ley et
al., 2017; Riva et al., 2016; Ruiz-Martínez et al., 2021). We hope that this
Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60 199
article can continue in this evolutionary vein and stimulate interest in
flow state as an existential tool.
To better illustrate our rationale for believing flow state to be a part of
the next humanistic and existential evolution, we divide the remainder of
this article into four sections. First, we define what is flow state. The second
section discusses the parallels between flow state and existentialism. The
third portion delves into optimal experience and provides a case exemplar
for applications to self and counseling. Finally, the fourth section closes the
article, focusing on limitations and implications for counselors.
DEFINITION OF FLOW STATE
Flow state is an internal process in which a person becomes completely im-
mersed in an activity or goal where all else is inconsequential or irrelevant
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The ability to go consistently into flow allows
individuals opportunities to foster optimal experience and life enjoyment
(Freire et al., 2016). This process is autotelic, which, operationally defined,
means done simply for the sake of the activity or the goal itself (Schiepe-
Tiska et al., 2021; Tse et al., 2021). Research into flow state indicates that
it is an altered state of consciousness (ASOC) in which people experience
a multitude of benefits (Dietrich, 2003; Sinnett et al., 2020). An ASOC, ac-
cording to Revonsuo et al. (2009), is an “altered representational state of
consciousness” (p. 196). Succinctly stated, what this means is that in flow
state, a person perceives reality differently. A corporal example is the idea
of the “runner’s high” or “second wind” that occurs after a person runs
for an extended amount of time. The body may be physically taxed (and
in excruciating pain), but the individual has a deep concentration that
circumvents the situation (Bonaiuto et al., 2016; Hill et al., 2020). Instead
of focusing on the pain or weariness, the person lives in the here and now
and, thus, can enjoy every moment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). An artist or
sculptor, however, may become so immersed in a project that hours go
by without realization (Chemi, 2016). More commonplace and pedestrian
examples are when people engage in an interesting dialogue or have a
romantic interest. While involved in these activities, individuals focus
their awareness solely on the task (or person) at hand, and the conscious
desire for other needs (e.g., food, water, time) tends to disappear (Lambert
& Csikszentmihalyi, 2020; Sinnett et al., 2020).
In existential terms, one could conceptualize the above process as
being-always-becoming, self-transcendence, and the lived experience
(Frankl, 1966; Spinelli, 2014, 2016). For instance, in the examples above,
the persons are cognizant of themselves in relation to the world but do
not perceive themselves as confined by it. Benefits of this growth mindset
are the following: (a) being able to let go of things (i.e., no longer holding
on to disruptive patterns), (b) having a deep embodiment (i.e., being fully
immersed in what one is doing), (c) reducing metacognition (i.e., no longer
200 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60
thinking self-defeating or negative thoughts), and (d) having clear goals
and focusing solely on immediate feedback to attain those objectives (i.e.,
engaging in single-tasking as opposed to multitasking).
Whereas some of these outcomes connected to flow state have clear positive
benefits (e.g., no longer holding on to disruptive patterns), others appear
more dubious (e.g., reducing metacognition). Engaging in less higher level
thinking (i.e., metacognition) seems counterintuitive, given that thinking is
regarded in contemporary society as our most sophisticated tool and that
more (of anything) is better (Lambert & Csikszentmihalyi, 2020; Sheldon
et al., 2015). Evidence, however, speaks to the opposite and suggests that
people can enjoy life better and have more optimal experiences when they
reduce excessive cognition (Kaiser, 2019; Norman, 2020). Less metacogni-
tion can reduce an individual’s inner critic, which may produce a more
relaxed state, allowing for increased creativity and life optimization (Stoll
& Pithan, 2016; Swann et al., 2017). This process of silencing the inner critic
is called transient hypofrontality, and it occurs when the prefrontal cortex
of the brain slows in activity and high-level thinking decreases (Sinnett
et al., 2020). Transient hypofrontality is key in attaining flow state, in that
studies indicate that the less people think, the more their genuine, true self
can emerge, unfettered from societal constraints (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990;
Dietrich, 2003; Gold & Ciorciari, 2019). In line with the existential concept
of self-transcendence, the person no longer focuses solely on the self and
strives for a higher purpose (Frankl, 1966).
Taken further into an existential context, transient hypofrontality allows
people the opportunity to understand they are a finite being but not confine
oneself by it. As stated by Spinelli (2016), “we inevitably are presented with
matters regarding who the person is (their being) and what that person
does (their doing)” (p. 322). Thus, individuals are in a continual act of
becoming, which is consistent with peak experiences (Maslow, 1961), self-
actualization (Wyeth, 1971), and self-transcendence (Frankl, 1966). In more
therapeutic terms, in flow state (and, by default, transient hypofrontality), a
person focuses on pushing boundaries and stretching their potential while
purposefully seeking activities to attain optimal experience by not fixating
on self-imposed limitations (Bonaiuto et al., 2016; Freire et al., 2016; Ley et
al., 2017; Riva et al., 2016). Thus, flow state makes a person better, given
that it is nearly impossible to stay at the same level if one is continually
seeking a higher purpose, coupled with refusing to accept self-enforced
restrictions (Fullagar et al., 2013; Peterson et al., 2005; Seligman & Csik-
szentmihalyi, 2014).
A useful metaphor for the concept of flow is water. Water continuously
rushes in a stream, bringing new water and flushing out old; nothing
stays the same. Ideas, concepts, and progression are in constant motion.
However, the opposite is also true. Stale, motionless water is a metaphor
for excessive thinking that can stifle progression because of analysis
paralysis, causing people to vacillate (i.e., be static). Therefore, for that
Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60 201
type of person, everyday life is akin to stagnant water—to feeling stuck
(Radzikowski, 2018).
Before concluding this section, we believe that it is important to differ-
entiate flow state from a similar concept, mindfulness. To elaborate on the
distinction between the two, we must first define what is optimal experience.
Succinctly stated, optimal experience is a profound sense of happiness that
emerges through suffering, self-awareness, and deep embodiment (Csik-
szentmihalyi, 1990). Mindfulness, however, refers to ‘awareness of one’s
internal states and surroundings’ (American Psychological Association,
n.d.). Although mindfulness does share overlapping elements with flow
state, such as a here-and-now focus, they are quite different (Lambert &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2020; Sala et al., 2020).
Mindfulness involves people engaging in a process demanding self-
discipline and a dedication to continuously reflect and be aware of them-
selves and the world around them (Hill et al., 2020; Sala et al., 2020). This
consciousness could entail being attuned to nature and one’s own biological
mechanisms (e.g., breathing) concurrently. Flow state, conversely, involves
a reduction in metacognition (i.e., transient hypofrontality) when participat-
ing in an activity, coupled with a loss of time. These factors result in people
experiencing an amalgamation of self and activity, meaning that they become
one with a singular pursuit, rather than attempting to be aware of multiple
sensations simultaneously (Lambert & Csikszentmihalyi, 2020; Riva et al.,
2016). A further distinction separating the two is the concept of being an
observer who strives to be present in every moment, which is characteristic
of mindfulness. By contrast, people experiencing flow are able to discard
the inner observer as a result of becoming so engrossed in an activity that
they lose themselves while doing it (Sheldon et al., 2015). If one were to
conceptualize the two using the metaphor of a stream of consciousness,
Sheldon et al. (2015) stated that “mindfulness seems to entail standing on
the bank of the stream without falling in; in contrast, flow entails jumping
into the stream and tackling a challenging task or problem” (p. 276).
Another distinction is that flow state requires action (i.e., some type of
purposeful physical or mental movement; Fullagar et al., 2013). Flow state
can also activate unconsciously, given that an individual can be in an ASOC
without knowing it (Swann et al., 2017). An additional difference concerns
the brain regions that activate during flow state and mindfulness. Research
has shown that in flow state, there is a reduction in prefrontal cortex func-
tioning (i.e., transient hypofrontality; Peifer, 2012). More recent studies have
expanded on this idea, suggesting that the decrease in prefrontal cortex
operations is somewhat nuanced and not absolute (Harris et al., 2017).
However, Moynihan et al. (2013) found that mindfulness increased activity
in the prefrontal cortex. That the same brain region is affected so differently
lends support to the two constructs being dissimilar. Finally, Sheldon et
al. (2015) found that mindfulness and flow state were negatively related
to each other. For instance, on certain variables (e.g., reflective awareness)
202 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60
where mindfulness was high, flow state was lower (Sheldon et al., 2015).
Furthermore, Sheldon and colleagues noted that mindfulness practices
lowered people’s ability to become absorbed in an activity, which reduced
flow state. Thus, although both constructs are valid indicators of positive
mental well-being, they are distinctly different in how they affect people.
PARALLELS BETWEEN FLOW STATE AND EXISTENTIALISM
As stated previously, numerous parallels exist between flow state and ex-
istentialism, such as flow being attainable through exercising control over
one’s consciousness. Upon accomplishing this, individuals often experi-
ence a deep sense of joy because they are able to define their existence and
the meaning attached to it. Before preceding further, however, we should
note that existentialism is broad, and it is a disservice to attempt to label
it as generic concept, given that it is composed of several distinct types.
For example, there are small nuances separating European existentialism,
American existentialism (i.e., existentialist humanism [EH]), and Black
existentialism (Bugental, 1976; Fanon, 1961/2004; Gordon, 1997; Kierkeg-
aard, 1843/1983; May, 1975; Sartre, 1947/1967; Stare & Fernando, 2020).
European existentialism tends to focus on the lack of a shared significance
or meaning to life (Kierkegaard, 1843/1983). American existentialism, by
contrast, expanded upon the former and included humanistic thought,
emphasizing subjective value, worth, and integrity (May, 1975; Schneider
& Krug, 2017). Black existentialism traces its origins to racial and systemic
hardships faced by Blacks while emphasizing radicalism, advocacy, and
social justice (Fanon, 1961/2004; Vereen et al., 2017; White & Palacios, 2020).
There are, of course, similarities, and the commonalities found in all three
types are where we want to broadly connect flow state to existentialism.
Although we will focus more specifically on EH in this section, the common
factors need mentioning. For example, all three types of existentialism share
the common threads of meaninglessness, existence, death, awareness, and
anxiety (Frankl, 1946/2006; Gordon, 1997; Yalom, 1980).
In both flow state and EH, the notion of meaning is critical. For ex-
ample, Frankl (1946/2006) believed that “in some ways suffering ceases
to be suffering at the moment it finds a meaning, such as the meaning of
a sacrifice” (p. 117). Similarly, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) declared that one’s
perspective “does not depend on outside events, but how we interpret
them” (p. 4). In other words, both flow state and EH use the phenomeno-
logical perspective as a fundamental component in being able to adapt to
and deal with life events. Flow, akin to EH, also focuses on the desire to
pursue self-transcendence and self-actualization that can emerge from the
intrapsychic conflict of meaninglessness, existence, death, awareness, and
anxiety (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014; Frankl, 1946/2006; Yalom, 1980). Similar
to EH, the concept of flow state corresponds with the belief that people
choose their direction in life through creating meaning by choice (Vereen
Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60 203
et al., 2017). As with EH, to induce flow state, a person must struggle
against chaos and uncertainty (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). These challenges
encountered can be physical, mental, or spiritual in nature (Bonaiuto et al.,
2016; Boudreau et al., 2020; Fullagar et al., 2013). Regardless of the type of
impediment encountered, the overarching goal is to create meaning and
significance when facing difficulties.
In EH thought, the notion of authenticity, described as having a here-
and-now focus, freedom of choice, and acceptance of the impact of one’s
decisions, is critical (Bugental, 1976). As with EH, when people enter flow
state, they have an acceptance they could fail or triumph, coupled with a
firm understanding that success may not occur. According to Csikszent-
mihalyi (1990),
flow helps to integrate the self because in that state of deep concentration conscious-
ness is usually well ordered. Thoughts, intentions, feelings, and all the senses are
focused on the same goal. Experience is in harmony. And when the flow episode is
over, one feels more “together” than before, not only internally but also with respect
to others and to the world in general. (p. 41)
Furthermore, both flow state and EH place importance on the aware-
ness of the decisions that affect people in their lives. EH identifies this as
acknowledging and appreciating the nature and structure of one’s own
existence and the value they can have in this world (Bugental, 1976). Flow
state takes a similar stance by focusing on the tripartite idea of the self,
space, and time. For example, some research has suggested that people are
not happy or successful because of intrapersonal factors such as negative
self-talk, fear, and irrational beliefs (Hill et al., 2020; Mumford et al., 2020;
Swann et al., 2017). These factors amalgamate, causing individuals to con-
tinuously hesitate as a psychological paralysis occurs (Csikszentmihalyi,
2014; Lambert & Csikszentmihayi, 2020).
By entering flow state and in the process activating transient hypo-
frontality, people replace negative self-talk with a “voice” (Kottler, 2014).
This voice or, in EH terms, sense of consciousness leads to a myriad
of positive outcomes. Intensely concentrating on the voice helps to
eliminate the self, lifting people’s idiosyncratic self-restrictions of time
and space that limit them (Borovay et al., 2019). With these arbitrary
constraints lifted, people feel freer, and they perceive their decisions to
flow together better (hence where the term flow state originated; Csik-
szentmihalyi, 1990, 2014). Describing this process, Kottler (2014) noted
that “something far more incredible occurs: our fear of death—that
most fundamental of fear—can no longer exist . . . with self, time, and
space erased from the picture, all that complexity . . . is edited out” (p.
57). Thus, these individuals are in a fluid state, having the knowledge
that they are no longer finite but are capable of attaining an optimal
experience (Kaiser, 2019; Vereen et al., 2014). Although flow state uses
different terms for this occurrence, this experience is at the heart of EH
204 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60
because it promotes irreducibility and the phenomenological perspec-
tive (Hannon & Vereen, 2016; Perepiczka & Scholl, 2012).
OPTIMAL EXPERIENCE AND APPLICATION
TO SELF AND COUNSELING
As mentioned earlier, optimal experience is a deep sense of happiness that
emerges through suffering, self-awareness, and deep embodiment (Csikszent-
mihalyi, 1990). Although attaining this state of contentment is noteworthy
and of considerable interest, the problem arises that for optimal experience
to occur, suffering must take place. Distress or uncomfortableness (mental
or physical), although necessary in many instances, is somewhat of a taboo
topic in contemporary society (Fanon, 1961/2004; Frankl, 1946/2006). Yet,
suffering as part of the human condition and the ability to rise above it
are core components of EH (Frankl, 1966; McLaughlin, 2019). Similarly,
undergoing some type of risk, or suffering, is a prerequisite to inducing
flow state (Dietrich, 2003). Therefore, the following question arises: How
do counselors persuade clients to engage in flow state and attain optimal
experience if one must endure suffering to do it? A succinct answer is
that individuals must humble themselves and do the work for themselves
first. Research has shown that for people to train others in reaching flow
state, they must initially undergo the transformation on their own (Csik-
szentmihalyi, 1990, 2014). We agree with this assessment and contend that
counselors need to be open to exploring flow state for themselves. There
are several methods to induce flow state, ranging from the mental (e.g.,
chess), physical (e.g., skiing), or spiritual (e.g., meditation; Kottler, 2014).
Thus, it behooves counselors to discover the modalities that may work
for them. Proceeding in this manner facilitates firsthand expertise of flow
state so that counselors can answer questions and speak clearly to what the
client may experience. As with culturally responsive counseling or racial/
ethnic matching, these counselors may have insight into what their clients
are undergoing (Meyer & Zane, 2013; Moses et al., 2020). In the following
fictional case study, we provide an illustration detailing how a counselor
can explore flow state and attain optimal experience. Although there are
several approaches to attaining flow state, we believe that the corporal
method is most effective for illustration.
Case Exemplar
Rose is a 39-year-old counselor with little physical activity in her life and
has a caseload of 20–30 clients she sees at the community clinic. Currently
in her 10th year as a counselor, she admits to having a dwindling desire to
help people and decreased motivation to continue her job. Moreover, she
recently received bad news from her doctor that her blood pressure is high
due to, most likely, stress and anxiety. Her doctor suggests embarking on a
Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60 205
physical exercise routine to stymie the health problems that are beginning
to emerge. Although Rose has very little experience exercising, she knows
it is good and chooses to begin running. She chooses to run a mile in the
morning before work as her introduction to exercise. On her first run, 5
minutes in, she instantly regrets it as her body throbs, her back hurts, and
her joints ache. She wants to quit but tells herself to go on for just 2 more
minutes, given that she has just begun. Rose decides to focus on the music
in her headphones, finish out the 2 minutes, then stop. However, some-
thing odd occurs in that after a while, her app alerts her that she has run
a mile. Unbeknownst to Rose, by focusing on the music, she ran far past
the 2 minutes and completed her first-ever mile. She is awestruck and has
a sense of fulfillment, encouragement, and achievement.
She goes to work with enthusiasm, which several of her colleagues notice
and comment on. She feels better suited for her clients and experiences an
excellent day at her job, although numerous problems arose. Rose thinks to
herself, “Just yesterday, that would have stressed me, but today I’m OK.”
She decides to run again the next morning. When exercising the next day,
she encounters the same physical wall again. The pain, discomfort, and
uncomfortableness emerge, except this time it feels worse. She tells herself
that if she was able do it before, she can again and focuses on the music.
Rose manages to persevere and is amazed at how time went by so fast. She
goes to work uplifted and observes that she is more resilient, efficient, and
clear minded and less lethargic while at work.
Rose notices that running has provided a buffer against her burdens
and challenges. After 2 months, she sees her body transform, but it is the
mental change that is truly shocking. Rose discovers her thought processes
are different when she runs. For example, not only can she resolve major
issues, but her problem-solving is more creative. She also notices the positive
benefits extend beyond her running. She starts encouraging herself more at
her job and in life, while attaining positive outcomes. She also decides to
join a running community and meet new people. At one of these gatherings,
she mentions what happened to her when she began running. A member
tells her that happens a lot, and it is flow state. Unfamiliar with the term,
she researches the topic and discovers what it is and how it occurs. Armed
with this knowledge, she now purposefully seeks out experiences that
induce flow state to increase her optimal experience. Realizing her clients
may benefit from flow state, she plans to approach her supervisor to see if
this method is something the clinic can implement.
Analysis of the Case Exemplar
Although one might argue that Rose’s case is unique, evidence suggests
that it is not (Bonaiuto et al., 2016; Kottler, 2014; Seligman & Csikszentmi-
halyi, 2014). Instead of focusing on her pain or weariness, Rose lived in the
here and now and was able to enjoy the experience, living it to its fullest
206 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60
(Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Although this is an amazing personal accomplish-
ment, the question still remains: What is the counselor’s role in assisting
clients to engage in flow state and attain optimal experience? According
to van Deurzen and Adams (2016), the purpose of existential therapy is
to help clients discover their lived experiences in a genuine, honest, and
thorough manner. Thus, a counselor might apply flow state in a similar
method. For example, a counselor could explore the manifestations of flow
state in Rose’s life and help her discover, quantify (if needed), and label
the unique situations (or patterns) in which it occurs. Proceeding in this
manner fosters new awareness and allows Rose to explore potential areas
of growth (Riva et al., 2016).
In the case exemplar, Rose managed to enter flow state through a physi-
cal activity. That is not, however, the only way to attain flow state or
optimal experience. A counselor could help Rose examine other activities
or situations in her life that felt similar to when she ran. By helping Rose
discover the way flow state affects her lived experience, the counselor
could also help her identify other instances that mirror the sensation
when running but through other means (e.g., cognitive, social, spiritual).
As Rose and the counselor discover these new areas together, a next step
can be to further solidify and identify the flow experience (Riva et al.,
2016). Over time (days or weeks), the counselor can have Rose chronicle
her flow states through a written narrative (e.g., personal journal) or
other informal means (e.g., videos). The point of this exercise is for Rose
to fully examine her life and be able to identify what she believes is her
most true, meaningful, and satisfying existence (van Deurzen & Adams,
2016). To be multiculturally sensitive, the counselor can have Rose bring
culturally relevant items that represent or are related to current or previous
instances of flow state (e.g., clothing, pictures, drawings). For example,
some people may link historical relics (e.g., a journal they write in left by
their parents) to flow state. Going through this process allows Rose to have
a well-defined connection with flow state to her past, present, and future.
Although there is not a set pattern, once Rose and the counselor have
defined the flow experience clearly, the next step can be the characteriza-
tion of the flow state (Chilton, 2013; Riva et al., 2016). What this entails, in
existential terms, is the self-transcendence process that occurs while push-
ing through one’s limits, exceeding expectations, and winning the battle
against the self (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014; Frankl, 1966). Rose described not
only pain and suffering but also a sense of fulfillment, encouragement, and
achievement once she accepted the discomfort. The counselor can have
Rose examine her life for other instances in which Rose felt similarly and
connect that to new ways she may encounter flow. This process helps Rose
understand flow state more thoroughly while expanding her self-knowledge
and optimal experience expertise. A final step the counselor and Rose can
take is determining Rose’s flow profile and ways to promote flow (Flow
Genome Project, n.d.; Riva et al., 2016).
Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60 207
A flow profile is a collection of thoughts, actions, and instincts that clus-
ter together into a unique pattern that, once known, can give direction on
how a person can best attain flow state. Although there is not universally
agreed-upon terminology, Riva et al. (2016) took an existential approach
and suggested that flow profile is a combination of an individual’s culture,
personality, environment, and daily lived experiences. Their approach is
more methodological and clinical and takes into consideration a person’s
idiosyncratic beliefs and lifestyle. Other definitions take a common factors
approach and categorize flow profiles into groups (Flow Genome Project,
n.d.). Regardless of the mode, once the counselor and Rose determine her
flow profile, they can work together to promote activities that increase the
likelihood of inducing flow state. Determining the flow profile links to
promotion of flow, which enhances the autotelic process and helps Rose
decide what is most meaningful in her life (Schiepe-Tiska et al., 2021; Tse
et al., 2021).
In the case exemplar, Rose was able to transform a negative mindset
into a positive one by (a) no longer holding on to disruptive patterns, (b)
having deep embodiment, and (c) reducing self-defeating and negative
thoughts. Through this process, Rose was able to be more creative and
imaginative, which is a part of flow state (Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). Fur-
thermore, Rose’s tendency to continually push herself and desire to attain
and achieve higher levels is a natural outcome of flow state. According to
Csikszentmihalyi (1990),
it is this dynamic feature that explains why flow activities lead to growth and dis-
covery. One cannot enjoy doing the same thing at the same level for long. We grow
either bored or frustrated; and then the desire to enjoy ourselves again pushes us to
stretch our skills, or to discover new opportunities for using them. (p. 75)
Rose was able to attain an optimal experience through a simple activity
such as running. Although this may seem too simplistic and reductionist,
flow state is an ASOC that has decades of evidence supporting it (Borovay
et al., 2019; Boudreau et al., 2020; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Dietrich, 2003).
One of the aspects that makes flow state so critical is that it involves some
aspects of risk-taking, given that the outcomes are not inevitable or certain
(Kottler, 2014; Smith et al., 2017). It is this risk-taking that leads to discovery
and improvement, in that people find a part of themselves they did not
realize existed (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
LIMITATIONS
Flow state is not a panacea. There are distinct limitations and consequences
of attempting to be in the ASOC that flow permits. For counselors, problems
may arise in assessing their clients’ ability to engage in different activities
that induce flow state. Thus, counselors must have a good understanding
of their clients and avoid encouraging them to pursue undertakings that are
208 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60
too difficult or too easy. An example is the client who repeatedly engages
in flow state activities that either exceed or are below their current ability.
Both extremes can result in generating client anxiety or apathy, instead of
an optimal experience (Riva et al., 2016). Although risk-taking is critical
to flow state, consistently failing to achieve a goal can lead to indifference
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Thus, it is critical that counselors comprehend
this issue and build a strong therapeutic relationship.
With respect to clients, addiction, frustration, and lethargy are all conse-
quences that counselors must acknowledge when utilizing this tool. Ad-
diction can occur because of a variety of factors, including personality and
the neurochemistry behind flow state (a topic that we discuss later in the
Implications for Counselors section). For example, some individuals have
addictive personalities that can predispose them to having a dependence
on a substance, activity, or tool (Korolenko et al., 2020). Furthermore, the
neurochemistry that makes flow state so impactful can be an addiction
itself because of the neurochemicals released. During flow, dopamine,
anandamide, norepinephrine, serotonin, and endorphins release together
and cause a natural high that can be very addicting (Kottler, 2014; Peifer
& Tan, 2021).
In fact, the effect of these neurotransmitters on the brain is similar to
that of drugs such as speed (e.g., Ritalin), cannabis, cocaine, opioids, and
MDMA (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2017, 2019, 2020). Consequently,
factors such as personality and the neurochemistry behind flow state may
be linked to frustration and lethargy. For example, clients may become ir-
ritated or weary because they are unable to attain flow state continuously.
Therefore, counselors must be cognizant of the identifiers associated with
addiction and be prepared to intervene if signs or symptoms of addiction
emerge. Despite these limitations, flow state provides counselors a viable
tool with numerous benefits that is worth attempting to utilize with clients.
IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELORS
Incorporating flow state into practice has several implications for coun-
selors. First, we address implications for humanistic counseling research
and then discuss implications for practitioners. Regarding research,
future investigators may wish to explore whether flow state buffers
against mental health issues or can be the goal of therapy itself. Riva et
al. (2016) suggested that counselors could use flow state for both pur-
poses, depending on the client’s needs. In their work, flow state helped
to reduce anxiety in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder,
while concurrently increasing their ability to focus on the here and now
(Riva et al., 2016). Additionally, for individuals with less severe issues,
just having more opportunities for flow state positively affected their
lives. However, the inverse was also true: Individuals who indicated
experiencing less flow (i.e., fewer optimal experiences) reported lower
Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60 209
levels of well-being and contentment (Riva et al., 2016). Thus, future
research could help determine the most appropriate therapeutic direc-
tion for flow state.
In addition to individual flow, future researchers might explore the
concept of group/social flow in greater detail. Although we focused more
on individual flow in this article, flow state may be activated within a
group setting. In sports, there are myriad examples of teammates feeding
off one another and, as a group, performing at the peak of their abilities
(Kottler, 2014). Like sports teams, counseling groups also provide elements
that can induce flow state, such as cohesion, universality, acceptance, and
trust (Momartin et al., 2019). Moreover, group counseling integrated with
EH principles provides a potentially powerful intervention to use with
clients. Multicultural supervision and training (i.e., cultural competence)
is also critical. Research has shown that flow state occurs in vastly differ-
ent countries, such as the United States, South Korea, Japan, Italy, Chile,
and Russia (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Riva et al., 2016; Ruiz-Martínez et al.,
2021). Within these nations, there also exists a variety of races, ethnicities,
and cultures. Yet, one common denominator is that participants in these
countries all reported similar intrapersonal experiences. Thus, future
research may need to determine whether flow state could be a potential
EH/multicultural tool, coupled with culturally competent supervision
and training.
Finally, in addition to its therapeutic uses, flow state can lead to counsel-
ors expanding their brain-based knowledge and expertise. Unfortunately,
because studies often seek to quantify flow state, the literature is, at times,
mired in dense, behavioral neuroscience terms. As a result, the overly sci-
entific terminology can sometimes come across as dry and monotonous,
thus alienating more action-oriented counselors (Kim et al., 2019). Yet, to
properly use flow state, counselors must understand the underlying neural
mechanics (i.e., neuroscience) behind it. By using flow state, counselors
can expand their expertise and become familiar with the biological basis
of counseling. For example, counselors can gain a more comprehensive
understanding about the neurotransmitters released during flow state.
Dopamine, anandamide, norepinephrine, serotonin, and endorphins all
have various effects on the body, yet some counselors may have only a
basic knowledge of them (Kim & Zalaquett, 2019).
Having an increased understanding and awareness of how the brain af-
fects clients can aid in a myriad of ways. For instance, with this knowledge,
counselors can help alleviate the shame some clients have when they do not
attain their goals by educating them about the mind-body connection (Lorelle
& Michel, 2017). Sometimes clients internalize their failures and, as a result,
give up on themselves. By being able to indicate that behavioral patterns
are neural pathways etched in the brain, counselors can help clients not to
internalize their issues and to view their behavioral patterns as changeable.
In other words, it lets clients know that their behavior is not their personality
210 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60
and that they can create new neural pathways to replace the old, problematic
ones (Schauss et al., 2019). Utilizing flow state increases counselors’ aware-
ness of these factors and helps them plan accordingly.
CONCLUSION
Flow state, although not currently widely used in contemporary counseling,
has a history in EH literature, in that it corresponds with strength-based
and growth-oriented models. When people experience flow state, beneficial
outcomes can occur, such as experiencing a sense of personal enhancement
and achievement through self-awareness, deep embodiment, and control
(Riva et al., 2016; Ruiz-Martínez et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2021). These prin-
ciples are mainstays in existential and humanistic work, and flow state can
potentially be a part of the next evolution of EH. We hope that this article
can assist in that process by stimulating interest in this EH concept.
REFERENCES
American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Mindfulness. In APA dictionary of psychology.
Retrieved July 9, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/mindfulness
Bonaiuto, M., Mao, Y., Roberts, S., Psalti, A., Ariccio, S., Cancellieri, U. G., & Csikszentmihalyi,
M. (2016). Optimal experience and personal growth: Flow and the consolidation of place
identity. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 1654. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01654
Borovay, L. A., Shore, B. M., Caccese, C., Yang, E., & Hua, O. (2019). Flow, achievement level,
and inquiry-based learning. Journal of Advanced Academics, 30(1), 74–106. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1932202X18809659
Boudreau, P., Mackenzie, S. H., & Hodge, K. (2020). Flow states in adventure recreation: A
systematic review and thematic synthesis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 46, Article
101611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.101611
Bugental, J. F. T. (1976). The search for existential identity. Jossey-Bass.
Chemi, T. (2016). The experience of flow in artistic creation. In L. Harmat, F. Ø. Andersen, F.
Ullén, J. Wright, & G. Sadlo (Eds.), Flow experience: Empirical research and applications (pp.
37–50). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28634-1_3
Chilton, G. (2013). Art therapy and flow: A review of the literature and applications. Art
Therapy, 30(2), 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421656.2013.787211
Copley, L., & Carney, J. (2020). Using gestalt techniques to promote meaning making in trauma
survivors. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 59(3), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1002/
johc.12145
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Flow and the foundations of positive psychology: The collected works
of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8
Dietrich, A. (2003). Functional neuroanatomy of altered states of consciousness: The tran-
sient hypofrontality hypothesis. Consciousness and Cognition, 12(2), 231–256. https://doi.
org/10.1016/S1053-8100(02)00046-6
Fanon, F. (2004). The wretched of the earth (R. Philcox, Trans.). Grove Press. (Original work
published 1961)
Flow Genome Project. (n.d.). Learn your flow superpowers (and how to avoid your kryptonite).
https://www.flowgenomeproject.com/flow-profile
Frankl, V. E. (1966). Self-transcendence as a human phenomenon. Journal of Humanistic Psy-
chology, 6(2), 97–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786600600201
Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60 211
Frankl, V. E. (2006). Man’s search for meaning (I. Lasch, Trans.). Beacon Press. (Original work
published 1946)
Freire, T., Tavares, D., Silva, E., & Teixeira, A. (2016). Flow, leisure, and positive youth development.
In L. Harmat, F. Ø. Andersen, F. Ullén, J. Wright, & G. Sadlo (Eds.), Flow experience: Empirical
research and applications (pp. 163–178). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28634-1_11
Fullagar, C. J., Knight, P. A., & Sovern, H. S. (2013). Challenge/skill balance, flow, and
performance anxiety. Applied Psychology, 62(2), 236–259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-
0597.2012.00494.x
Gold, J., & Ciorciari, J. (2019). A transcranial stimulation intervention to support flow state
induction. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, Article 274. https://doi.org/10.3389/
fnhum.2019.00274
Gordon, L. R. (Ed.). (1997). Existence in Black: An anthology of Black existential philosophy. Routledge.
Hannon, M. D., & Vereen, L. G. (2016). Irreducibility of Black male clients: Considerations
for culturally competent counseling. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 55(3), 234–245.
https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12036
Harris, D. J., Vine, S. J., & Wilson, M. R. (2017). Neurocognitive mechanisms of the flow state.
Progress in Brain Research, 234, 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pbr.2017.06.012
Helliwell, J., Layard, R., & Sachs, J. (2019). World Happiness Report 2019. Sustainable Develop-
ment Solutions Network. https://s3.amazonaws.com/happiness-report/2019/WHR19.pdf
Hill, A., Schücker, L., Wiese, M., Hagemann, N., & Strauß, B. (2020). The influence of mindful-
ness training on running economy and perceived flow under different attentional focus
conditions—An intervention study. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology.
Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2020.1739110
Kaiser, R. B. (2019). Stargazing: Everyday lessons from coaching elite performers. Consult-
ing Psychology Journal: Theory and Practice, 71(2), 130–139. https://doi.org/10.1037/
cpb0000143
Kierkegaard, S. (1983). Fear and trembling; repetition (H. V. Hong & E. H. Hong, Eds. & Trans.).
Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1843)
Kim, S. R., Banerjee, R., Fonseca, F., Ivey, A., & Zalaquett, C. (2019, October 10–13). Truth or
myth? Neuromyths among counselors and suggestions for counselor educators [Paper presen-
tation]. Association for Counselor Education and Supervision Conference, Seattle, WA,
United States.
Kim, S. R., & Zalaquett, C. (2019). An exploratory study of prevalence and predictors of neu-
romyths among potential mental health counselors. Journal of Mental Health Counseling,
41(2), 173–187. https://doi.org/10.17744/mehc.41.2.06
Korolenko, T. P., Ovchinnikov, A. A., Sultanova, A. N., & Neustroeva, A. Y. (2020). Social-
psychological characteristics on formation of addictive behavior. Neuroscience and Behavioral
Physiology, 50(1), 27–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11055-019-00863-4
Kottler, S. (2014). The rise of superman: Decoding the science of ultimate human performance. New
Harvest.
Lambert, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2020). Facilitating or foiling flow: The role of momentary
perceptions of feedback. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 15(2), 208–219. https://doi.or
g/10.1080/17439760.2019.1578893
Ley, C., Krammer, J., Lippert, D., & Barrio, M. R. (2017). Exploring flow in sport and exercise
therapy with war and torture survivors. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 12, 83–93.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2017.03.002
Lorelle, S., & Michel, R. (2017). Neurocounseling: Promoting human growth and development
throughout the life span. Adultspan Journal, 16(2), 106–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/
adsp.12039
Maslow, A. H. (1961). Peak experiences as acute identity experiences. The American Journal of
Psychoanalysis, 21(2), 254–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01873126
May, R. (1975). The courage to create. W. W. Norton.
McLaughlin, J. E. (2019). Humanism’s revival in third-wave behaviorism. The Journal of Hu-
manistic Counseling, 58(1), 2–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12086
212 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60
Meyer, O. L., & Zane, N. (2013). The influence of race and ethnicity in clients’ experiences
of mental health treatment. Journal of Community Psychology, 41(7), 884–901. https://doi.
org/10.1002/jcop.21580
Momartin, S., Coello, M., Pittaway, E., Downham, R., & Aroche, J. (2019). Capoeira Angola:
An alternative intervention program for traumatized adolescent refugees from war-torn
countries. Torture Journal: Journal on Rehabilitation of Torture Victims and Prevention of Torture,
29(1), 85–96. https://doi.org/10.7146/torture.v29i1.112897
Moses, J. O., Villodas, M. T., & Villodas, F. (2020). Black and proud: The role of ethnic-racial
identity in the development of future expectations among at-risk adolescents. Cultural
Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 26(1), 112–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/
cdp0000273
Moynihan, J. A., Chapman, B. P., Klorman, R., Krasner, M. S., Duberstein, P. R., Brown, K.
W., & Talbot, N. L. (2013). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for older adults: Effects on
executive function, frontal alpha asymmetry and immune function. Neuropsychobiology,
68(1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1159/000350949
Mumford, M. D., Martin, R., Elliott, S., & McIntosh, T. (2020). Creative failure: Why can’t
people solve creative problems. Journal of Creative Behavior, 54(2), 378–394. https://doi.
org/10.1002/jocb.372
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2017). MDMA (Ecstasy) abuse research report: What are
MDMA’s effects on the brain? https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/
mdma-ecstasy-abuse/what-are-mdmas-effects-on-brain
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2019). Methamphetamine research report: How is metham-
phetamine different from other stimulants, such as cocaine? https://www.drugabuse.gov/
publications/research-reports/methamphetamine/how-methamphetamine-different-
other-stimulants-such-cocaine
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2020). Marijuana research report: How does marijuana produce
its effects? https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/how-
does-marijuana-produce-its-effects
NORC at the University of Chicago. (2020). COVID response tracking study. https://www.norc.
org/Research/Projects/Pages/covid-response-tracking-study.aspx
Norman, E. (2020). Why metacognition is not always helpful. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article
1537. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01537
Parker, K., Morin, R., & Horowitz, J. (2019, March 21). Looking to the future, public sees an
America in decline on many fronts. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/
social-trends/2019/03/21/public-sees-an-america-in-decline-on-many-fronts/
Peifer, C. (2012). Psychophysiological correlates of flow-experience. In S. Engeser (Ed.), Advances
in flow research (pp. 139–164). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2359-1_8
Peifer, C., & Tan, J. (2021). The psychophysiology of flow experience. In C. Peifer & S.
Engeser (Eds.), Advances in flow research (2nd ed., pp. 191–230). Springer. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-030-53468-4_8
Perepiczka, M., & Scholl, M. B. (2012). Association for Humanistic Counseling: The heart and
conscience of the counseling profession. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 51(1), 6–20.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1939.2012.00002.x
Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Orientations to happiness and life satisfac-
tion: The full life versus the empty life. Journal of Happiness Studies, 6(1), 25–41. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s10902-004-1278-z
Radzikowski, S. (2018). Mushin state of no mind in martial arts. https://shinkanryu.org/
mushin-no-mind/
Revonsuo, A., Kallio, S., & Sikka, P. (2009). What is an altered state of consciousness? Philo-
sophical Psychology, 22(2), 187–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515080902802850
Riva, E., Freire, T., & Bassi, M. (2016). The flow experience in clinical settings: Applications in
psychotherapy and mental health rehabilitation. In L. Harmat, F. Ø. Andersen, F. Ullén, J.
Wright, & G. Sadlo (Eds.), Flow experience: Empirical research and applications (pp. 309–321).
Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28634-1_19
Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60 213
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. Houghton Mifflin.
Ruiz-Martínez, R., Kuschel, K., & Pastor, I. (2021). Craftswomen entrepreneurs in flow: No
boundaries between business and leisure. Community, Work & Family. Advance online
publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2021.1873106
Sala, M., Ram, S. S., Vanzhula, I. A., & Levinson, C. A. (2020). Mindfulness and eating disorder
psychopathology: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 53(6), 834–851.
https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.23247
Sartre, J.-P. (1967). Existentialism and human emotions (B. Frechtman, Trans.). Philosophical
Library. (Original work published 1947)
Schauss, E., Brasfield, M., & Ellmo, F. (2019, March 28–31). Neurocounseling for resilience [Paper presen-
tation]. American Counseling Association Conference & Expo, New Orleans, LA, United States.
Schiepe-Tiska, A., Schattke, K., Seeliger, J., & Kehr, H. M. (2021). Distal and proximal moti-
vational processes related to flow experience: Investigating the role of implicit motives,
affective and cognitive preferences, and perceived abilities. Current Psychology. Advance
online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01409-z
Schiffrin, H. H., Batte-Futrell, M. L., Boigegrain, N. M., Cao, C. N., & Whitesell, E. R. (2021).
Relationships between helicopter parenting, psychological needs satisfaction, and prosocial
behaviors in emerging adults. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30(4), 966–977. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-01925-3
Schneider, K. J., & Krug, O. T. (2017). Existential–humanistic therapy (2nd ed.). American Psycho-
logical Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000042-000
Schutte, N. S., & Malouff, J. M. (2020). Connections between curiosity, flow and creativity. Personal-
ity and Individual Differences, 152, Article 109555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109555
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Positive psychology: An introduction. In M.
Csikszentmihalyi, Flow and the foundations of positive psychology: The collected works of Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi (pp. 279–298). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9088-8_18
Sheldon, K. M., Prentice, M., & Halusic, M. (2015). The experiential incompatibility of mind-
fulness and flow absorption. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(3), 276–283.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614555028
Sinnett, S., Jäger, J., Singer, S. M., & Philippe, R. A. (2020). Flow states and associated changes
in spatial and temporal processing. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 381. https://doi.
org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00381
Smith, L. J., Gradisar, M., King, D. L., & Short, M. (2017). Intrinsic and extrinsic predictors of
video-gaming behaviour and adolescent bedtimes: The relationship between flow states,
self-perceived risk-taking, device accessibility, parental regulation of media and bedtime.
Sleep Medicine, 30, 64–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2016.01.009
Spinelli, E. (2014). An existential challenge to some dominant perspectives in the practice of
contemporary counselling psychology. Counselling Psychology Review, 29(2), 7–14.
Spinelli, E. (2016). Relatedness—Contextualising being and doing in existential therapy. Ex-
istential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, 27(2), 303–329.
Stare, B. G., & Fernando, D. M. (2020). Existential-humanistic counseling with young Black
men in judicial settings. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, 59(2), 106–122. https://doi.
org/10.1002/johc.12133
Stoll, O., & Pithan, J. M. (2016). Running and flow: Does controlled running lead to flow-
states? Testing the transient hypofontality theory. In L. Harmat, F. Ø. Andersen, F. Ullén,
J. Wright, & G. Sadlo (Eds.), Flow experience: Empirical research and applications (pp. 65–75).
Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28634-1_5
Swann, C., Crust, L., Jackman, P., Vella, S. A., Allen, M. S., & Keegan, R. (2017). Psychological
states underlying excellent performance in sport: Toward an integrated model of flow
and clutch states. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 29(4), 375–401. https://doi.org/10
.1080/10413200.2016.1272650
Tse, D. C. K., Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2021). Living well by “flowing” well: The
indirect effect of autotelic personality on well-being through flow experience. The Journal
of Positive Psychology, 16(3), 310–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1716055
214 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING ◆ October 2021 ◆ Volume 60
Twenge, J. M., Cooper, A. B., Joiner, T. E., Duffy, M. E., & Binau, S. G. (2019). Age, period, and
cohort trends in mood disorder indicators and suicide-related outcomes in a nationally
representative dataset, 2005–2017. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(3), 185–199. https://
doi.org/10.1037/abn0000410
Twenge, J. M., Martin, G. N., & Campbell, W. K. (2018). Decreases in psychological well-
being among American adolescents after 2012 and links to screen time during the rise of
smartphone technology. Emotion, 18(6), 765–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000403
Twenge, J. M., Sherman, R. A., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2016). More happiness for young people
and less for mature adults: Time period differences in subjective well-being in the United
States, 1972–2014. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(2), 131–141. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1948550615602933
Twenge, J. M., Spitzberg, B. H., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Less in-person social interaction with
peers among U.S. adolescents in the 21st century and links to loneliness. Journal of Social
and Personal Relationships, 36(6), 1892–1913. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407519836170
van Deurzen, E., & Adams, M. (2016). Skills in existential counselling & psychotherapy (2nd ed.).
SAGE Publications.
Vereen, L. G., Hill, N. R., Aquino Sosa, G., & Kress, V. (2014). The synonymic nature of profes-
sional counseling and humanism: Presuppositions that guide our identities. The Journal of
Humanistic Counseling, 53(3), 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1939.2014.00056.x
Vereen, L. G., Wines, L. A., Lemberger-Truelove, T., Hannon, M. D., Howard, N., & Burt, I.
(2017). Black existentialism: Extending the discourse on meaning and existence. The Journal
of Humanistic Counseling, 56(1), 72–84. https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12045
White, D., & Palacios, A. (2020). A culturally responsive existential-phenomenological ap-
proach for counseling Black sexual minority youth. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling,
59(2), 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1002/johc.12131
Wu, S.-F., Lu, Y.-L., & Lien, C.-J. (2021). Detecting students’ flow states and their construct
through electroencephalogram: Reflective flow experiences, balance of challenge and skill,
and sense of control. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 58(8), 1515–1540. https://
doi.org/10.1177/0735633120944084
Wyeth, S. (1971). Self actualization. Saint Paul’s School 1970. http://www.sps70.org/SelfAc-
tualization082515.pdf
Yalom, I. D. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. Basic Books.
♦ ♦ ♦
