LCA Model for Water Footprint for Reciprocating Engine (Re) Power Plant

Abstract

The key objective of this paper is to develop a LCA model for water demand coefficients of the life cycle
of natural gas-fired power generation. A spread sheet-based model has been developed to characterize
water use in electricity generation from Reciprocating Engine (RE) Power Plant in Bangladesh.The model
is built upon a data inventory that analyzes water requirements by fuel source, generation technology, and
cooling system. Water demand coefficients include water consumption for various stages of natural gas
production, life-cycle of power plant as well as for power generation from it. Pathways were structured
based on the unit operations of the types of natural gas sources, power plant, and power generation
technologies, and cooling systems. From previous research papers it has been observed that the lowest life
cycle water consumption coefficient of 0.12 L/kWh is for the pathway of conventional gas with combined
cycle technology, and dry cooling. The highest life cycle consumption coefficient of 2.57 L/kWh is for a
pathway of shale gas utilization through steam cycle technology and cooling tower systems. The goal of
this study is to provide a baseline assessment of freshwater use in electricity generation from a
Reciprocating Engine Power Plant (REPP). A spreadsheet-based model has been developed to conduct
the estimates of water footprint ( WF ). This tool is intended to provide decision makers to make a quick
comparison among various fuel, technology, and cooling system options in respect of water use for power
generation. In this study it has been found that the WF for reciprocating engine power plant is 0.10
L/kWh , which is much less compared to other technology of power generation.

Full text

Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Industrial and Mechanical Engineering and Operations
Management (IMEOM), Dhaka, Bangladesh. December 12-13, 2019
LCA Model for Water Footprint for Reciprocating Engine
(Re) Power Plant
Mafizul Huq
Department of Mechanical Chemical Engineering
Islamic University of Technology (IUT), Bangladesh
mhuq1953@gmail.com, mafizul@iut-dhaka.edu
Md. Nurul Absar Chowdhury
Department of Mechanical Chemical Engineering
Islamic University of Technology (IUT), Bangladesh
nabsar@iut-dhaka.edu
Abstract
The key objective of this paper is to develop a LCA model for water demand coefficients of the life cycle
of natural gas-fired power generation. A spread sheet-based model has been developed to characterize
water use in electricity generation from Reciprocating Engine (RE) Power Plant in Bangladesh.The model
is built upon a data inventory that analyzes water requirements by fuel source, generation technology, and
cooling system. Water demand coefficients include water consumption for various stages of natural gas
production, life-cycle of power plant as well as for power generation from it. Pathways were structured
based on the unit operations of the types of natural gas sources, power plant, and power generation
technologies, and cooling systems. From previous research papers it has been observed that the lowest life
cycle water consumption coefficient of 0.12 L/kWh is for the pathway of conventional gas with combined
cycle technology, and dry cooling. The highest life cycle consumption coefficient of 2.57 L/kWh is for a
pathway of shale gas utilization through steam cycle technology and cooling tower systems. The goal of
this study is to provide a baseline assessment of freshwater use in electricity generation from a
Reciprocating Engine Power Plant (REPP). A spreadsheet-based model has been developed to conduct
the estimates of water footprint ( WF ). This tool is intended to provide decision makers to make a quick
comparison among various fuel, technology, and cooling system options in respect of water use for power
generation. In this study it has been found that the WF for reciprocating engine power plant is 0.10
L/kWh , which is much less compared to other technology of power generation.
Keywords
Water–Energy nexus, Natural Gas, Electricity Generation, Life Cycle Assessment
1. Introduction
The water is needed for energy production and energy is needed for water supply.As there had been an acute
shortage of electricity in Bangladesh a few years ago, the government took Quick Rental Power Plants Program
(QRPP) and under this program, many small power plants based on reciprocating engines (around 1000 MW) were
commissioned by 2012.As per statistics of Bangladesh Power Development Board (BPDB), installed generation
capacity of Bangladesh is 19,428 MW in September 2019. Different types of power plants generate electricity in the
country and synchronize it with the national grid. The share of different types of power plants [2] is shown in Figure
1.
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Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Industrial and Mechanical Engineering and Operations
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Figure 1:Installed capacity of power plants as on September 2019 (plant type) in mw
Around 36.54 % electricity generation comes from reciprocating engine power plants and rest power from steam
turbine 12%, gas turbine 5.69%, combined cycle 36.54 and hydro 1.18%. Most common technologies used to
generate powers from fossil fuels are single cycle, steam cycle, and NGCC. But in Bangladesh, reciprocating engine
(RE) power plants also have remarkable contribution in generation of power. Many researchers studied water
footprint (WF) for power generation for steam cycle, gas turbine cycle, and combined cycle globally, but very few
papers are available for WF of reciprocating engine (RE) power plants. A water footprint is the volume of water
needed for the production of unit quantity of goods, electricity (Hoekstra and Chapagain 2007 [5].
In this paper we studied a reciprocating engine power plant named Shun Shing Power Plant supplying electricity to
‘Seven Circle Cement Factory’located at Ghorashalaround 90 km away from Dhaka, Bangladesh. The power plant,
based on natural gas, uses closed loop radiator cooling and this system has been described later in methodology in
details.The aim of this paper is to develop a ‘LCA Model’forlife cycle water demand/consumption for power
generation from reciprocating engine power plant. The key objectives of this study are:
•To develop a LCA Model and assessthe water footprint (WF) for power generation from a RE Power Plant.
•To structure pathways of water consumption to cover the life cycle of fuel, materials, equipment of RE
power plant and evaluate water consumption.
•To assess the impacts on environment in respect of climate change, because ofwaterconsumption due to
power generation from a RE power plants.
2. Literature Review
In 1994, Gleick published the growing water crisis and its relationship to energy supply. Especially energy–water
interdependencies are recognized in the United States, [5,13]. The topic became an issue to initiate research for
reducing water demandin energy production. The study focused on the volume of consumptive water use to generate
electricity[5,7]. E S Spang et al [8] mentioned in their paper, water is necessary for almost all production and
conversion processes in the energy sector, which include fuel extraction and processingand electricity generation
(thermoelectric, hydropower, and renewable technologies) [6].To assess the water use impact of energy production,
it is very common to apply the well-developed concept known as the water footprint [5,8].
A number of previous studies were carried out by Wu et al2009, Mittal 2010, Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2010, Barker
2007, Macknicket al2011, Gleick1994, and DOE 2006,for water footprint of electricity generation by estimating of
water use coefficients for energy technologies. The studies were also done by Fthenakis and Kim 2010, Mulder et
al2010, Mielkeet al2010, Meldrum et al2013with emphasis on fuel production. The results of these studies revealed
that the WF varies significantly by energy process and technology. Hence, the selection of technologies has
important implications on energy production and generation of electricity [8]. The electricity generation from natural
gas consistsof a number of pathways, which include unit operations forproduction of natural gas, its processing,
RE Power Pla nt, 7452, 38.36%
Steam Turbine , 2344, 12.07%
Gas Turbinee Power Plant,
1105, 5.69%
Combined Cycle, 7099,
36.54%
Hydro, 230, 1.18%
Solar PV, 38, 0.20% Import, 1160, 5.97%
Installed Capacity 19,428 MW as on september 2019
(by plant type)
RE Power Plant
Steam Turbine
Gas Turbinee Power Plant
Combined Cycle
Hydro
Solar PV
Import
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Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Industrial and Mechanical Engineering and Operations
Management (IMEOM), Dhaka, Bangladesh. December 12-13, 2019
transportation and utilizationof power production. Power generation pathwaysare branched according to the unit
operations that affect the water footprints significantly. The minimum, maximum, and average water demand
coefficientsfor the upstream stage of NG were mentioned by Babkir Ali et al [3]. Most studies carried out in the
water–energy nexus consider only the power generation stage without taking into account the fuel cycle, water
demand through detailed pathways are scarce [3].The type of technology and cooling system used for power
generation from different fuels has essential unit operations to be considered in determining the amount of water
required. However, it is important to highlight that for a power plant the amount of water required for cooling will
depend on the type of cooling system being used in the power plant. In general, cold-water cooling systems allow
for more efficient operation [5].Cooling systems used in power plants are - i. Once-through cooling, ii. Closed
Cycle Cooling System, iii. Cooling Tower (wet cooling and cooling pond), iv. Dry Cooling
3. Methodology
In this study, we consider the life cycle into three main stages: fuel cycle, which pertains only to fuel (natural gas
for this study); power plant, which represents the life cycle of the physical power plant equipment& construction;
and operation, which include cooling for thermal technologies and all other plant operation and maintenance
functions. The unit operations and system boundary considered for this study are shown in Figure 3.
3.1 Systemboundary
The unit operations and system boundary considered for this study are shown in Fig 2.
Figure 2:Thesystem boundary for WF of REPP
We define life cycle water use factors, WLC is the life cycle water use per unit of generated electricity, termed as
water footprint (WF) expressed as liters or gallons per kWh. We calculate factors for the life cycle water
consumption for a RE power plant a particular generation technology. These factors represent water use factors for
each of the three major life cycle stages defined in system boundary figure 3. Hence, life cycle water use factors, i.e.
WF is as follows:
WLC= Wfc +Wpp + Wop (1)
Where, Wfc is amount of water used in the fuel cycle per unit of electricity generated (expressed in litre/kWh),
WPP is the amount of water used for component manufacturing, power plant construction, and power plant
decommissioning (i.e. the power plant equipment life cycle (litre/kWh); and WOP is the amount of water used in the
operations of the power plant per unit of generated electricity (L/kWh).
3.2 Model Development for WF of RE Power Plant
We quantify water use in RE power plant by developing a simple generic model focusing on heat balance of the
power plant. The heat rate (HR, kJ/kWh) of a power plant is the amount of energy required to produce one unit of
electricity (kWh).
Heat Rate (HR) =
 (2)
The power plant’s heat rate depends on the fuel type and the specific power plant design. All the heat input into the
power plant that is not converted into electricity (shown in Figure3). Some heat is wasted and has to be dissipated
somehow to the environment. The majority of this heat is rejected to the environment through flue gasandcooling
Water
source
RE Power
Plant
Cooling System for operation
Fuel Cycle: NG Exploration,
Drilling, Processing,
Production & Transportation
Power Plant: Equipment,
Transportation, Construction
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system, which usually use water as the heat transfer medium. The water consumption, Wcw can be calculatedfrom
the equation below:
The heat dissipated to cooling water, Qcw =Wcw * CcwΔTcw ;
Hench water consumption, Wcw = Qcw / (CcwΔTcw), (3)
The water foot print (WF) model for electricity generation can be shown in figure 5.
Figure 3: Simplified Visualization of Heat Balance of a Power Plant
The energy input into the plant as fuel has to be equal to the energy going out of the plant. The amount of heat that is
rejected to cooling water is Qcw.The total amount of water required in the power plant,Wcw depends on the amount
of heat, Qcw to be dissipated through the cooling system, which depends on the efficiency andthe type of cooling
systemconnected in the closed loop. Other parameters of the model, Qfl, Qun, and Qe are heat dissipated through
flue gas, unaccounted heat loss, and heat used for the generation of electricity respectively.
3.3 Parameter Qcw
We can evaluate the amount of energy Qcw from the equation (6).
Qcw = HR – (Qe + Qfl +Qua ). (4)
Thus, the smaller the heat rate, the smaller the waste heat that needs to be rejected; and therefore, less cooling water
is required per kWh produced.The required water consumption per unit of electricity genaration can be estimated
from the equation 8 is given below:
Wcw = Qcw / (Ccw ΔTcw), (5)
3.4 Data collection
In this study, data were collected and developed from the plant operation log sheet and the literature, then
harmonized for technology of power generation and cooling system used by the power plant. In the estimation of
WF of fuel cycle, the average value for the data are used to represent water demand coefficients for the various
upstream and downstream unit operations involved in power generation from natural gas. These water demand
coefficients for each unit operations are used to estimate the complete life cycle water demand coefficient of gas-
fired power generation. Water consumption was calculated for each pathway for gas-fired RE power plant with
actual load factor 66%. The unit operations and system boundary considered for this study are shown in Figure 3.
Water consumption coefficient ranges of power plant equipment and construction including decommissioning of the
plant have taken from the paper of Babkir et al.[3]. Actual waterconsumption quantities during operation of the plant
have been collected from the power plant operation log sheet. Every 2 days after, the make up water is poured in the
water expansion/make up vessel.
3.5 Cooling System of the Power Plant
The closed loop radiator cooling system is used in the studied power plant for cooling of RE engines, lubricating oil
and charged air. This is a dry cooling system, sometimes referred to as air cooling; use air instead of water as the
heat transfer fluid. The system consumes water as make up water which is to be topped up at the makeup water tank
every after 2-3 days around 200-300 liter.
HEAT RATE
Q
fl Qe
QCW
Qua
llllllllllllllllllllllll
llllllllllllllllllllllll
Hot water
Engine/condenser
Radiator
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Figure 4: Closed loop radiator cooling (dry cooling)
The water, re-circulated in the system takes heat from engines, lubricating oil heat exchangers & charged air coolers
and dissipates heat in the radiators where air is used to cool the hot water. The mass of circulation water between
engine and radiator can be calculated from the following thermodynamic equation,
Qcw = mcirCp∆T or mcir = Qcw /(Cp∆T ) (6)
The mass of water consumption can be calculated the equation below:
mcon = αcr * mcir (7)
Where, Qcw is the heat to be dissipated in cooling water (kJ/kWh), ∆T is the temperature increase of the water, mcir
is the amount of water circulated (L/kWh) in cooling system, mcon is the water consumed. A small part of mcir
evaporates and leaks out through the radiator cap (i.e. consumed), which is captured by the coefficient α.Hence, mcon
is much smaller than mcir. α cr is the percentage of the water circulated that is consumed due to evaporation & leak
out through the radiator cap and depends on ambient conditions and cooling system condition. Lifetime water
consumption was calculated for the pathways of the gas-fired reciprocating engine power plant with average load
factor around 66% determined from power plant operation data.
3.6 Estimation of water consumption of upstream pathways of NG
Each pathway of electricity generation from natural gas fired reciprocating engine power plant consists of a number
of unit operations. This includes unit operations for production, processing, transportation and direct combustion of
natural gas in the power plant. Power generation pathways are shown in the figure5according to the unit operations
that affect the water footprints significantly.
Figure 5: Upstream pathways of NG
The estimation of water footprint of natural gas upstream paths has been calculated from the formula given below:
WFf = Vf * ( WFexpl+ WFdril + WFextr + WFproc + WFtran ) (8)
Where, WFexpl, WFdril, WFextr, WFpro, WFtran, are water footprints for exploration, drilling, extraction,
processing, and transportation of NG and Vf is the lifetime consumption of natural gas. The water footprint,WFf for
fuel (NG) supply has been estimated using water demand co-efficients of NG upstream pathways from the research
paper of Babkir et al [3].The water demand coefficients (Water Footprint, WF) for the upstream stages of natural gas
are obtained from Babkir et. Water consumption co-efficient of RE Power Plant for power plant construction The
water footprint for equipment and construction of power plant, WFpp is 0.32 - 1.1 m3/ TJe of electricity obtained
from the paper of Mesfin et al [5] and shown in Table 1.
Distribution
Generation Technology:
RE Power Plant
Exploration
Drilling Fracturingor
Processing
Transportation
Cooling system :Closed loop radiator cooling
Natural Gas
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Table 1: Water Footprints for construction of power plant and fuel supply
WFpp, m3/TJ
e
WFpp, m3/MWh
Water consumption for construction of
power plant 1. 0.32-1.1 0.00396
In this study, average values of the data are used to represent water demand/consumption coefficients for the various
upstream unit operations involved in power generation from RE power plant.
4. Results and Discussions
4.1 Assumptions and Input Data
The operation parameters of the RE power plant have been collected from the operation log sheet and the
paper of Mafizul et al. [13] (shown in Table 2).
Table 2: Operating Parameters of the Power Plant
Parameters
Unit
Value
Net power output
MW 10.00
Capacity factor
%
65.87
Full power lifetime
Years 25.00
Lifetime output
GJ
4,684,565.56
Direct fuel input
GJ 12,509,493.37
Life-cycle energy input
GJ
13,692,868.87
Thermal efficiency of operation
of the power plant, ɳ
% 37.45
Life-cycle efficiency
% 34.21
4.2 Heat Balance of the Power Plant
The heat balance of the studied reciprocating engine power plant is shown in the Table 6. The efficiency of the
power plant is found to be 37.93 %. It means 37.93 %of the heat energy from the fuel has been used to generate
electricity. The remaining heat energy has been lost by different means, which have been calculated for this power
plant using data from the plant.
It has been observed that the heat carried out by the cooling water is around 25.18 %, flue gas 15.45 %, and heat loss
unaccounted 21.43%. The heat balance of the power plant has been shown in Figure 6 and 7.
Heat
used to
generate
electricity
,Qe
36.64%
Heat
carried by
cooling
water,
Qcw
25.67%
Heat
carried by
lub oil
cooling
water,
Qlub
5.69%
Heat
carried by
exhaust
gases,
Qflu
22.72%
heat
unaccoun
ted
losses,
Qun
9.27%
Heat Expenditure of RE Power Plant
3,522
2,468
547
2,184
891
9,612
04,000 8,000 12,000
Heat used to generate…
Heat carried by jacket…
Heat carried by lub oil…
Heat carried by exhaust…
heat unaccounted…
Heat Rate
Heat Energy Expenses, kJ/kWh
HEAT BALANCE OF REPP, kJ/kWh
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Figure 6: Heat Expenditure of RE Power Plant Figure 7: Heat Expenditure of RE Power Plant
4.3 Water Consumption for the Fuel Upstream Stages
The water footprint WFffor fuel (NG) supply has been estimated using equation 9. The WFf of natural gas has been
calculated for this RE power plant and it is 0.0937 L/kWh shown in Table 5.
Table 3: Life time water footprint for natural gas upstream paths
pathways WDCs1
life-cycle NG
requirement for power
generation, Vf
2
Lifetime water
requirement
(col 2 x col 3)
lifetime
electricity
generation
WFf of fuel
upstream
pathways
L/m3
of NG
m3 liters
kWh
L/kWh
exploration
0.000
342,334,444.19
0.00
1,304,319,250
0.0937
drilling
0.045
15,405,049.99
extraction
0.003
1,027,003.33
processing
0.194
66,412,882.17
transportation
0.115
39,368,461.08
Total
0.357
342,334,444.19
122,213,396.58
1,,250304,319
0.0937
Notes: 1. Average of WDCs of the paper of Babkir et al.[3] have been used.
2. Vf, taken from the paper of MafizulHuq et al.[13].
3. life-time electricity generation data taken from the paper of Mafizul Huq et al. [13].
4.4 Water Requirement for Operation of RE Power Plant
The life time water requirement for operation of the RE power plant isestimated from the gathered data from the
paper of Mafizul Huq et al. [15] in respect of average water use during operation of the plant.
Table 4: life time water estimation for operation of RE power plant
Unit operations Life time water
consumption1
life-cycle
electricity
generation 1
Water Demand
Coefficient
(WDC)
Water Demand
Coefficient
(WDC)
Water Demand
Coefficient
(WDC)
m3/life kWh/life time m3/kWh
m3/MWh
L/kWh
Life time water consumption for
operation of the plant 5,673.03
1,304,319,250
0.00000435
0.00435
0.00435
Notes: 1. Data obtained from the study of Mafizul Huq et al. [13].
The water consumption coefficient for the operation stage of the power plant has been estimated from the actual
consumption of water collected from the plant. Closed loop dry cooling systems of the power plant have very low
water demand coefficients. Theconversion efficiency of the power plant is important, and it affects the two stages
of the life-cycle (NG upstream stage and power generation stage).The water consumption for construction of the
power plant is obtained from the study of Babkir Ali et al [3] which is in the range of 0.32-1.1 m3/TJ shown in
Table 12. We take the average of it for calculation of WF for construction of power plant.
Table 5: Estimation of WF for construction of the plant [3].
WFs of Electricity
m3/TJ
e+C28
L/kWh
Water consumption for construction of power
plant.
0.32 -1.1 0.00256
4.5 Estimation of Life Cycle WF for Power Generation of the RE Power Plant
The calculation of WF of the power plant considering phases of life cycle generation of the RE power plant is
shown in Table 8 :
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Table 6: Life Cycle Water Footprint of Electricity Generation for RE Power Plant.
WFs of Electricity
m3/TJe L/kWh
%
Water consumption for
construction of power plant 1. 0.32 -1.1 0.00256 2.54
Water consumption for fuel NG
upstream pathways 2. 0.09370 93.14
Water consumption of
operation of RE power plant 3. data collected from
power plant 0.00435 4.32
Water Footprint of electric
power generation
0.10060
100
4.6 Comparison with Earlier Studies
Comparison of water consumption coefficient, that is water footprint, WFf for upstream stages of natural gaslife
cycle of RE power plant with other power plant types of research paper of babkir et al [3], which has been shown in
Figure 8.
Notes: * Data obtained from the study of Babkir et al.[3], ** Data obtained from this study for RE Power Plant & Dry cooling
tower Figure 8: Comparison of Water Footprint for Upstream Stages of Fuel (Natural Gas)
The more efficient power generation technology would consume less energy to produce electricity and consequently
would use less natural gas and water. NGCC is the most efficient power generation technology and hence its water
consumption is much less than that of REPP and other technology. Water consumption of NG upstream stage
depends on the efficiency of the power generation technology, that means NG consumption per unit electricity
generation. The WF of power generation for NGCC is 0.06 L/kWh, steam cycle 0.10 and that of REPP is 0.09
L/kWh.
The water consumption coefficient for the operation stage of the power plant has been estimated from the actual
consumption of water collected from the plant. In this power plant, closed loop radiator type dry cooling system is
being used. Closed loop dry cooling systems have very low water demand coefficients. Theconversion efficiency of
the power plant is important, and it affects the two stages of the life-cycle ( NG upstream stage and power
generation stage). Comparison of WF for operation stage of different power plants have been with the study of
Babkir Ali et al [3].
0.060
0.080
0.100
0.0937
0.000 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080 0.100 0.120
NGCC*
single cycle*
steam cycle*
REPP (this study)**
WFc, L/kWh
Comparison of WF for Upstream Stages of NG
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Figure 9: Comparison of WF for operation stage of different power plant types and different cooling systems.
4.7 Comparison of Life Cycle Water Footprint (WF) for Power Plant types
The WF of different power plant types is shown in Figure 11: Comparison of Life Cycle WF of Power
Plant types
Figure 10: WF of different power plant types
The WFs of different stages of power generation is shown in Figure 11..
Figure 11: WFs of stages for power generation
0.090
0.230
1.170
2.320
1.780
0.360
0.630
0.660
0.00435
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500
single cycle
steam cycle-dry cooling
steam cycle-once through
steam cycle-cooling tower
steam-cooling pond
NGCC-once through
NGCC-cooling tower
NGCC-cooling pond
REPP (this study)
WFop, L/kWh
Comparison of Water Footprints for Operation Stage of Power
Generation
3.24 3.78 4.22 4.31
5.32 5.89 5.98
0.001
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
NGCC NGCC CCS IGCC PC Nuclear Solar
Thermal
PC CCS REPP
Water Footprint, WF L/kWh
Heat Rate,HR kJ/kWh
WF L/kWh HR kJ/kWh
WF for equpt &
const of Power
Plant, 0.00256,
3%
WF for fuel( N)G
upstream
pathways 1.,
0.09370, 93%
Water Footprint
of operation of RE
power plant 3.,
0.00435, 4%
WFs of different stages of Power Generation L/kWh
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Except REPP, the lowest water consumption coefficient of 0.12 L/kWh is achieved through the pathway that uses
NG to generate electricity through NGCC technology and dry cooling. This lowest coefficient is achieved due to the
low water requirement for NG and dry cooling, along with the highest conversion efficiency of NGCC technology.
The highest water consumptioncoefficient (2.42 L/kWh) is observed for power generation from steam cycle with
cooling tower Figure… shows that reciprocating engine power plant (REPP) has the lowest water consumption of
0.001 L/kWh, even lower than NGCC. In NGCC technology steam is condensed through dry cooling system and
both latent heat and sensible heat need to be removed from the steam whereas in REPP only sensible heat need to be
removed. That is why more water is required for NGCC than REPP.
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