Available via license: CC BY 4.0
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International Journal of Social Sciences Perspectives
ISSN: 2577-7750
Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 1-8.
2021
DOI: 10.33094/7.2017.2021.91.1.8
© 2021 by the authors; licensee Online Academic Press, USA
1
© 2021 by the authors; licensee Online Academic Press, USA
The Processes of Recruitment and Selection of Personnel: Between Objectivity and
Subjectivity
Alberto Escobedo Portillo1*
Federico Julián Mancera-Valencia2
1La Salle Chihuahua University, Prol.
Lomas de Majalca, Chihuahua, Chih.
Mexico.
Email: aescobedo@ulsachihuahua.edu.mx
Tel: +52614(4)321464
2Centro de Investigación y Docencia,
Lucio Cabañas, Chihuahua, Chih.
México
Email: federico.mancera@cid.edu.mx
Licensed:
This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Keywords:
Selection
Recruitment of personnel
Competencies
Techniques
Social representations.
Received:
27 July 2021
Revised:
30 August 2021
Accepted:
17 September 2021
Published:
7 October 2021
Abstract
This study is the result of reflecting on the importance of the processes of
attracting human talent in organizations, in order to consider the
relevance of social representations in hiring decisions. The research is
qualitative, descriptive and documentary; The method of hermeneutics is
used, and as a technique the collection and analysis of written
information. The various resources to support the choice of candidates
for a position - widely known - are discussed since, even so, some
companies lack personnel to fit the profile of the position; There may be
nepotism in hiring, discrimination and even hidden policies that, rather
than looking for the profile, are based on physical appearance, among
other factors, in addition to the subjectivity attributable to the recruiter
himself. It is essential to understand the needs of companies and workers,
based on techniques that do not seek to objectively explain reality.
Funding: This study received no specific financial support.
Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
1. Introduction
The outcome of the recruitment and selection processes is so uncertain and variable that many of us have
come to question its reliability. However, it cannot go unnoticed that there are techniques designed to support
companies seeking to fill a vacancy and, it is noteworthy, that in the literature there is research aimed at
analyzing the variables that influence the recruitment and selection processes, but, since these processes are
carried out by human resources personnel -in the best of cases-, subjectivity prevails in the choice of applicants
for a job.
It is necessary to encourage discussion around the hiring of personnel in organizations because the
stability of families, the future of graduates and the development of professionals depend on that, which makes
it necessary to review what is considered as the norm in the recruitment manuals and personnel selection.
Therefore, below, some of the most common human resources processes in companies that, sooner or later, all
workers have to go through are reviewed and, likewise, there is the need to include other theoretical-
methodological proposals, such as that of social representations in the recruitment and selection of personnel.
1.1. Theoretical Framework
In the company environment, the selection of personnel is, -or should be-, a fundamental part of the
production processes, since the characteristics of the human resources that an organization has have an
influence on the results it obtains (Gutiérrez, 2007). However, despite the fact that a principle of capitalist
society is meritocracy, that is, job evaluation according to personal achievements and effort, favoritism and
nepotism are common hiring criteria (Gómez, González, & Forero, 2007). To avoid the latter and ensure
relevant hiring, it is common for companies to base their recruitment on job competencies, basing their
selection procedures on interviews, psychometric and psychological tests, review of the curriculum vitae and
verification of references, among others, all based on the previous analysis of the job position (López, 2010).
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Another factor that affects the personnel selection processes, according to Solano-Gómez and Smith-
Castro (2017), is that of stereotypes, since they are cognitive structures that allow human beings to organize
and simplify the social environment and thereby understand the world around them. Continuing with this
analysis, the authors concluded that stereotypes “influence human perception, evaluation, affects and
behaviors, not only in intergroup contexts but also in interpersonal and work contexts” (Solano-Gómez &
Smith-Castro, 2017) which suggests that “subjective” elements play a role within the recruitment processes.
From this perspective, it is to be assumed that, in the case of professional selection, the outcome of the
processes could also be influenced by the social representations that are developed both in universities and in
public and private companies. On the other hand, for the students, both their expectations and limitations as
well as the conception of what the labor insertion implies, could impact on the result of their employability
since, for the recruiters, the beliefs around higher education institutions, public and private, could be the cause
of a professional bias far from an impartial personnel selection process. In accordance with the above, Ruiz
Larraguivel. (2004) mentions the role played by the mission and purposes of a technological university in
social stratification, and concludes that the training offered by this university influences the possibilities of
career advancement of its graduates, given the profile of the young people who decide to study there. In turn,
in another study, Ruiz Larraguivel (2009) concluded that the training received by a group of engineers at the
university influenced their professional employment and career advancement, since there is the tendency of
employers to value more the work performance of engineers graduated from private institutions (Ruiz
Larraguivel, 2009).
Also, as mentioned by Solano-Gómez and Smith-Castro (2017), it is possible to find studies in the
literature that gather evidence to affirm that the physical attractiveness of applicants for a job influences the
result of their selection. In addition to sex, which favors men over women, factors that can be part, as
mentioned before, of hidden policies shared in the company, or correspond exclusively to the subjectivity of
the person who hires.
1.2. Recruitment and Selection by Competencies
Recruitment refers to the activities carried out to attract qualified people, according to a human resources
plan, while personnel selection consists of the procedure to choose those most suitable to fill a position (Dolan
& Raich, 2010; Polanco, 2013). Regarding the first, Morell and Brunet (1999) assured that the recruitment
systems are not neutral, because they incite bias in candidates who seek to adapt to the requirements of the
position, although in the same way they affirm, like Giacomelli (2009), that with the support of information
technologies, the filtering of applicants is improved, which, in turn, is reflected in the decrease in staff turnover
(Flores, Abreu, & Badii, 2008).
On the other hand, the concept of competences emerged from North American industrial and
organizational psychology in the mid-1960s (Spencer et al., Cited by Flores (2007)); however, until the mid-
1990s, competencies were formally considered an educational model that integrated cognitive and behavioral
processes: learning to know (combining knowledge of general culture), learning to do (ability to cope with
various professional situations), learning to be (development of responsibility and autonomy) and learning to
live together (understanding, interdependence and problem solving) (Delors, 1996), which translates into the
knowledge (know), the methodological ways of proceeding at work (know-how), the guidelines and forms of
individual and collective behavior (knowing how to be), and the forms of organization and interaction
(knowing how to be) (López, 2010). Current trends define competence as aptitude and suitability; set of
knowledge that gives authority to understand a certain subject. Refers to someone educated (Fierro Murga,
2010).
For Arias, Rosete, and Martínez (2006), a job competence is an individual characteristic necessary for a
job activity to be performed effectively, also, Perrenoud (2004) defined it as the set of aptitudes, abilities, skills,
knowledge and capabilities, which indicates the development of individuals within an organization or,
according to García and Pérez (2012), a job competence is the competitiveness of candidates for a position,
regardless of the area where they work. This suggests that training, knowledge, and even experience is not
sufficient to determine the suitability of a candidate, and it is necessary to identify attitudes and values as well.
The selection process consists of three basic phases (Arias et al., 2006):
• Establishment of the job profile. As a first step, it is necessary to list all those competencies that the
position requires, based on the work activities.
• Evaluation of the candidate. Through different tests, the qualities of the candidate are evaluated, in
order to determine the levels of aptitude of a person in comparison with the tasks of the job.
• Adaptation of the candidate. In addition to personal characteristics, the qualities of the candidate must
be compared with those established for the position, in order to establish whether or not they will adapt
to the needs of the company.
If competencies are considered, they should be included in the job description, and the application of
questionnaires and interviews should integrate this information. A traditional job description includes the
obligations, tasks and responsibilities required to perform the job, while a job description based on
competencies, integrates the competencies necessary to be successful in the job (López, 2010).
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On the other hand, Rodríguez and Posadas (2007), proposed a classification of competencies, in such a way
that the selection exercise is carried out in a multi or interdisciplinary way, encouraging the participation of
various professionals. In Table 1 the competencies can be viewed and classified according to various criteria. It
is possible to organize them by related definitions.
Table-1. Classification of competences (Rodríguez & Posadas, 2007).
Classification
Practices
Required competencies
Executive level
(Vice President, Director, Deputy Director,
Manager)
Directives
Solve problems
Establish strategies
Design plans
Manage projects
Create Products
Predicting the economy
Negotiate with suppliers
Criterion post
(Assistant Manager, Boss, Supervisory Deputy Boss)
Organize staff
Design presentations
Submit writings
Coordinate events
Qualified position
(Salespeople, technicians, secretaries)
Unskilled position
(Assistant)
No
directives
Carry out technical activities
Drive production machines
Perform manual activities
Do routine activities
Similarly, Hooghiemstra, cited by Flores (2007), offered a general classification of job competencies,
contemplating one of the three types of positions that he proposed: executives, directors and employees.
In Table 2, unlike those established by Rodríguez and Posadas, a classification is shown that only
contemplates qualified positions, in other words, competencies required of those who are going to perform a
certain task, which implies descending to higher levels of specificity.
The levels of responsibility mentioned in both tables coincide in the criteria of executive, chief-director
and qualified employee-position.
Table-2. General competencies according to position held (Hooghiemstra, cited by Flores (2007)).
Position
Competencies
Executives
Strategic reasoning
Change leadership
Relationship management
Directors
Flexibility
Introduction of the change
Interpersonal sensitivity
Delegation of responsibilities
Teamwork
Transferability to different geographical environments
Employees
Flexibility
Motivation to seek information and ability to learn
Achievement orientation
Motivation to work under time pressure
Collaboration in multidisciplinary groups
Customer orientation
1.3. Assessment by Competencies
In Mexico, the National Council for Standardization and Certification of Labor Competencies
(CONOCER) is the main government body, which includes workers and entrepreneurs, to determine criteria
for evaluating competencies and align the educational offer with the requirements of companies (OECD, 2019).
At the same time, he mentions that the competency evaluation process demonstrates by means of evidence that
the person has the knowledge, abilities, skills and behaviors to perform the function defined in a competency
standard at a high level of performance, that is, a person is competent in the world of work when he puts his
knowledge into practice to achieve the expected results.
Urdaneta, cited by Pereira, Gutiérrez, Sardi, and Villamil (2008), defined that the evaluation of
competencies complements the selection system. Likewise, an evaluation by competencies consists in the
assessment of an individual's performance, through judgments supported by evidence, according to criteria
defined by the competency standards (González, Romero, Medina, & Behena, 2008).
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1.4. Personnel Selection Techniques
Among the main techniques used for personal selection are the interview, the analysis of the curriculum
and the psychometric tests, which can be applied through employment agencies or in the companies
themselves. Thus, Torrico (2007), described them as follows:
• Analysis of the curriculum. It is the technique most used by companies, and consists of reviewing the
background and personal information of the applicants, presented in a summarized way in a document.
It is customary to make phone calls to verify references and relevant data.
• The interview. It is common to complement the analysis of the curriculum with an interview, which can
be structured or unstructured, depending on the type of information that is intended to be obtained
from the candidate. Based on interaction, this technique is intended to deepen the information presented
in the curriculum.
• Psychometric tests. To apply this type of evaluation, it is necessary to have personnel trained in the
handling and interpretation of the tests. In addition, the information obtained is focused on identifying
the personality and interests of the applicant.
In general, the personnel selection activity is located in the human resources department, which has
evolved since the Industrial Revolution, the Taylorist model, the theories of Elton Mayo, until the present
time (Pérez, 2014). For his part, Pérez (2014) stated that, although there are manuals of good practices in
recruitment and selection, they are often not followed: the search and evaluation processes are started without
a prior study of the position to be filled, incomplete profiles are established, and demands not related to the
performance of the work activity are included. In addition to this, the reduction in the importance given to
human resources departments has led to a gradual de-professionalization and, consequently, the possibility of
finding the candidate who best fits the characteristics of the vacancy has decreased.
Since selection is the prediction of human behavior, the techniques used will always carry some implicit
bias (Blasco, 2004). As complementary elements to the selection techniques, the Carrillo, Bravo, and
Valenciana (2014), defines the description and specification of the position, as follows:
• Job Description. The activities and goals pursued by the job are listed.
• Specification of the position. It defines the skills, characteristics and experience that the person chosen
to do the job must have.
1.5. Validity of Personnel Selection Processes
For the human resources recruiter, personnel selection involves overcoming various challenges, among
which are Strucchi (2001):
• Know personal aspects of the candidate, but at the same time take care not to invade his privacy.
• Respect your professional code of ethics, or in the case of psychometric tests, what is proposed by the
American Psychological Association.
• Be able to apply techniques such as the psychometric test and the interview.
Personality measures began to be studied in the early 1990s, however, their predictability has not been
clearly demonstrated (Rothstein & Goffin, 2006), to which De Soete, Lievens, and Druart (2013) add that, to
despite the criterion validity of the measurement instruments, ethnic differences affect the outcome of the
selection. In the case of psychometric tests, they sometimes include more desirable responses than others,
influenced by what is socially accepted, and as with interviews, they are sensitive to pretend, that is, when the
individual seeks to behave or say that behaves, in appearance, as society expects it to Morgeson et al. (2007).
For this, it is advisable to determine the validity of the measurement instruments (psychometric test, survey,
evaluation, etc.), which is established when what is intended to be measured, is measured: just as the
temperature must be measured with a thermometer, and not a scale, personality, ability to solve problems or
intelligence, for example, must be strictly measured with the appropriate scale (Prieto & Delgado, 2010).
Therefore, validity can be divided into two aspects: criterion validation, which represents the correlation
between the test result and the scores required by the position, and content validation, which considers that
the items to measure the criterion are a representative sample of the content to be evaluated.
Another measure that aims to ensure the validity of the instruments is the motivational distortion scale,
which consists of adding items to reinforce or contradict some other of the same test and, based on these
results, tolerable ranges are established to consider a set of responses as valid (Strucchi, 2001). Likewise,
according to Strucchi (2001), reading and meticulous analysis of CVs is a strategy that can add certainty to the
process, as well as simulation activities, in the manner of a Gesell camera. For his part, Alonso (2011)
mentioned that structured interviews have shown, for more than a decade, that they predict job performance
and success in the training of those selected, but, to ensure this validity, the interviewers need to be trained on
the subject. In addition, the author points out the convenience of using this selection technique, since it is the
instrument most used by companies and is even commonly the only evaluation resource necessary for
decision-making. To this can be added the recommendation of Fine (2012), who insisted on the use of
questionnaires that minimize the risk of potential harm, caused by counterproductive work behaviors, which,
in other words, refers to problematic employees.
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Despite the fact that there are researchers who assure that in the last 30 years the predictive validity of
the instruments has been ensured (Alonso, Moscoso, & Cuadrado, 2015), other authors have suggested
following other routes, and relying on theories that complement the selection techniques, for example,
functional roles (Escobedo & Guerrero, 2017) and data mining (Chien & Chen, 2008).
1.6. Ethics in Personnel Selection
The reliability and scientific validity of personnel selection tools are necessary, but insufficient,
requirements from an ethical point of view. Rodríguez, Navarrete Moraga, and Bargsted Aravena (2017)
questioned the use of instruments and methodologies that are irrelevant or that invade people's privacy;
misuse of information; inequality of employment opportunities; use of instruments whose prediction of job
performance is scarce (Rorschach test, graphology, tests based on drawings, among others); discrimination
against applicants based on their appearance, age, ideologies, leisure preferences and / or sexual orientation;
falsification of the information offered by the candidates; conflicts related to the degree of admissible inquiry
by recruiters and the unequal power relationship (excessive delays, ambiguous processes, intimidation).
According to Pulido-Martínez (2014), to act ethically, recruiters should not allow social prejudices to
prevail and it is their professional obligation to prevent: recommended, family members, or people who occupy
a privileged social position, from being chosen without merits to justify it.
Similarly, stereotypes are a factor that often impoverishes people's judgments in their behavior and, in this
case, in their ability to select objectively. Stereotypes are defined as mental reproductions of reality on which it
is generalized about members or objects of some group (Casas Martínez, 2008). In turn, Horcajo, Briñol, and
Becerra (2009) demonstrated, experimentally, that it is not enough to want to be objective when evaluating
another person, since they found evidence that the activation of stereotypes affects the perception of
individuals.
The same effect applies to the stereotypes of the executive, the graduate, the operator, to name a few
examples. This "bias" compromises the ethical and methodological sense of the hiring, speaking of impartiality
and respect for the candidates.
That is, the perception of the candidates plays an important role in the ethical discussion of the
recruitment processes, in particular, in the result. Osca and López-Araújo (2009) argued that candidates who
are accepted, in general, have a more positive perception compared to those who were rejected, who tend to
argue that the process was unfair. At this same point, Wiesenfeld, cited by Osca and López-Araújo (2009),
stated that when the result is negative, the perception of the justice of the process is improved.
The study of the candidate’s perceptions regarding the selection processes has shed light on various
variables, such as anxiety towards tests (Gilliland, 1994). Regarding the other variables, Gilliland, cited by
Osca and Salmones (2004), proposed the organizational justice model, which is in the procedural phase.
Likewise, we can mention the model of Derous and De Witte, cited by Osca and Salmones (2004), which
consists of eight factors, similar to those proposed by Gilliland:
• Provision of general information about the position.
• Participation and control of candidates.
• Openness to candidate’s proposals.
• Transparency in the design of the tests.
• Feed-back contribution.
• Guarantee of objectivity in the selection.
• Guarantee of humane treatment.
• Respect for the privacy of the candidate and the information he provides.
If candidates perceive that they are fairly evaluated and given feedback, their self-esteem and motivation
towards the process will increase. Likewise, Bernerth, Feild, Giles, and Cole (2006) found that the personality
of the participants is associated with the perception of fairness in the process.
2. Method
The research is qualitative, theoretical, descriptive in scope and in a bibliographic and / or documentary
way, so that the compilation and analysis of texts is used as a technique to discuss the literature on the subject
of study.
3. Discussion and Theoretical Development
3.1. Social Representations, another Theoretical-Methodological Possibility
The individual perception of recruiters does not emerge one-dimensional, it is multi, inter, and cross-
dimensional. Like stereotypes, social representations, defined by different cultural, economic, historical and
geographical constructions, respond to diverse contexts; they are intimately linked not to the epistemic
arguments of the sciences and their statistical techniques, but to the phenomenological tradition.
Social representations allow us to understand social relations, knowledge or knowledge generated by the
relationships established in inter and multicultural processes, as well as previous “prejudices” and “ideas”, in
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short, allow us to delve into the elements of identity that they manifest themselves objectively and subjectively
in the cultural elements of individuals, between classes and social groups of different contexts (geographical
and historical). From the above, it is understood that it is through social representations that intercultural
communication is established, an issue that is fundamental in the understanding of multicultural relationships,
which come to have an important role in xenophobic, homophobic, racist attitudes, of extreme intolerance to
the different; that are learned-taught in specific contexts and languages, therefore, in the construction of social
representations, the historical dimension is revealed, because representations can be of long duration, such as
those referring to deserts or droughts that have Judeo-Christian origins (Mancera-Valencia, 2009).
Farr (1994) suggested a double function of Social Representations: the process of turning the strange into
something familiar, and making the invisible, perceptible. Thus, individuals create symbolic categories in order
to name the unnameable, and define what has not been described through words, what (Banchs, 2001) defined
as the epistemology of common sense, whose interest is the study of meaning and the construction of signs
and symbols of language, through interaction. For his part, León (2002) mentions of a symbolization by which
subjects establish relationships with objects, to represent them in their minds.
According to Banchs (2001), Social Representations are an approach and a theory at the same time,
because, for their study, they involve a set of methods and techniques to obtain and analyze information. They
are called structural, under a quantitative approach that makes use of the experimental method and techniques
such as correlational and multivariate analysis, which allow identifying how representations are formed, while
explaining their core and the functions, dimensions and elements of the cognitive structure. In short, the
structural approach is found under the positivist meta-paradigm, with the objectives of corroborating,
confirming, measuring and classifying. On the other side, according to Banchs, is the processual approach,
which refers to the qualitative, hermeneutical approach, focused on diversity and on the significant aspects of
representative activity (Banch, 2000). This approach understands the human being as a producer of meanings,
symbols, and meanings of language, thus indicating a socio-constructionist meta-paradigm, which perceives
and describes changing meanings.
On the other hand, social representations have the following functions (Abric, 2001):
1. Functions of knowing, which allow understanding and explaining reality from the acquisition of
knowledge that is integrated into a frame of reference understandable to individuals and responds to the
values already internalized by them and make communication possible.
2. Identity functions that define identity and safeguard the specificity of groups. They place individuals
with their own and rewarding social identity that gives them a primary place in the processes of social
comparison and control.
3. Guidance functions that are constituted as potential guides of behaviors and practices.
4. Justification functions have a central character since they allow to explain, justify or legitimize the
position taking and behaviors.
For his part, Sergue Moscovici, founding theorist of social representations, identified two implicit
processes of "objectification" of social representations and how this objectification is transformed into moving
from a social object to a representation object, and how this representation changes with the social. Thus, the
first process is the objectification that is related to "making the abstract concrete" (Abric, 2001).
Objectification is the procedure by which the subject selects words and objects to decontextualize them
from their original situation, adapting each word to an object that allows knowledge and sharing it with
others through communication in other contexts, "concretely materialize meanings”. This process comprises
three moments: 1) the selection of the information; 2) the formation of a scheme or structure from the
elements of the information acquired to precisely form a conceptual structure and 3) the materialization that
generates the image and gives meaning to the initial abstract ideas of the information (Abric, 2001).
The second process in social representation is anchoring, that is the social roots of the representation
and its object. Anchoring articulates three of the basic functions of social representation: 1) the cognitive
function of the integration of the object, 2) the function of interpretation of reality and 3) the function of
orientation of behaviors and social relations. The concretion or practicality of the representation is
established based on a figurative nucleus, the system of interpretation of reality and the orientation of
behaviors. When reality becomes understandable and is translated into practical and useful or functional
knowledge, social knowledge allows the subject to function in the network of relationships and diverse
environments of his everyday life (Abric, 2001).
4. Conclusions
Recruitment and selection of personnel is a dynamic issue that has always accompanied companies in their
development and has benefited from the evolution of information technologies. However, subjectivity -
perceptions and beliefs, which influence and are influenced by the interests and desires of the subjects-,
prevails, despite the efforts made to give certainty and explanation, to the recruitment and selection results
(tests of reliability and validity of instruments, assessment by competencies, psychometric tests, among
others). As with science, there is a discourse that measures, calculates and foresees, and another that seeks to
understand what is perceived, builds and rebuilds its own identity. Therefore, a crisis in the ethics of the
construction of knowledge of reality is evidenced, since there is no epistemological congruence, nor is it ethical
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to evaluate subjectivities with techniques that seek to objectively explain reality; this requires procedures and
the use of phenomenological traditions that allow us to understand the subjectivities that are put into play.
The foregoing seeks to generate discussion around two apparently contrary paths that, however, converge in
all human activities and must be seen as a sine qua non condition. In particular, the literature review suggests
that it is essential to support the selection processes in the techniques developed for this purpose, but it should
not be forgotten how valuable social representations and subjectivities can be; how relevant a life story is; how
dangerous a stereotype is; how inevitable human bias is, and how relevant is understanding the needs of
businesses and workers.
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