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1
Working Memory
and Language
An Overview of Key Topics
John W. Schwieter, Zhisheng (Edward) Wen, and Teresa Bennett
1.1 Introduction
Working memory (WM) is our limited-capacity storage and processing
(memory) system that permeates essential facets of our cognitive life such
as arithmetic calculation, logical thinking, decision-making, prospective
planning, language comprehension, and production. Since the first elabor-
ation on WM in the early 1960s (Miller et al., 1960), its role in language
acquisition and processing has been extensively investigated both empiric-
ally and theoretically by researchers from diverse fields of psychology and
linguistics, accumulating an increasingly huge body of literature (e.g., see
Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993; Baddeley, 2003 for reviews of early studies).
Notwithstanding, the field still lacks a comprehensive and updated profile
of conceptualizing and implementing working memory in the broad
domains of native and second language acquisition, processing, and lan-
guage impairments –a volume that is long overdue and expected by both
WM theorists and language practitioners alike.
Indeed, after a careful examination of recently published titles on
working memory and language learning, we find it a bit surprising that,
given the enormous interest in this important and intriguing topic by
scholars from multidisciplinary fields of cognitive psychology and language
sciences, there has not yet been a volume that provides a comprehensive
account of these accumulative research findings and empirical evidence.
This is particularly so when we realized that Gathercole and Baddeley’s
seminal monograph, Working memory and language, had been published in
1993, almost thirty years ago! The succeeding three decades following its
publication have recorded an exponential growth of both empirical and
theoretical investigations in either working memory or language learning,
either separately as two independent disciplines or occasionally jointly
investigated as one phenomenon of human cognition.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108955638.002 Published online by Cambridge University Press
Separately, for example, we have seen, on the one hand, numerous
empirical and theoretical papers addressing the nature, structure, and
functions of WM per se. Plus, several edited volumes have offered compre-
hensive coverage of working memory theories and models in cognitive
science and neuroscience. These have included, among others, Miyake
and Shah’s(1999) Models of working memory, Conway et al.’s (2005)
Variation in working memory, and most recently, an edited volume by Logie
et al. (2021) entitled Working memory: State of science. At the other end of the
pendulum, that is, language acquisition and processing, we have also seen
numerous papers reporting both theoretical reviews and empirical studies
in language learning per se; an apt example is the recent handbook com-
piled by the first editor, Schwieter and Benati (2019), though no such a
volume has been set out to cover working memory and language issues
specifically. Then, when working memory and language learning are con-
sidered as a joint venture, we have not found a comprehensive volume
addressing the intricate relationship between working memory and the
diverse and broad domains of first and second language learning, process-
ing, and impairment.
As far as we know, there are only three other recent titles that are
addressing a similar topic, and they have greatly inspired and helped pave
the way for the current handbook. To begin with, Altarriba and Isurin’s
edited volume (2013), Memory, language, and bilingualism: Theoretical and
applied approaches, has done an excellent job at showcasing some recent
advances in studies on bilingual memory, language processing, and second
language forgetting. They are also successful in integrating theoretical
developments and real-world approaches to language learning from cogni-
tive perspectives. Although this is very much appreciated in their title, we
do feel that it was also a very concentrated and specialized book. It has
served as a solid reference for bilingual processing and its interface with
memory. That said, we still need a volume to speak more directly to the
many other areas in which WM has been demonstrated to play a dynamic
role in nuanced language research domains, such as first and second lan-
guage acquisition, processing, bilingual development, not to mention the
emerging domains of language impairment and cognitive training (e.g.,
Novick et al., 2019).
Then, in terms of working memory and first or second language learning,
we have failed to identify any recent volumes reviewing this topic compre-
hensively and thoroughly. In terms of second language learning though,
the monograph authored by Wen (2016), “Working memory and second lan-
guage learning:Towards an integrated approach and its sister volume edited
with collaborators (i.e., Wen et al., 2015, Working memory in second language
acquisition and processing) feature some succinct reviews of working memory
theories, assessment procedures, and empirical studies, thus providing
important insights into the intricate relationship between working
memory and second language acquisition and processing. They also
4JOHN W. SCHWIETER ET AL.
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provided inculcate thoughts regarding integrating working memory and
second language acquisition research. But again, these two volumes have
not been able to address adequately the intricate relationship between
working memory and first language acquisition and processing; neither
did they manage to cover the well-established areas of WM and linguistic
theories and models, as well as the expanding literature of WM
and bilingualism.
Given these obvious gaps in the research literature, we thus set out to
compile this comprehensive handbook, with the goal in mind to fill up all
these lacunae from previous research. Furthermore, we also aim for theor-
etical ingenuity and empirical robustness in our individual chapter reviews
and devote independent sections to key areas of foundational theories,
including working memory models and measures in cognitive psychology,
as well as incorporating working memory within well-established linguistic
theories and processing frameworks. As far as we know, many of these have
not been done before. As such, we are hoping that the comprehensive
coverage of key topics in all these essential areas in our handbook will
benefit researchers and students not just from psychology and linguistics,
but also readers from all other related fields of cognitive sciences to draw
insights and inspirations from the chapters herein.
1.2 Organization of the Handbook
As briefly outlined above, we have thus compiled the handbook to cover all
essential areas of the language sciences in which WM has been demon-
strated to play a significant role. Specifically, the handbook is organized
based upon the following seven parts (which somehow resonates with the
very first impression of the “magical number seven”proposed by George
Miller in 1956, another buzzword concept that has been associated with
WM capacity that is widely known by almost everyone both inside and
outside psychology).
Part I: Introduction
Part II: Theoretical Models and Measures
Part III: Linguistic Theories and Frameworks
Part IV: First Language Processing
Part V: Bilingual Acquisition and Processing
Part VI: Language Disorders, Interventions, and Instruction
Part VII: Conclusion
Following the present overview, Part I continues with a special introduc-
tion by Baddeley, arguably one of the most prominent scholars in WM. In
the chapter, the author walks us through the history of various psycholin-
guistic models of language and memory and recounts how his classic
WM model has evolved to address the arising challenges brought by
An Overview of Key Topics 5
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language-related research. The chapter begins with a discussion of his
seminal multicomponent model –which was developed during a time
when Chomsky’s transformational grammar was at the forefront of psy-
cholinguistics –and explores the link between short-term memory (STM)
and long-term memory (LTM). After a brief discussion of the original tripar-
tite WM model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), Baddeley summarizes related
studies depicting the links between each component WM and language
domains, the latest endeavors being focused on the relationship between
the episodic buffer and binding. These reviews are also lending support to
the distinction between verbal STM and WM. Toward the end, Baddeley
acknowledges the different approaches between his own WM model and
that of Popper’s view.
Part II contains major chapters dedicated to discussing prominent WM-
language theories, frameworks, and methods. Chapter 3 by Coolidge and
Wynn opens the section with an exhaustive overview of the evolution of
WM and language. The authors make mention of the fact that one of the
pros of Baddeley and Hitch’s multicomponent model is the fact that it
encompasses all forms and types of memory, whereas prior to its develop-
ment, language research primarily focused on acoustic or written language
(i.e., a two-component model of memory). Throughout the chapter, the
varying components of the multicomponent model including the phono-
logical loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and the development of the central
executive are discussed in relation to their roles in language/speech produc-
tion. In Chapter 4, Papagno presents an updated view of the utilization of
the phonological loop as a “language learning device”(Baddeley et al.,
1998), a key thrust of the WM-language endeavors in the early decades.
The chapter begins with an overview of the role of the phonological loop as
outlined in Baddeley and Hitch’s multicomponent model of WM.
Furthermore, the author also looks at various studies that investigate the
functional role of the phonological loop (i.e., the ability to retain sequences
of verbal items for a short period of time). The elaboration of the phono-
logical loop is provided throughout the chapter as various studies are
examined on healthy people, children learning their mother tongue, chil-
dren and young adults learning a second language (L2), and, crucially, on
neuropsychological patients with a selective deficit of auditory-verbal short-
term memory. In all, the studies suggest that the primary function of the
phonological loop is to hold new phonological representations in the
memory long enough to build permanent representation. The author dis-
cusses how this explanation can be applied to what occurs during new
language learning.
Chapter 5 by Adams, Forsberg, and Cowan presents a critical overview of
the Embedded-Processes Model of WM and its implications for language
use. The Embedded-Processes Model was initially proposed in Cowan (1988)
and was more formalized later in Cowan (1999). The model posits that WM
is a collection of mechanisms that permit information to remain in an
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activated state. The authors first outline the basic concepts necessary to
fully understand the model and then delve deeper into how each of its
components is relevant to language use. They also examine the use of WM
in both children and adults who are learning an L2. The premise of the
chapter is to provide the foundational concepts necessary to understand the
critical role that attention and LTM play in relation to successful language
utilization at all levels. Chapter 6 by Adams and Delaney reviews long-term
WM (LT-WM) and language comprehension. The LT-WM model (Ericsson &
Kinstch, 1995) was developed to explain how individuals are able to effect-
ively encode critical information into their LTM despite the somewhat
limited capacity and constraints of WM. The authors go through the history
of the LT-WM theory, starting with the rationale for its conception in the
mid-1990s. Following this, there is an in-depth analysis of how the theory
accounts for central phenomena in discourse comprehension and also how
more recent work examining the theory proposes the involvement of syn-
tactic processing. The chapter ends with a description of recent studies that
review the relationship between neural activity and LT-WM in reasoning
skills and language comprehension.
Purg, Ozimič, and Repovšin Chapter 7 offer insight into the cognitive
neuroscience of WM and language. There is a notable close relationship
between WM and language as cognitive systems and as such, there is
overlap and integration of brain systems and networks that support these
processes. Through an examination of theoretical models and empirical
evidence provided by a diverse range of study types and research methods,
the chapter focuses on the brain substrate which plays a role in WM and
language processing from the perspectives of their interconnectedness,
synergy, and integration. In Chapter 8, Hitch, Hurlstone, and Hartley focus
on computational models of WM for language processing. The authors
focus on explaining how the limited capacity of the phonological loop
utilized in verbal WM deals with information about serial order using
computational models of the immediate recall of unstructured sequences
of words, letters, or digits that provided baseline findings. The comparison
of these computational models and the findings exemplify a serial ordering
mechanism known as competitive queuing, a process that is evidenced to
operate under various forms of linguistic constraint. In all, the chapter
suggests that competitive queuing can potentially be a mechanism for
unifying theories of WM and language processing.
Chapter 9 by Camos and Barrouillet tracks the development of the Time-
Based Resource Sharing (TBRS) model of WM for language (Barrouillet &
Camos, 2015, 2020). The model investigates the function and development
of WM specifically via the integration of executive attention and the timed
components of cognitive processes. The authors take an in-depth look at the
distinctions between domain-specific systems of maintenance that super-
vise verbal information and the domain-general system relying on atten-
tion. Throughout the chapter, the authors demonstrate how verbal
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information is maintained in WM from childhood to adulthood, how lin-
guistic features impact the short-term memory capacity of verbal infor-
mation, and how WM mechanisms in the model impact the creation of true
and false verbal LTM traces. Rönnberg, Holmer, and Rudner transition to
reviewing the Ease of Language Understanding model (Rönnberg, 2003)in
Chapter 10. The premise of this model is that speed and accuracy of the
signal matching in relation to existing multimodal language representa-
tions are determining factors of the ease of language comprehension.
Furthermore, the authors examine the difference in matching pace and
language understanding from the point of predictions and postdictions in
WM. Ultimately, the interaction between WM and LTM is critical to lan-
guage understanding and the importance of its efficiency becomes apparent
in cases where its breakdown results in cognitive decline and dementia.
Dehn’s Chapter 11 discusses assessing WM in youth. Given that language
development, acquisition of academic skills, and performance of academic
skills are heavily reliant on WM, assessing children’s WM is an essential
consideration in cases in which it is recommended that children have
neuropsychological and psychological evaluations. Children with a low
WM capacity are prone to academic learning difficulties, specific learning
disabilities (SLD), and deficits such as dyslexia (Alloway and Archibald,
2008; Pickering, 2006). The author also looks at the assessment measures
that can be used to examine both storage and processing (e.g., the backward
digit span test) and they also identify several assessments that are critically
needed to measure WM function in children. In Chapter 12 by Burgoyne
et al., the authors illustrate the importance of WM capacity and attention
control measures for language researchers. The chapter investigates the
origins of complex span measures of WM capacity to understand the
underlying cognitive processes of language comprehension. Following this,
there is a review of the evidence that supports an executive attention
perspective to WM (Kane & Engle, 2002) –and a description of the relation-
ship between WM capacity, attention control, and language
comprehension. Specific attention is paid to how the functions supported
by attention control contribute to performance across a variety of cognitive
tasks. In closing, the authors provide recommendations and resources for
researchers whose work involves measuring WM capacity and
attention control.
Part III presents important theoretical contributions from general lin-
guistics. In Chapter 13, Hawkins provides insight on whether or not gram-
mars are shaped by WM. The author examines variation patterns across the
world’s grammars specifically in relation to psycholinguistic WM models.
The following arguments are made and supported with compelling evi-
dence: (1) constrained capacity WM exceeds some limit, (2) more versus
less WM models are reflected in preferred vs dispreferred structures, and (3)
integrated WM models that interact with other factors facilitate processing
ease. Then, in Chapter 14, Amici, Sanchez-Amaro, and Cacchione discuss
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the link between branching and WM within a cross-linguistic approach.
The authors first review the differences in processing information habits
retained beyond the linguistic domain across languages as this affects how
humans process stimuli other than words in a sentence. The chapter
reflects on previously conducted studies that explore the association
between word order and attention allocation and further investigate the
effects of branching habits beyond the linguistic domain. The concluding
sections promote a stronger cross-cultural approach to the study of branch-
ing and WM.
In Chapter 15,O’Grady shifts focus toward WM and natural syntax. The
chapter begins with a brief review of the birth of cognitive science with
Miller’s(1956) paper on human memory and the storage of information.
This seminal paper provided the foundation of the capacity limits of short-
term memory being established at 72 units of information. Subsequent
work by Yngve (1960) builds on Miller’s work and suggested that these
capacity limits apply to “immediate memory”in sentence production, a
critical factor explaining the complexity of English syntax. The three lines
of inquiry posited by Chomsky (1956) are also identified and reviewed.
Finally, the author discusses the Performance-Grammar Correspondence
Hypothesis (Hawkins, 2014) and speaks about how his differing approach is
more rooted in emergentist thought. Chapter 16 by Xu and Liu offers a
review of research on the role of WM in shaping syntactic dependency
structures. The chapter looks at the relationship between dependency dis-
tance, the constraint of WM, and the least effort principle. More specifically,
the authors indicate that the latter two variables are typically organized in
a way that reduces dependency distance, which ultimately shapes the
patterns of word order in human languages and may account for the
linguistic universals seen in language typology. Finally, the chapter exam-
ines whether syntactic structures are the result of self-adaptation of lan-
guage systems as shaped by external constraints and motivations
including WM.
Truscott and Sharwood Smith report on WM and the Modular Cognition
Framework (Truscott & Sharwood Smith, 2004)inChapter 17. The authors
emphasize the involvement of the framework in language development and
WM. WM and its capacity are considered integral parts of the cognitive
system and as such, the authors apply this view to the study of language
through their discussion of processing, learning, metalinguistic knowledge,
bilingual control, codeswitching, the issue of selective versus nonselective
access in bilingual processing, optionality in SLA, and translation and
interpreting. In Lu and Wen’s Chapter 18, the authors explore the role of
WM and the language acquisition device (LAD; Chomsky, 1965). To resolve
the issue of the elusive nature of the distinction between STM and WM
limitations as they relate to language processing, the authors propose an
integrated memory and chunking-based metric of comprehension complex-
ity. They posit that during language processing, STM limitations of 72
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chunks (Miller, 1956) are sensitive to the instant chunk number (i.e., the
number of information chunks that the parser has kept active in mind
when processing a new word) whereas WM limitations of 41 (Cowan,
2001) are sensitive to the mean dependency distance (i.e., the sum of all
instant chunk numbers divided by the number of words in the construc-
tion). They provide examples of their metric calculations and discuss some
of their limitations.
Part IV reviews research on WM and first language (L1) processing and
use. In Chapter 19 by Kim, the author reviews research on WM in word
reading. This section provides a summary of the previous studies conducted
on word reading from the perspective of Baddeley’s multicomponent WM
model. The chapter also reviews studies on WM in Chinese word reading
and offers clear directions for future research. Zahn, Horne, and Martin, in
Chapter 20, examine the role of WM in language comprehension and
production from neuropsychological perspectives. They address the role
of verbal WM (specifically, the contributions of phonological and semantic
WM buffers) in processes such as language production and comprehension,
drawing on a mixture of data collected from brain-damaged and
healthy individuals.
Pérez Muñoz and Bajo discuss WM and high-level text comprehension
processes in Chapter 21. The authors review a substantial body of research
concerning how cognitive processes are supported by WM during online L1
and L2 text comprehension. Pérez and Bajo argue that WM is particularly
critical when text comprehension requires updating of the situation model
through the inhibition of nonrelevant information in the L1, but this rela-
tionship is still unclear in the L2. Chapter 22 by Swets and Ivanova addresses
WM and speech planning. The authors examine how WM fine-tunes the
flexibility of speech planning strategies and review the role of WM in indi-
vidual levels of planning. Ultimately, they conclude that speech planning is
determined by a complex system of compensatory factors that includes WM.
In Chapter 23, Olive reviews how novice and skilled writers engage WM. The
chapter utilizes specific perspectives that analyze how writing processes
engage both the executive and nonexecutive components of WM.
Part V synthesizes work on WM and L2 acquisition, processing, and use.
Chapter 24 by Service and Simard reports on how measures of WM relate to
L2 vocabulary. The authors aim to distinguish the differences between the
intersecting effects of the components of WM, vocabulary knowledge, and
methodological choices (i.e., measurement instruments) as they pertain to
different aspects of L2 vocabulary knowledge. The authors critically examine
previous research and bring to light their differing methodologies and impli-
cations of their results. The chapter concludes with a proposition of new
perspectives on the interpretations of tasks typically used in WM and L2
vocabulary studies. In Chapter 25 by Leseman and Verhagen, the authors
discuss WM and L2 grammar development in children. In reviewing previ-
ous work on statistical learning in first language acquisition and on cue
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competition in L2 learners, they suggest that the relationships between WM
and L2 grammar are bidirectional and based on general mechanisms of
perception, extraction, and integration of statistical information in the
surrounding language. Specifically, they propose that children learn gram-
mar in an L2 through chunking exemplars of constructions and that the
resultant chunks in long-term memory, in turn, aid perception and atten-
tion, and enhance working memory capacity to facilitate further L2 learning.
McCormick and Sanz’s Chapter 26 examines WM and L2 grammar devel-
opment among adults. The authors review a plethora of studies that explain
the differences in developmental rates such as the “more is better”hypoth-
esis. McCormick and Sanz argue that future research may benefit from
examining the role of WM in cognitively demanding tasks, which happen to
change during L2 learning. In Chapter 27, Cunnings critically evaluates the
various models of WM explaining L2 sentence comprehension. He also
reviews existing studies that examine how WM influences L2 sentence
processing and offers a concluding discussion on individual differences in
WM and sentence processing with suggestions as to how to best measure it.
In Chapter 28, Leeser and Herman report on methodological issues in
research on WM and L2 reading comprehension. They argue that decisions
about study designs can have significant effects on research outcomes and
provide suggestions as to how to rectify these issues. This chapter also
discusses the importance of understanding reading comprehension pro-
cesses and their various components as these are vital for the promotion
of L2 literacy skills and linguistic development. Finally, the authors discuss
the fundamental issues that must be taken into consideration for more
productive research to be done in this field.
Skehan in Chapter 29 discusses WM and L2 speaking tasks. He examines
the relationships between WM and performance on L2 speaking tasks.
Based on the research discussed in the chapter, the author argues that
WM plays a role in the formulation stage of speech production and pro-
poses areas in which it would be the most helpful to research WM connec-
tions with L2 speaking tasks. In Chapter 30 by An and Li, the authors report
on WM and L2 interaction. The chapter begins with an overview of WM as it
pertains to L2 acquisition. Following this, a summary of the methods and
findings from empirical research examining the role of WM in L2 inter-
action is noted. This synthesis focuses on three topics: (1) WM and inter-
actional behaviors; (2) WM and task performance; and (3) WM and
interaction-driven L2 gains. The chapter concludes with a discussion of
the limitations, pedagogical implications, and future research directions.
In Chapter 31, Zheng and Kuang analyze WM in interpreting studies by
conducting a systematic review of work from the 1970s to the 2010s.
Special attention is paid to simultaneous interpreting (SI) and consecutive
interpreting (CI). The primary goal of the chapter is to fill the gap in SI and
CI research by reviewing major WM models of interpreting, determining
the similarities and differences between SI and CI, and examining relevant
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empirical evidence that either validates or invalidates the models. New
research directions that can be used to investigate SI and CI are proposed.
Chapter 32 by Shin and Hu begins by first discussing a methodological
synthesis of WM tasks in L2 research. The authors review the last 20 years
of WM and L2 learning research in order to describe WM task designs,
scoring methods, and reporting practices. The chapter contributes to the
ongoing dialogue promoting methodological rigor of WM measurement in
L2 research (Wen et al., 2021).
Part VI turns to engage readers with a dialogue on WM, language dis-
orders, interventions, and instruction. Chapter 33 by Swanson presents a
critical overview of specific learning disorders due to a WM deficit. The
author draws on recent studies that suggest that growth in the executive
component of WM is significantly related to growth in reading and/or math
for children with specific learning disorders in these areas. Chapter 34 by
Montgomery, Gillam, and Evans reviews a new perspective on the connec-
tion between memory and sentence comprehension in children with devel-
opmental language disorder (DLD). The authors present the first
conceptually integrated and empirically validated model of sentence com-
prehension for school-age children with DLD which takes into account and
describes the structural relationship between the aforementioned abilities.
Morgan’s Chapter 35 examines WM and deafness while focusing on the
development of WM in children who are born deaf. The author utilizes
studies of deaf users of spoken and signed languages from both the medical
and social models of deafness and reviews how variance in WM capacities
has previously been attributed to deaf and hearing children. The chapter
concludes that deafness disrupts early language exposure and reduces
rehearsal abilities, ultimately impacting the WM’s operating system.
Chapter 36 by Alloway, Carpenter, Robinson, and Frankenstein tracks the
development of WM training in the classroom. The authors characterized
WM training programs into two categories: those narrow or broad in scope.
Furthermore, they also look at the efficacy of WM training as it pertains to
transfer effects and report whether these effects are short- or long-term
(maintenance effects). They also provide recommendations for implement-
ing WM in the classroom. Holmes, Byrne, and Graham transition to WM and
classroom learning in Chapter 37. The scholars discuss how minimal WM
resources constrain classroom learning with a specific focus on the impacts
of poor WM on the ability of children to follow learning-activity-relevant
instructions and classroom management tasks. Finally, various methods
that can be employed to assist these children are discussed, including an
overview of current ideas about memory enhancement via brain stimulation
and training and practical methods that can inform pedagogy.
In Chapter 38 by Sweller, Roussel, and Tricot, the authors discuss cogni-
tive load theory and instructional design for language learning which
begins with employing evolutionary education psychology to determine
which categories of knowledge are instructionally relevant. Chapter 39 by
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Tullo and Jaeggi conducts a meta-analysis of studies on WM training that
explore the mechanistic properties and effectiveness of WM training. The
authors propose alternative approaches that may fill gaps that traditional
interventions have left open.
Finally, in Part VII, the handbook concludes with Chapter 40, a summa-
tive piece written by the editors Wen and Schwieter. This first part of the
chapter highlights and synthesizes multiple perspectives of WM from cogni-
tive science as augmented by the major chapters of relevant sections in the
handbook, which culminates in unifying characterizations of the construct.
Then, the second part proposes an integrated account and taxonomy of WM
(i.e., the phonological/executive model; Wen, 2016 & 2019) as a viable frame-
work for language sciences and bilingualism research in the future.
1.3 Conclusion
In short, we hope that as collectively demonstrated throughout The
Cambridge Handbook of Working Memory and Language, the broad fields of
working memory and language sciences can now have a more interactive
platform and thus can move closer not just to portray a much clearer
picture of the emerging patterns of the interaction between WM and
language processes, but also make a head start at more seamless integration
that will benefit both disciplines and many others. So far, we have come to
appreciate that the multiple components and functions of WM are playing
critical albeit distinctive roles in essential aspects of language acquisition
and processing and impairment in general (Wen, 2016). But beyond these,
we also realize that there is still much to explore further, particularly
toward deeper integration between the two independent disciplines of
working memory in cognitive science on the one hand and language sci-
ences on the other. Such an ambition has constituted not just the rationale
and motivations of this handbook in the very first place, but also represents
the vision and mission of this handbook. To allow this to happen, we thus
call on more researchers and students from across the multiple fields to
join us to embark on this rewarding journey to further study and learn
more about WM and language, which proves to be the ultimate joy and
reward of editing this enormous handbook.
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