Self-Transcendence as a Buffer Against COVID-19 Suffering: The Development and Validation of the Self-Transcendence Measure-B

Abstract

The age of COVID-19 calls for a different approach toward global well-being and flourishing through the transcendence suffering as advocated by existential positive psychology. In the present study, we primarily explained what self-transcendence is and why it represents the most promising path for human beings to flourish through the transformation of suffering in a difficult and uncertain world. After reviewing the literature on self-transcendence experiences, we concluded that the model of self-transcendence presented by Frankl is able to integrate both of the characteristics associated with self-transcendence. Afterward, we discussed how the self-transcendence paradigm proposed by Wong, an extension of the model by Frankl, may help awaken our innate capacity for connections with the true self, with others, and with God or something larger than oneself. We presented self-transcendence as a less-traveled but more promising route to achieve personal growth and mental health in troubled times. Finally, we presented the history of the development and psychometrics of the Self-Transcendence Measure-Brief (STM-B) and reported the empirical evidence that self-transcendence served as a buffer against COVID-19 suffering. The presented data in the current study suggested that the best way to overcome pandemic suffering and mental health crises is to cultivate self-transcendence.

Full text

ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 06 October 2021
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648549
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549
Edited by:
Joshua A. Wilt,
Case Western Reserve University,
United States
Reviewed by:
Alexandra Kitson,
Simon Fraser University, Canada
Azam Shirinabadi Farahani,
Shahid Beheshti University of Medical
Sciences, Iran
*Correspondence:
Paul T. P. Wong
drpaulwong@gmail.com
Specialty section:
This article was submitted to
Personality and Social Psychology,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychology
Received: 31 December 2020
Accepted: 30 August 2021
Published: 06 October 2021
Citation:
Wong PTP, Arslan G, Bowers VL,
Peacock EJ, Kjell ONE, Ivtzan I and
Lomas T (2021) Self-Transcendence
as a Buffer Against COVID-19
Suffering: The Development and
Validation of the Self-Transcendence
Measure-B.
Front. Psychol. 12:648549.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648549
Self-Transcendence as a Buffer
Against COVID-19 Suffering: The
Development and Validation of the
Self-Transcendence Measure-B
Paul T. P. Wong 1
*, Gökmen Arslan 2,3 , Victoria L. Bowers 4, Edward J. Peacock 5,
Oscar Nils Erik Kjell 6, Itai Ivtzan 7and Tim Lomas 8
1Department of Psychology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada, 2Department of Psychological Counseling and
Guidance, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur, Turkey, 3Centre for Wellbeing Science, Melbourne Graduate School of
Education, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 4Graduate College, Saybrook University, San Francisco, CA,
United States, 5Independent Researcher, Peterborough, ON, Canada, 6Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund,
Sweden, 7Department of Psychology, Naropa University, Boulder, CO, United States, 8Department of Psychology, University
of East London, London, United Kingdom
The age of COVID-19 calls for a different approach toward global well-being and
flourishing through the transcendence suffering as advocated by existential positive
psychology. In the present study, we primarily explained what self-transcendence is and
why it represents the most promising path for human beings to flourish through the
transformation of suffering in a difficult and uncertain world. After reviewing the literature
on self-transcendence experiences, we concluded that the model of self-transcendence
presented by Frankl is able to integrate both of the characteristics associated with
self-transcendence. Afterward, we discussed how the self-transcendence paradigm
proposed by Wong, an extension of the model by Frankl, may help awaken our innate
capacity for connections with the true self, with others, and with God or something larger
than oneself. We presented self-transcendence as a less-traveled but more promising
route to achieve personal growth and mental health in troubled times. Finally, we
presented the history of the development and psychometrics of the Self-Transcendence
Measure-Brief (STM-B) and reported the empirical evidence that self-transcendence
served as a buffer against COVID-19 suffering. The presented data in the current study
suggested that the best way to overcome pandemic suffering and mental health crises
is to cultivate self-transcendence.
Keywords: self-transcendence, meaning, COVID-19, existential positive psychology (PP2.0), existential
psychology, positive psychology, mature happiness, wellbeing
Self-Transcendence as a Buffer Against COVID-19 Suffering: The Development and Validation of
the Self-Transcendence Measure-B
“The essence of life is to serve others and do good.”- Aristotle
INTRODUCTION
The human costs of the pandemic in terms of mortality, morbidity, mental health conditions,
and direct economic losses are staggering (Cutler and Summers, 2020; Graham, 2020). Even with
three vaccines, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) still warns of a 4th wave of
COVID-19 (Soucheray, 2021). The pandemic may persist for years, according to the Chief Public

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
Health Officer of Canada (Aiello, 2020). The pandemic has
destroyed countless businesses and careers. It becomes more
challenging to rebuild an own career or start a new one.
Therefore, an individual needs to be equipped with the mental
toughness to excel in whatever one pursues. The positive illusion
of focusing only on the positive side of life will not carry one very
far in a world full of cut-throat competition and the human evils
of deception and discrimination.
For people who have lost everything, the struggle may seem
like a futile attempt to endlessly push a rock uphill (Camus,
1942/1955). The pandemic fatigue may turn into pandemic
burnout (Millard, 2021). The universality of suffering is a fact
that we can no longer deny or avoid in the age of COVID-19.
The natural tendency to avoid or escape from the pain of life may
create more problems for us. Paradoxically, the greatest discovery
of dialectical psychology is radical acceptance, the idea that to
embrace and make the best use of all of one’s pain for a better
life is a better alternative to finding healing and flourishing.
However, our optimistic view (Wong, 2020a, 2021a,e) is based
on empirical evidence (Bethelmy and Corraliza, 2019; Lin et al.,
2021; Worth and Smith, 2021; Yaden and Newberg) regarding
the power of self-transcendence, which comes from altruism
(Feigin et al., 2014), religious faith (Koenig, 2009), meaning
(Wong, 1998), and the feeling of awe (Yaden et al., 2017).
According to Wong (2021b), the worst of times is also the best
of times, but we cannot celebrate the best without overcoming
and transcending the worst. This sums up the power of self-
transcendence, which achieves the dual purpose of transforming
suffering into resilience and motivating us to pursue the highest
ideals. This vertical dimension of self-transcendence is often
neglected because current psychology research tends to focus
on the horizontal dimension of self-actualization, pro-social
behaviors, and the emotion of awe.
In sum, when probably understood, self-transcendence
represents what is good and noble about humanity. It is like a
symphony celebrating the heroic efforts of those who sacrifice
themselves in order to lift others above their suffering to a
higher ground of faith, hope, and love. More importantly,
it has the power of inspiring countless others to transcend
their petty, egotistic concerns and serve something greater
than themselves. However, this mega shift demands more than
individual endeavors. It also requires a collective effort to co-
create a more just and compassionate society.
At this crucial juncture of history, it is advisable to honestly
and deeply examine our cultural beliefs and our own existential
crises. In this article, we intended to explain and demonstrate
empirically why self-transcendence can not only buffer us against
COVID-19, but also transform us from a self-centered and self-
absorbed existence to a self-transcendent and fulfilling life.
Cushman’s (1990) social-historical analysis on “the empty self-
phenomenon” is still relevant to the current meaning crisis. He
pointed out that broad historical forces, such as industrialization,
urbanization, and secularism, have shaped Western culture and
influenced the predominant psychological view of human beings
as bounded, autonomous, masterful, but with empty selves.
America is one of the richest countries, but it is also one of the
emptiest ones because Americans try to fill their inner emptiness
with the consumption of products, drugs, psychotherapy, or
happiness coaches. Such efforts are self-defeating because our
spiritual yearning for meaning can only be filled by constitutive
goods, which are intrinsic to human existence, such as friendship,
justice, and prosocial behavior.
The main argument in Cushman’s study is that “in a world
sorely lacking in community and tradition, the most effective
healing response would be to address those absences through
structural societal change by reshaping political relationships
and cultural forms and re-establishing the importance of their
transmission” (p. 607). He raised the important question,
“Could psychology now become a helpful force, assisting in the
development of a perspective on the masterful, bounded self
in opposition to the current system? Given the history of the
Western self and the role of psychology within that history, it is
doubtful” (p. 609).
In view of Cushman’s analysis, our current mental health
crisis is partly one of our own making, with the misguided
Western conception of human beings as self-contained
masterful individuals who are entitled to feel happy every day
by consuming instrumental rather than constitutive goods.
Constitutive goods are natural and intrinsic goods, such as
connections with the self, with others, and with God because of
our human nature, according to the self-transcendence paradigm
of Wong (2020a, 2021a). More importantly, we hope that this
push for a change of direction in psychology will also drive the
public dialogue toward how to restore civil virtues and spiritual
values in our culture, such as responsibility, cooperation,
altruism, reverence for life, and benevolence.
Self-transcendence is important for psychology and society
because it is a promising way to balance self-interest with
social interest. Consistent with Cushman’s analysis, mainstream
psychology still focuses on the scientific study of different aspects
of the self as a masterful individual, such as the internal locus of
control, self-efficacy, self-control, self-esteem, signature character
strengths, and achievement. However, during difficult times, such
as this pandemic, survival and flourishing depend on our ability
to transcend adversity and selfishness by making the necessary
sacrifices for the common good. There is an urgent need for
public awareness of the importance of “we” over “me” in times
of national crises.
Paradoxically, the power of self-transcendence in contributing
to well-being, resilience, and the richness of our lives seems
to come from embracing and transcending suffering, vis-à-vis
from losing ourselves in the beauty and goodness around us to
sacrificing immediate gratification in pursuit of the long-term
worthy life goal to serve the common good. In the final analysis,
it appears that developing the capacity to endure and transcend
our misfortunes, trauma, sufferings, and fears over and over again
in order to serve something or someone is more important for
surviving and thriving, especially in the era of COVID-19. The
lifelong research of the first author and clinical practice support
this proposition. This is the core message of this study.
What Is Self-Transcendence
According to the American Psychological Association (APA),
self-transcendence is “the state in which an individual is
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
able to look beyond himself or herself and adopt a larger
perspective that includes concern for others. Some psychologists
maintain that self-transcendence is a central feature of the
healthy individual, promoting personal growth and development
(first described by Viktor E. Frankl) (American Psychological
Association, 2020a).” Literally, self-transcendence refers to
that which goes beyond our own limitations and difficulties
in life experience in order to serve or become connected
with something greater. According to Ackerman (2021), self-
transcendence is experienced when there is a “realization that
you are one small part of a greater whole, and act accordingly.”
This humanness of being bound by all kinds of constraints can
only be unbound through the transcendental realm (Elmer et al.,
2003).
The transcendence principle encompasses nature, science,
religion, politics, culture, or anything that is greater or beyond
human experiences (van Deurzen, 2014). Transcendence also
generally refers to the complex emotions that arise from a sense
of unity with other people, nature, and God, such as awe and
selflessness (Keltner and Haidt, 2003; Mikulak, 2015; Yaden et al.,
2017).
Self-Transcendence as a Religious or
Spiritual Experience
Self-transcendence involves the motivation to experience
something sacred and beyond the daily mundane experience.
Human existence is ordinary and material until we can perceive
and take hold of the part of us that seeks out the realm of sacred
experience larger than the self (Mayseless and Russo-Netzer,
2017). These self-transcendent sacred moments add some deeper
spiritual meaning to our lives.
Self-transcendence is generally related to religious
experiences. For example, William James (1902/2004) wrote:
“The only thing that religious experience, as we have studied
it, unequivocally testifies to is that we can experience union
with something larger than ourselves and in that union find
our greatest peace.” van Deurzen (2014) pointed out that
transcendence can also be related to polytheism:
“Transcendence is experienced as related to the many different
gods and divine representations that need to be appeased. Many
clients hold such hidden views. They say prayers to the various
deities, icons, or saints they believe in and feel they will only
be able to surpass their problems if the gods are favorable
to them. Polytheistic beliefs often go with a strong sense of
community and community support is crucial for transcendence
to become possible.”
Similarly, Frey and Vogler (2019) concluded that, according
to research in the humanities and social sciences, individuals who
can locate themselves in a larger or broader perspective, whether
it is within the family, community, or religious or spiritual
groups, often experience greater happiness, meaning, and virtue.
More importantly, this finding is relevant to all major religions,
both Eastern and Western.
Self-Transcendence as an Emotional
Response of Awe
The self-transcendent emotion refers to a category of emotions
such as awe, love, elevation, and appreciation, among others, that
connect people in social relationships (Stellar et al., 2017).
Awe is a natural emotional response to something spectacular
or sacred, such as a glorious sunset or an ancient temple,
which may be considered as a deep existential-spiritual response
(Schneider, 2009, 2011). According to a study by Keltner and
Haidt (2003) on cognitive interpretation, awe tends to arise from
a perception of vastness and a cognitive need to accommodate
our own perception into existing mental schemas.
The importance of this transcendental emotion, specifically
for well-being, has received increasing empirical attention (Yaden
et al., 2017; Allen, 2018). For example, Bethelmy and Corraliza
(2019) reported that various recent studies have demonstrated
the power of nature to induce the transcendental emotion
of awe. They developed an instrument to measure sublime
emotion toward nature, which includes the feeling of awe and
inspiring energy. More recently, Clewis et al. (2021) discovered
that there is much overlap between awe and sublime feelings,
suggesting that these two pieces of literature could inform one
another. In terms of application, Passmore and Holder (2016)
reported that a 2-week nature-based well-being intervention
increased transcendental benefits such as positive affect, elevating
experiences, a general sense of connectedness (to other people,
to nature, and to life as a whole), and prosocial orientation as
compared with the human-built and control groups.
According to the self-transcendence model described later,
there are at least seven ways to boost the emotions of awe. We
can stand in awe of the following phenomena:
1. The power of life forcing us to grow and bear fruits against
all odds.
2. The wisdom of human mind to probe into the mystery of life.
3. The virtue of love in sacrificing the self for others.
4. The magic of gratitude to fill our hearts with happiness.
5. The invincible courage to stand up against evil.
6. The unwavering faith in creating a better future.
7. The unspeakable joy of losing oneself to become a part of
something greater, e.g., nature or the Creator.
Self-Transcendence as Altruistic and
Prosocial Behavior
Self-transcendence has both a vertical and horizontal dimension.
We can transcend upward toward God, nature, or an invisible
spiritual realm, and we can also transcend toward others by
serving and connecting with them. We proposed that our innate
self-transcendence tendency can account for altruistic, helping,
and prosocial behaviors. This tendency can be reinforced by
the intrinsic feeling of good from doing good (Mruk, 2018)
and the positive effect of connecting with others, thus meeting
our need for companionship and social and emotional support
(Meek, 2012). Recently, some researchers found that the natural
transcendental emotional response to some powerful stimuli is
sufficient to make one forget our own “small self” and pay
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 3October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
attention to others or engage in prosocial behavior (Piff et al.,
2015; Guan et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019).
In contrast to egotism, altruism is motivated by our desire to
increase the welfare of another person, even when it may cost
something to ourselves (Bartlett and DeSteno, 2006). It is the kind
of prosocial behavior that benefits others without any expectation
of return (Eisenberg and Miller, 1987; Feigin et al., 2014). There is
increasing research evidence that the natural emotional response
of awe is sufficient to make one forget their own small self and
self-interest and, instead, pay attention to others or engage in
prosocial behavior (Keltner and Haidt, 2003; Piff et al., 2015; Li
et al., 2019).
Volunteering is another form of prosocial behavior, which is
very relevant to retirees today because it enables them to stay
connected and make some contribution to society and, in return,
contributes to their health and meaning in life (Wilson, 2000;
Midlarsky and Kahana, 2007). Recent research has confirmed that
such acts of kindness contribute to own well-being (Curry et al.,
2018; Hui et al., 2020).
Self-Transcendence as Virtue and Value
According to the study of Peterson and Seligman (2004),
transcendence encompasses several character strengths such
as an appreciation for beauty gratitude, hope, humor, and
religiousness (having a solid belief about a higher purpose and
meaning of life); it represents one of the six virtues. Although
they do not make explicit references to God or religion, Peterson
and Seligman (2004) recognized the universality of religion and
spirituality: “Although the specific content of spiritual beliefs
varies, all cultures have a concept of an ultimate, transcendent,
sacred, and divine force” (p. 601).
The large-scale studies by Sortheix and Schwartz (2017)
among European countries found that self-transcendence was
positively related to subjective well-being. More importantly,
they did not find any support for the expectation that self-
transcendence might also be detrimental to subjective well-being
because self-transcendence often entails investing more in the
well-being of others than in their own.
Self-Transcendence as Personal Growth
Humanism is also based on the principle of self-transcendence
(van Deurzen, 2014). According to humanistic psychology, self-
transcendence is a growth motivation to connect with others.
According to DeRobertis and Brand (2019):
“The purpose of the self-transcending motivational tendency is to
relate to things and others in the most meaningful and profound
manner, overriding (without necessarily eliminating) concern for
own enjoyment or self-interest.”
Wong (2016a) described self-transcendence as a paradoxical way
toward personal growth. In other words, the best path toward
self-actualization and personal growth is through transcending
our limitations toward the greater good. His approach is based
on meaning-seeking model proposed by Wong (2016b), which
will be explained in detail later.
Maslow (1971) comes to a similar conclusion. To him,
transcendence represents the highest level of human
development and the higher consciousness of being
connected. Thus, those who achieve self-transcendence
have experienced peak experiences and satisfied their being-
needs such as wholeness (unity), perfection (balance and
harmony), justice (fairness), autonomy (self-sufficiency), and
meaningfulness (values):
“Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive
or holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating,
as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to
human beings in general, to other species, to nature, and the
cosmos” (Maslow, 1971, p. 269).
On the other hand, Frankl argued that self-transcendence
was merely a by-product of pursuing self-transcendence. Wong
(2005) provided a similar but more detailed critique of Maslow’s
hierarchical model. However, Kaufman (2020) is correct in
arguing that there is no real conflict between self-actualization
and self-transcendence because one moves freely from one state
to another in a fluid manner. Actually, everyone begins with
self-actualization, as we desire to develop our potentials and
become our best selves; however, this can only happen when we
are awakened to our need for b-values of being-values, such as
goodness, rightness, justice, and benevolence, which are the kind
of values that characterize self-transcendence. No purposes are
equal. If the life goal of an individual is egotistic and worldly,
success may result in them ruining their own lives (Holiday,
2016).
The study by Rogers (1961) on organismic valuing theory
is also moving toward the direction of self-transcendence
as evidenced in the study by Kaufman (2020) on the new
science of self-actualization. Likewise, Maurer and Daukantaite
(2020) reviewed a great deal of empirical evidence supporting
the connection between the organismic valuing theory of
personal growth and self-transcendence. In a qualitative study
of highly self-transcendent individuals, Reischer et al. (2021)
confirmed that such individuals tended to narrate their lived
experiences as spiritual journeys of humanistic growth toward
self-transcendence during the later middle age.
From the psychodynamic perspective, Dobson (2015)
reported that self-transcendence represents personal growth
toward spiritual and moral maturity:
“For Jung as well as for Kohut, one’s maturation into a whole
self, one’s hoped-for completion of the task of individuation is
a transcendent, transpersonal act of great moral responsibility”
(p. 9).
Self-Transcendence Contributes to Mature
Happiness
Life is full of dilemmas, paradoxes, contradictions, and suffering.
We need to face life in its totality with the existential courage
to face suffering and death (Van Tongeren and Van Tongeren,
2020): “Courage is the universal self-affirmation of one’s Being in
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 4October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
the presence of the threat of non-Being” (Tillich, 1952, p. 163).
The only way we can find ways to transcend adversity is to learn
how to muster enough courage to face the stress and negative
emotions of each day.
van Deurzen (2014) provided a very useful survey of major
existential philosophers to make the point that the single-minded
pursuit of happiness as the end goal of life is doomed to fail.
She began by pointing out that it is not possible to think of
the positive without thinking of the opposite side: “Happiness
and unhappiness are twins that grow up together”. Therefore,
there is a need to transcend and integrate all the contractions
and oppositions in life, according to the dialectics of Hegel
on synthesis from the thesis and antithesis. Greater truths and
integrations in life and in research, can only come from such
a synthesis. She also cited the notion of Sartre on re-inventing
oneself or re-defining a situation so as not to get stuck: “Man
is characterized above all by his going beyond a situation and
by what he succeeds in the making of what he has been
made”. Therefore, she eloquently pointed out the impossibility
of personal growth and mature happiness without transcending
the unavoidable and inescapable paradoxes and sufferings in
human existence:
“The paradox of life is that only if we accept both aspects of
these oppositions and contradictions that we can transcend our
difficulties and find new and more creative ways to encompass the
whole span of human ability and challenge.
It is only when we are willing to face death and pain that we can
live life to the fullest, instead of worrying ourselves sick and trying
to be healthy and wealthy and comfortable all the time, which
leads to a life lived in fear.
It is only when we allow ourselves to notice our weakness and
vulnerability that real strength is found instead of us covering up
our doubts by narcissistic pretense or giving in to our fragility by
self-destructive denial of ourselves.”
See Figure 1 depicting different types of happiness and Figure 2
for different types of well-being. Also, see the tentative global
theory of well-being of Wong, which represents the ideal of
Taoism (Figure 3).
Ancient philosophies, such as Taoism and Buddhism, also
contribute to our understanding of mature happiness. For
example, I-Ching offers the Way to live a good life in an
uncertain and ever-changing world. Happiness is never just about
individual pursuit, but about the way to achieve harmony as
reflected by the Taoist concept of the union between Heaven and
people (天人合一), or living in harmony with heaven, earth, and
people (天地人和).
Therefore, the less-traveled path to happiness is to attain inner
peace and harmony with self, others, and Heaven and Earth.
A philosophical understanding of paradoxes and
contradictions provides the necessary background for the
psychology of mature happiness. Wong and Bowers (2018)
made a similar argument that mature happiness, characterized
by inner peace and harmony, comes from the wisdom and
courage to transcend opposites. More recently, Lomas (2021)
FIGURE 1 | Different types of happiness.
FIGURE 2 | Different types of well-being.
declared that: “an overarching definition of well-being is offered:
the dynamic attainment of optimal balance and harmony in
any–and ideally all–aspects of life.” (Lomas, 2021, p. 5). Thus,
in addition to the emotion of awe, mature happiness comes
from cultivating wisdom, courage, and virtue in transcending
suffering (Wong, 2020a, 2021a). True happiness comes from
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 5October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
FIGURE 3 | Toward a general theory of global well-being.
being the light to banish the darkness in the world. It means the
self-transcendental way is enduring the necessary suffering and
self-sacrifice for the greater good. According to Wong (2021b),
there are three major types of happiness as shown in Figure 1.
Mature happiness is basically spiritual (noetic) happiness based
on self-transcendence, but it could also be known as charionic
(Wong, 2011 PP 2.0), because the Greek word for rejoicing in
suffering is Xαíρετε(chairete) as found in Philippians 4:4 of
the Bible.
Frankl’s Self-Transcendence Model
The earliest and most influential theory of self-transcendence was
developed by Frankl (1946/1985). Researchers routinely credit
Frankl as the father of meaning-focused therapy, but they fail
to understand conceptualization of meaning in terms of self-
transcendence that Frankl proposes. A deep sense of meaning
involves the volition to exercise the will to the meaning of
an individual to pursue self-transcendence for the common
good regardless of sacrifice and suffering. Meaning is not
only anchored on subjective feelings, but also on an objective
behavioral commitment to devoting one’s life to loving something
or someone greater than oneself, such as loving others or serving
society according to one’s calling. This paradoxical truth of self-
fulfillment is clearly stated in this quote:
“Only to the extent that someone is living out this self-
transcendence of human existence, is he truly human or does
he become his true self. He becomes so, not by concerning
himself with his self’s actualization, but by forgetting himself
and giving himself, overlooking himself and focusing outward”
(Frankl, 1977/2011, p. 36).
When probably understood, self-transcendence represents the
most beautiful story about what is good and noble about
humanity. It is an uplifting story about human beings,
individually or collectively, who dedicate and sacrifice themselves
in order to lift up others beyond their limitations and sufferings
to a higher ground of faith, hope, and love. Thus, in addition to
this re-orientation, the willingness to suffer for the common good
is another defining characteristic of self-transcendence, because it
is not possible to achieve the highest ideal or deepest meaning of
an individual without any sacrifice or suffering.
In short, Frankl attempted to restore the soul or the
noetic (spiritual dimension) to psychology and society (Wong,
2021c). Thus, the meaning of life or self-transcendence is about
developing the gift an individual has so they can give their best to
serve the world (Wong, 2016a).
Research supports Frankl’s definition of meaning in terms
of a search for self-transcendence. For example, Harris et al.
(2018) showed that finding meaning is an essential element
of self-transcendence. McClintock (2015) reported that self-
transcending gratitude may be the very key to how we can
become change agents of making a difference in the world. A
sense of the self-transcendental motivates individuals to live a
meaningful life and use their gifts to make a positive contribution
to society (Wong, 2014a, 2016a).
The remembrance of Wong (2021c) on the contribution
of Viktor Frankl to self-transcendence revolved around
three themes:
(1) Self-transcendence is an awe-filled lifestyle of serving a
cause passionately.
(2) Self-transcendence is the core of meaning-focused therapy
and an important adjunct for all therapeutic dimensions.
(3) Self-transcendence has become the foundation of existential
positive psychology.
According to Frankl (1946/1985), self-transcendence is the
essence of human nature; it presents a healthy spiritual core with
its yearning to strive toward the sacred and the service of others:
“Only to the extent that someone is living out this self-
transcendence of human existence, is he truly human or does he
become his true self. He becomes so, not by concerning himself
with his self-s actualization, but by forgetting himself and giving
himself, overlooking himself and focusing outward.”
Self-transcendence involves a change of mindset from what I can
get from life to what I can give to life. It involves a shift from the
horizontal dimension of being preoccupied with worldly success
and comfort to the vertical way of living that focuses on the
spiritual needs an individual has for meaning, personal growth,
and serving something sacred or greater than oneself. This
quantum shift is necessary to fill the void of the empty self and
enable us to become our best version despite internal and external
limitations. This is why Frankl suggested that the best way an
individual can discover their own calling is to discover both what
gift they can offer and what life demands from their own lives.
Thus, we are responsible, both ethically and instrumentally, for
the well-being of our neighbors because we are an integral part
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 6October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
FIGURE 4 | Two-factor theory of self-transcendence proposed by Frankl.
of a relational world. This is why being ethical and benevolent
toward others is an inherent part of self-transcendence (Wong
and Reilly, 2017).
Frankl’s Two-Factor Theory of
Self-Transcendence
As shown in Figure 4, the theory of self-transcendence proposed
by Frankl rests on two factors.
Will to Meaning as a Motivational Factor
The will to meaning, the motivational factor that propels
people from point “A” toward “B” through the process of self-
transcendence, is considered by Frankl as a primary motivation.
From the perspective of the terminal values of life, self-
transcendence was one of the universal values according to
Schwartz (1992, 1994). The will to meaning consists of both
the push and pull motivations in our own striving toward a
meaningful goal, which is pushed by the yearning of the soul and
pulled by a future purpose to be fulfilled.
Meaning-Mindset as the Cognitive Factor
The meaning-mindset (MM) consists of the worldviews or
assumptions of an individual affirming that life has inherent
meaning and value (Wong, 2012). If mindfulness adds clarity by
reducing the emotional reactivity of an individual, MM provides
the lens that adds content and depth to their perception. It
enables people to see things from a deeper spiritual perspective.
Furthermore, MM enables one to see the connectivity of all
people and all living things and to discover the significance of
ordinary events. In short, we tend to discover or see what we value
or search.
Contrary to positive psychology’s preference to emphasize
the positive emotion of awe, the emphasis of Frankl is on will
and mindset. The MM facilitates the discovery of meaning and
significance and the selection of worthy life goals to pursue.
These two factors work together to contribute to the discovery
of self-transcendence at all three levels. Meaning-mindset opens
our own perceptions to all the hidden meanings in ordinary life
experiences, including sunsets to sunrises, the starry skies and
snow-capped mountains, the spontaneous play of little children,
and the wrinkled smiling faces of old people; these experiences
can move us with a sense of wonder and appreciation of life.
The importance of having a realistic and yet positive
worldview is emphasized (van Deurzen, 2014; Wong, 2021d).
Research also indicated that the worldview of an individual that
life has inherent meaning that facilitates goal-striving toward
sacred emotions (Emmons, 2005) or eudaimonic happiness
(Braaten and Huta, 2016). In addition, Haidt (2000, 2003)
provided evidence that being open to the possibilities of
discovering meaning and connecting with something larger
increases the likelihood of awe and the positive emotion
of elation. Together, these two factors contribute to the
pursuit and discovery of self-transcendence, which has four
defining characteristics.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 7October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
The Four Defining Characteristics of
Self-Transcendence
A Shift in Focus From the Self to Others
This involves a re-orientation from egotistic concerns or
selfishness toward something greater or someone more valued
than oneself. There is a new sense of selflessness in being
connected with something vast or grand or someone more
important than our own lives. While the will to meaning
provides the necessary motivation to actively engage in searching
for self-transcendence, the MM provides the worldview and
openness to discover something that transcends selfishness and
personal limitations. This re-orientation may happen at three
levels: the transpersonal, life as a whole, and situational. At
the transpersonal level, there is a perceived connection with
God, nature, or all living things. There is a new openness
to the spiritual/transcendental realm and the possibilities of
meaning, beauty, and goodness all around us, which facilitate
our discovery of all these ideals. At the level of life as a
whole, there is an awareness of one’s worthy life purpose
or the unconditional self-acceptance and affirmation that
their lives have inherent meaning and value, independent of
their possessions or achievements. An awareness of major
life transitions and the mortality an individual has can shift
the focus from a preoccupation with earthly concerns to
the larger schemes of things and the transcendental realm.
Spiritual conversion may also shift the focus from the city of
earth to the city of heaven (Tolstoy, 1882/1921; Augustine,
2009).
A Shift in Values
This involves a shift in emphasis from extrinsic motivation
to intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to doing
something in its own right, such as playing, doing good deeds,
or caring for friends and loved ones. Such activities are not
only inherently rewarding and worthwhile but also beneficial
to others and make the world a better place. One engages
in self-transcendence for its own sake, rather than as an
instrument to serve some other extrinsic motive. It also entails
the willingness to sacrifice self-interest for serving the greater
good or a higher purpose. Intrinsic motivation also means
pursuing some goal that has intrinsic or inherent value, which
is the value that is good in itself and for its own sake, such as
the goal of helping others, saving lives, or saving planet earth.
The study of Frankena (1973) regarding the list of intrinsic
values includes life, consciousness, love, virtue, justice, and all
things that are morally good inherently. These shifts in focus
and values may result from a personal encounter with a life-
changing event, such as surviving 9/11 or a serious illness, but
also from a shift in perspective from a success orientation to
a spiritual or meaning orientation as a result of reading the
books of Frankl or seeing a meaning therapist. These shifts
emphasize that all people are hardwired for connecting with
each other and with a higher power or the cosmos. Therefore,
relational pursuits motivated by love and compassion are deeply
satisfying to the extent they meet the deepest spiritual needs of
an individual.
An Increase in Moral Concern
There is increased attention to the moral dimension in the pursuit
and action of a goal by an individual. The above shifts are
aligned with the moral compass of an individual, which includes
their own innate conscience (natural moral law), religiously
or theologically based moral law, and some culturally based
normative vision of moral values and virtues. The cardinal virtues
according to Plato and Confucius, or the normative ethics of
the golden rule, are part of the moral compass that differentiates
true self-transcendence from pseudo- self-transcendence, such as
terrorist suicide bombers. In addition, we are endowed with the
capacity for moral reasoning. We evaluate some goals and actions
as moral when they are consistent with our moral compass. Moral
responsibility is important to ensure that we are sensitive to the
well-being and rights of other people when we strive for our goals
and make decisions.
Emotions of Awe
All the above three characteristics may trigger emotions of
elevation. These emotions include awe, ecstasy, or amazement
because of something extraordinary in its vastness (God or
nature), ability (exceptional accomplishment), or goodness
(special kindness of one person toward another). This feeling
of awe is part of a life-transforming experience because it
moves people toward worship or becoming better and more
responsible individuals.
Peak experiences (Maslow, 1964) and the experience of
timelessness inflow (Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter, 2003) often
involve the emotion of awe. Watching sunsets, listening to
classical music, or worshiping God in a church or temple can
all contribute to the emotion of awe. Dobson (2015) provided a
thorough review of the literature on awe and concluded that awe
is related to a diminished sense of the self.
In a qualitative study, Bonner and Friedman (2011) also
identified similar themes in their analysis of the accounts of
participants when they experienced awe. Specifically, they found
that when participants experienced awe, they described that they
were part of something larger than themselves. In addition, the
experience of awe was associated with a decreased attention to
the self. Generally, the emotion of awe contributes to a shift in
focus, well-being (Rudd et al., 2012), and self-transcendence goals
(Seaton and Beaumont, 2015). Furthermore, Kristjánsson (2015)
has also examined how awe is related to humility and virtue.
In view of this finer differentiation of the four defining
characteristics, Wong developed the 24-item Self-Transcendence
Measure (STM) with six items pertaining to each dimension,
which was later revised into 21-items after eliminating items with
double-loadings. This revised STM has already been used in a
few studies to demonstrate its validity. For example, the study
by Dhillon (2020) on path analysis has empirically supported
the self-transcendence spiral hypothesis of Wong (2017), which
posited that, when there is a clear shift in focus from the self
to the other as measured by STM, there is an increase in the
“meaning-virtues-happiness” cycle. In another study, Dhillon
(2021) showed that STM is negatively associated with depression,
but positively correlated with social support, meaning in life,
and positive traumatic growth in divorced women. Finally, the
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 8October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
FIGURE 5 | The golden triangle of self-transcendence.
study of Dhillon and Singh (2021) reported that, in young adults,
humanity was the only virtue correlated with STM, whereas in
the middle-aged sample, all virtues as measured by the Values
in Action (VIA) Survey of Peterson and Seligman (2004) were
correlated with STM.
Wong’s Self-Transcendence Paradigm
According to Wong’s self-transcendence paradigm (Wong,
2021a), self-transcendence can only be experienced through
satisfying the deepest yearning of the soul for connections with
our own selves, with others, and with God, which are the three
major life domains, as shown in Figure 5.
Frankl (1946/1985) got it right when he said that love is the
ultimate truth: “The truth-that love is the ultimate and highest
goal to which man can aspire.” Indeed, the most promising way
to live a good life is to aim for the highest ideal of unconditional
love (agape) for the self, for others, and for God as shown in the
golden triangle.
This requires a radical reorientation from egotistic concerns to
striving for the ideal of becoming the best in order to serve others
and glorify the source of life and all blessings. Such a striving
toward the ultimate concern or the highest good will lead to an
adaptive balance between all opposing forces and result in inner
peace and harmony even during COVID-19.
The concept of faith, hope, and love can be grasped intuitively
because we all have the innate capacity to believe, hope, and
love. Furthermore, this is because we all have experienced these
human qualities even when we are not fully aware of them. For
example, whenever we pledge to marry someone or enter into
a business relationship with someone, we are taking a leap of
faith because people are complex, and we can never fully know or
understand that our partner will be trustworthy or compatible in
the future. Similarly, when we are in desperate situations beyond
human control, we naturally pray to God or a higher power for
help (Goodman, 2020). To protect ourselves against the terror
of death, we may unconsciously identify with our cultural beliefs,
according to terror management theory (Pyszczynski et al., 2004).
Likewise, hope is also an optimistic state of positive
expectation, but it is often related to having confidence in our
own efficacy. Whatever our goal or plan, we are motivated to
work toward such only when we have some agentic hope of
success. According to hope theory (Snyder and Lopez, 2009),
hope is defined as the perceived ability to discover the pathways
to desired goals and the efficacy to achieve these goals. There
is vast literature supporting hope theory. While faith makes all
things possible, hope makes the prospect of our future plans
brighter, and love connects us all together.
When it comes to love, compassion, and relationships, the
literature is beyond measure. Supreme human achievements,
from medicine and science to religion and literature, are
motivated by love. Some of the best poems and pieces of music
are inspired by love. There is a very long list of publications
on the importance of loving and connecting with others (for
examples, see Adler, 1938/2011; Fromm, 1956/2019; Ainsworth,
1989; Baumeister and Leary, 1995). There is a consensus that
humans are hardwired to connect (Golemen, 2007; Siegal, 2010).
At the personal level, we desire to love and to be loved.
Intuitively, we believe that love is the antidote to loneliness and
the key to happiness. A life without love is like a garden without
water. We need love in order to satisfy the deepest yearnings of
our souls and make our lives complete.
In sum, our souls need faith, hope, and love just as our
bodies needs air, food, and water. When any of these basic
psychological/spiritual needs are not met, we will experience a
loss of life balance and an increase in distress. In this study, we
tested this hypothesis (see the main study) and found that the
evidence supports our claim that these three pillars of mental
health (or the golden triangle of well-being) are capable of
not only enabling us to cope effectively with the suffering of
COVID-19, but also transforming us into better and stronger
human beings.
Wong (2021a,d) proposed that the self-transcendence
approach to global well-being involves so many fundamental
changes in assumptions and methodologies that it represents a
new paradigm of flourishing through suffering. It hypothesized
that all the good things in life are on the other side of fear, and all
the best things in life are on the other side of suffering. Therefore,
it is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve flourishing without
going through the gates of overcoming adversity as reflected by
Figure 6.
Figure 6 indicates that only by incorporating the realism of
transcending or overcoming the harsh reality of life can we
achieve flourishing, especially in the era of COVID-19, when
suffering can no longer be ignored or avoided. Thus, it requires a
radically different set of basic assumptions for well-being:
1. Everything exists in polarity. The old way of binary, either-
or thinking is that everything is either positive or negative as
two opposite poles on the same dimension. The new way is to
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 9October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
FIGURE 6 | Seligman’s (2011) model of flourishing compared with Wong’s (2021a) self-transcendence model of flourishing through suffering.
see positive and negative as two separate but complementary
dimensions, thus allowing maximum cognitive flexibility and
emotional agility in coping with the world.
2. The old way is to choose between one of two opposite poles.
The new way is to have a mind big enough to hold two
opposing ideas or a heart big enough to hold two opposing
emotions. This involves creative tension and creative thinking
to transcend the two opposites.
3. The old way is to seek to maximize the positive and minimize
the negative, to accept one position and reject the opposite
one. This will result in a polarized mind and a divided society.
The new way is to navigate an optimal balance between two
opposites to maintain dynamic harmony and balance as the
core of well-being.
In sum, self-transcendence is the less-traveled road toward
personal growth and well-being. This narrow path will never be as
popular as the broad way to happiness because it involves tough
choices in favor of what is true, good, and beautiful, but it will
lead you to live a life of meaning and fulfillment.
In the age of COVID-19, when people all over the world
are overwhelmed by loneliness, anxiety, and stress, the practice
of self-transcendence will lead to a more compassionate and
harmonious society (Wong, 2016a) and a return to the virtue of
humility and selflessness love. In short, the self-transcendence
paradigm requires a very different way of doing research and
intervention to promote global well-being.
Development of the STM
The STM was designed as a psychological instrument to measure
self-transcendence. The 24-items of the scale (see the Appendix)
were generated by Wong primarily based on the four-factor
model concept of self-transcendence described earlier. The face
validity of these items was first screened by a group of 30
graduate students taking a course on self-transcendence and
by three psychology professors (co-authors of this scale at the
University of East London). The list was then presented to
a group of 30 scholars (including philosophers, theologians,
and psychologists) supported by a Templeton Grant on self-
transcendence (Guerra, 2017) for their feedback. Some of the 24
statements were reworded as a result of their feedback as shown
in the Appendix.
Factor Structure of the STM
Study 1
To examine the factorial structure of the STM, a series of studies
was conducted. Participants were recruited using Mechanical
Turk (www.mturk.com) (Amazon Web Services (AWS), Seattle,
Washington), which is a web portal that facilitates paying
participants to complete tasks such as surveys. Recruiting
participants from Mechanical Turk has exhibited comparable
research results as more conventional methods, with diverse
participants and the sample comprising good generalizability (for
example, see Buhrmester et al., 2011). Furthermore, it avoids
the problem of using weird samples with a more representative
sample (Rad et al., 2018). Participants in these studies were paid
varying amounts ranging from $0.4 to $1.50 based on the length
of the questionnaire in the study.
An initial exploratory factor analysis was conducted on the
24-item measure using data collected from 240 participants
(results from five participants were excluded because they did not
answer a control question correctly). Among the 235 remaining
participants, 138 (58.7%) were men, 96 (40.9%) were women,
and 1 (0.4%) was other. Their ages ranged from 19 to 73 years
(M=33.76; SD =10.74), and 193 (82.1%) reported being from
USA, 34 (14.5%) from India, and 8 (3.4%) from other countries.
All reported having English as their first language. A maximum
likelihood factor analysis using Promax rotation (IBM, Armonk,
NY) was conducted and resulted in two factors being retained.
This two-factor solution accounted for 43.3% of the variance,
with the first factor explaining 37.9%. However, this analysis did
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 10 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
not yield a clear factor structure. The highest loadings on the first
factor were items related to meaning. Several moral items had the
highest factor loadings on the second factor and some items had
dual loadings or low loadings on both factors.
Study 2
The scale items were reduced to 18 of the strongest loading
items, and a second exploratory factor analysis was conducted
on the results from 248 participants (5 were removed due to
not answering the control question correctly) who completed
this scale version. Among the 248 remaining participants, 175
(70.6%) were men and 73 (29.4%) were women. Their ages
ranged from 19 to 65 (M=31.71; SD =8.3) years old, and
96 (38.7%) were from USA, 134 (54%) from India, and 18
(7.3%) from other countries. English was reported as the first
language by 217 (87.5%) participants. A maximum likelihood
factor analysis of these 18 items using Promax rotation resulted
in two factors being retained. This two-factor solution accounted
for 43.1% of the variance, with the first factor explaining 37.3%.
Study 3
The scale was further trimmed by eliminating an additional
six of the original items to produce a 12-item scale that was
completed by another 255 participants; 20 were excluded for
not answering the control question correctly. Among the 235
remaining participants, 134 (57%) were men and 101 (43%)
were women; their ages ranged from 18 to 72 (M=34.94;
SD =10.31) years old. Among the participants, 166 (70.6%)
were from the USA, 51 (21.7%) from India, and 18 (7.7%) from
other countries. For 222 (94.5%) participants, English was listed
as their first language. A maximum likelihood factor analysis
(Promax rotation) was employed to retain two factors. This two-
factor solution accounted for 42.8% of the variance, with the
first factor explaining 35.5%. Two items loaded on both factors
and were subsequently removed to produce the final 10-item
Self-Transcendence Measure-Brief (STM-B).
Psychometric Properties of the STM-B
Study 4
To examine the construct and concurrent validity of the STM-B,
254 participants were recruited (34 were subsequently excluded
from the analyses due to not answering the control question
correctly) to complete the scale along with the measures noted
below. Among the remaining 220 participants, 154 (70%) were
men, 65 (29.5%) were women, and 1 (0.5%) was other. Their ages
ranged from 20 to 64 (M=31.37; SD =8.34) years; 90 (40.9%)
were from the USA, 107 (48.6%) from India, and 23 (10.5%) from
other countries. Additionally, 202 reported speaking English as
their first language.
In addition to the STM-B, the following measures were
completed: The self-transcendence subscale from the Sources of
Meaning Profile-Revised (Reker, 1995), the Collectivism subscale
from Sources of Meaning Profile-Revised (Reker, 1995), and
the Benevolence and Universalism subscales from the Schwartz’s
Value Survey (Schwartz, 1992). The STM-B (M =29.87; SD =
6.58; N=220) was found to have very good internal consistency
(Cronbach’s alpha =0.88).
FIGURE 7 | Standardized regression weights for the one-factor model of
self-transcendence (N=220). The models were identified by setting the factor
loading of the first indicator of the latent construct to 1. The presented values
are standardized by setting the variances of both the observed and latent
variables to unity.
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was carried out using
the Lavaan package (R Foundation, Vienna, Austria) (Rosseel,
2012) in R (R Core Team, 2016) to verify that all STM-B items
were indicators of a single latent variable. As the item responses
were not normally distributed, the robust estimator maximum
likelihood method was used; the results of this analysis indicated
that a single factor model provided a good fit to the data (χ2=
45.062, p=0.119, N=220; CFI =0.978; RMSEA =0.036). The
results of the CFA are summarized in Figure 7.
Study 5
To further examine the psychometric properties of the STM-
B, including test-retest reliability, an additional study was
conducted that involved participants completing a package of
scales at two points in time.
Time 1. At Time 1, data were collected from 252 participants.
There were 29 participants who failed to answer the control
questions correctly and were removed from the study. Among
the remaining 223 participants, 123 (55.2%) were men and 100
(44.8%) were women. Their ages ranged from 18 to 68 years
(M=35.4; SD =11.44), and 159 (71.3%) were from the USA,
40 (17.9%) from India, and the remaining 24 (10.8%) from other
countries. Additionally, 211 (94.6%) reported English as their
first language.
In addition to the STM-B, scales included at Time 1 were nine
measures of various aspects of well-being: the Mature Happiness
Scale (Wong and Bowers, 2018; 12 items), the Satisfaction with
Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985; 5 items), the Harmony in Life Scale
(Kjell et al., 2016; 5 items), the Positive and Negative Affect Scale
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 11 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
TABLE 1 | Means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlations between STM-B and measures of well-being (N=220).
M SD 1 2 3 4 5
1. Self-Transcendence Scale-Brief 29.9 6.58 –
2. Sources of Meaning Profile Revised-STa27.7 4.83 0.76 -
3. Sources of Meaning Profile Revised-CSa21.5 3.98 0.72 0.76 –
4. Schwartz Value Survey-Benevolenceb29.5 7.29 0.38 0.35 0.23 –
5. Schwartz Value Survey-Universalismb45.9 11.09 0.34 0.33 0.23 0.79 –
All correlations displayed are significant at the p <0.01 level. aReker (1995) and bSchwartz (1992).
(Watson et al., 1988; 20 items), the Questionnaire for Eudaimonic
Well-being (Waterman et al., 2010; 21 items), the Peace of Mind
Scale (Lee et al., 2013; 7 items), the Objective Life Condition
Assessment (Wong, 2018; 1 item), and the Single Item Narcissism
Scale (Konrath et al., 2014; 1 item).
The coefficient alpha for the STM-B was 0.87, indicating
that the internal consistency was very good in this sample and
comparable with our previous findings. Table 1 shows the means
and SDs for each of the measures, as well as the correlation
between STM-B and each of the other Time 1 measures. The
STM-B had significantly moderate to moderate-high correlations
with most of the measures of well-being. Interestingly, the STM-
B had virtually no correlation with the measure of negative affect
(PANAS negative scale) or the measure of narcissism (Single Item
Narcissism Scale).
Time 2. Among the 223 Time 1 participants, 140 (62.7%)
successfully completed the Time 2 questionnaire. Among these
Time 2 participants, 75 (53.6%) were men and 65 (46.4%) were
women. Their ages ranged from 18 to 65 years (M=37.2;
SD =11.28), and 106 (75.7%) were from the USA, 23 (16.4%)
from India, and the remaining 11 (7.9%) from other countries.
Additionally, 137 (97.9%) reported English as their first language.
The Time 2 questionnaire included the following measures
also administered at Time 1: the STM-B, the Mature Happiness
Scale, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, and the Harmony in
Life Scale (Kjell et al., 2016; 5 items), and the 15-item Self-
Transcendence Scale (Reed, 1986).
The test-retest reliability for the STM-B was high (r=0.7,
p<0.001) over 3–4 weeks. The internal consistency of STM-B
at Time 2 was also high (Cronbach alpha =0.88), consistent with
our previous results.
The descriptive statistics for Time 2 measures are shown
in Table 2. The correlations between the STM-B and the three
measures of well-being also administered at Time 1 were
moderately high and similar to the Time 1 values. Also, the
correlation between the STM-B and the Self Transcendence Scale
of Reed was moderately high, providing further support for the
convergent validity of the STM-B.
The Main Study: Self-Transcendence as a
Buffer on COVID-19 Suffering
The Purpose of the Present Study
The age of COVID-19 calls for a different approach toward
global well-being based on overcoming suffering as advocated by
existential positive psychology. In the present study, we primarily
TABLE 2 | Means, SDs, and Pearson correlation coefficients of the STM-B and
measures of well-being at Time 1 (N=223) and Time 2 (N=140).
Time 1 Time 2
M SD r M SD r
1. STM-B 27.81 6.88 28.32 6.98
2. HILS 25.85 5.98 0.54*** 25.51 6.30 0.56***
3. SWLS 23.57 7.29 0.47*** 23.26 7.59 0.52***
4. M-HAPP 41.19 9.16 0.49*** 41.35 9.34 0.56***
5. PANAS-Pos 33.02 9.13 0.56***
6. PANAS-Neg 17.86 9.75 −0.08
7. EWB 55.21 11.71 0.68***
8. POMS 24.01 5.98 0.45***
9. R-STS 31.39 8.07 0.65***
***p<0.001. M and SD are used to represent mean and standard deviation, respectively.
STM-B, Self Transcendence Measure-Brief.
HILS, Harmony in Life Scale (Kjell et al., 2016).
SWLS, Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985).
M-HAPP, Mature Happiness Scale (Wong, 2018).
PANAS-Pos, Positive and Negative Affect Scale - Positive Items (Watson et al., 1988).
PANAS-Neg, Positive and Negative Affect Scale - Negative Items.
EWB, Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-being (Waterman et al., 2010).
POMS, Peace of Mind Scale (Lee et al., 2013).
R-STS, Self Transcendence Scale (Reed, 1986).
explained what self-transcendence is and why it represents the
most promising path for human beings to flourish through
overcoming and transforming suffering in a complex and
uncertain world. After reviewing the literature of a variety of self-
transcendence experiences, we first examined the psychometric
properties of the development of the STM in the previous
five studies. We then tested a moderated mediation model to
explore whether life satisfaction mitigated the negative effect of
coronavirus suffering on the psychological adjustment of people
and whether self-transcendence moderated the mediating effect
of it in this association by serving as a buffer against coronavirus
experiences (see Figure 8).
METHODS
Participants
Employing a convenience sample and an online survey, the
survey was applied to 183 adults, ranging in age between 20
and 84 years (M=47.55; SD =13.11). The study comprised
62% women and 38% men. According to Kline (2015), an
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 12 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
FIGURE 8 | Moderated mediation model demonstrating the association between the variables of the study.
adequate sample size should be 5 or 10 times the amount of
the parameters in the path and factor analysis, and a reasonable
sample size is about 150 (Muthén and Muthën, 2002; Fritz and
Mackinnon, 2007). The sample of this study is thus considered
adequate for the analyses. The participants were recruited
through social media and email within the affiliated networks
of the research team. A web-based survey was created using the
study measures and demographic questions. Participants were
informed of the voluntary nature of the study and were assured
that no identifiable personal information would be collected to
ensure anonymity.
Measures
Suffering During COVID-19
The Suffering Measure During COVID-19 (SM-COVID-19) was
used to measure the suffering experiences of people during
COVID-19, including their adversities (Wong, 2020b). The
scale is a 10-item self-report scale, e.g., “Poor physical health
condition,” and all items were scored using a five-point Likert
type scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (a great deal). The
internal reliability estimate of the scale with the present study was
strong, see Table 3.
Personal Meaning
The brief version of the Personal Meaning Profile (PMP-B)
was used to assess the perception of an individual of personal
meaning and the sense of purpose and personal significance
in their lives (McDonald et al., 2012). The PMP-B is a 21-
item self-report measure, e.g., I believe I can make a difference
in the world. Participants indicated their agreement with each
item on a seven-point Likert type scale, ranging from 1 (not at
all) to 7 (a great deal). The subscales of the PMP-B included
achievement, relationship, religion, self-transcendence, self-
acceptance, intimacy, and fair treatment. The subscale scores can
be summed to form a total score. The internal reliability estimate
of the scale with the present study was strong, see Table 3.
Psychological Adjustment
The Brief Adjustment Scale-6 (BASE) was used to assess
psychological adjustment problems. It is a six-item self-report
instrument, e.g., “I nearly always feel awake and alert,” scoring
on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely)
(Cruz et al., 2020). The internal reliability estimate of the scale
with the present study was strong, see Table 3.
Life Satisfaction
The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) was used to assess
the cognitive emulations of the lives of people. The scale is
a five-item self-report scale, e.g., “I am satisfied with my life,”
responding based on a seven-point Likert type scale from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) (Diener et al., 1985). The
internal reliability estimate with this study sample was strong,
see Table 3.
Data Analyses
The data analyses were performed in two steps. Prior to
testing the proposed model, we first examined the psychometric
properties of the STM in the present study. The factor structure
of the scale was identified using exploratory factor analysis with
the sample derived from the previous study [n=213 (69%
men, age range =19–65; M=31.9 and SD =8.52); see in the
introduction]. Factor loading scores (λ)≥0.4 are recommended
for selecting the items of the measure (Stevens, 2009; Tabachnick
and Fidell, 2013). After exploring the factor structure of the
measure, we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis to affirm
the latent factor structure of the measure with a sample of the
present study (Figure 9). The results from this analysis were
interpreted using several model fit statistics and their cut-off
scores: non-normed fit index (NNFI ≥0.9 for acceptable fit),
comparative fit index (CFI ≥0.9 for acceptable fit), the root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA ≤0.1 for acceptable fit),
and the standard root mean square residual (SRMR ≤0.1 for
acceptable fit) (Hooper et al., 2008; Kline, 2015).
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 13 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
TABLE 3 | Descriptive statistics and correlations for the study variables.
Mean SD Skew. Kurt. 1. 2. 3. 4.
1. Coronavirus suffering 22.62 7.33 0.41 −0.40 0.83 – −0.01 −0.22** 0.50**
2. Self-transcendence 33.56 4.83 −0.82 0.59 0.84 – 0.33** −0.20**
3. Life satisfaction 24.15 6.29 −0.62 −0.04 0.89 – −0.47**
4. Psychological adjustment 18.22 9.39 0.58 −0.77 0.93 –
**Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level (two-tailed).
FIGURE 9 | Confirmatory factor analysis results.
In the second step of the analyses, preliminary analyses were
examined including descriptive statistics, analysis assumptions,
and correlations for the variables of the present study. The
assumption of normality was checked based on kurtosis and
skewness values and their decision criteria, namely, skewness
and kurtosis scores ≤|1| (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013; Kline,
2015). A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted next to
investigate the association between suffering, life satisfaction,
psychological adjustment, and self-transcendence. Afterward, we
conducted a moderated mediation analysis to understand the
protective role of self-transcendence on the mitigating effect
of life satisfaction in the association between coronavirus-
related suffering and psychological adjustment problems. The
PROCESS macro version 3.5 (Hayes, 2018) was used to
employ the moderated mediation model (see Figure 8) with
the bootstrapping method with 10,000 resamples to estimate
the 95% CIs (Preacher and Hayes, 2008; Hayes, 2018). The
bootstrapping procedure is suggested to examine the significance
of the indirect effect (Hayes, 2018). All analyses in the present
study were conducted using SPSS version 25 (IBM, Armonk, NY)
and LISREL version 8.8 (Scientific Software International Inc.,
Skokie, IL).
RESULTS
Validity and Reliability Analyses of the STM
The results from the exploratory factor analysis, which was
carried out using a principal component analysis with Promax
(oblique) rotation, indicated that the measure yielded a two-
factor solution with eigenvalues >1 that explained ∼58% of the
variance and was characterized by a lack of singularity (Bartlett’s
χ2=854.55, df =45, p<0.001) and an adequate sample
size [Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) =0.88]. The factor loadings
of the measure were adequate-to-strong, ranging between 0.4
and 0.93. Following that, the confirmatory factor analysis results
affirmed the two-factor measurement model, providing adequate
data-model fit statistics [χ2=90.89, df =34, p<0.001, NNFI
=0.92, CFI =0.93, RMSEA (95% CI) =0.097 (0.073,0.12),
SRMR=0.062]. The STM also had adequate-to-strong factor
loadings (λrange =0.44-0.69), characterized by adequate latent
construct (H=0.75–0.77–0.86) and internal reliability estimates
(α=0.73–0.76–0.84), as seen in Figure 9. Additionally, the
correlation results with the measures in this study provided
further evidence for the concurrent validity of the measure. These
results suggested that the STM is a reliable and valid measure for
use in assessing the self-transcendence of people.
Testing the Moderated Mediation Model
We first examined descriptive statistics for the variables of the
study, as shown in Table 3. Descriptive statistics indicated that
the kurtosis and skewness scores of the study variables ranged
from −0.82 to 0.59, indicating that the measures of this study
had relatively normal distribution (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013;
Kline, 2015). The correlation analysis results further revealed that
coronavirus-related suffering was significantly and negatively
associated with life satisfaction (r= −0.22, p<0.001), while
it positively correlated with psychological adjustment problems
(r=0.5, p<0.001). However, the correlation of coronavirus-
related suffering with self-transcendence was non-significant
(r= −0.01, p=0.907). Self-transcendence had a significant
and positive correlation with life satisfaction (r=0.33, p<
0.001) and a negative association with psychological adjustment
problems (r= −0.2, p<0.001). There was also a significant and
negative correlation between life satisfaction and psychological
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 14 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
TABLE 4 | Unstandardized coefficients for the moderated mediation model.
Consequent
M(Life satisfaction) Y(Adjustment)
Antecedent Coeff. SE p Coeff. SE p
X(Coronavirus suffering) a−0.20 0.09 <0.001 c’ 0.66 0.08 <0.001
M(Life satisfaction) – – – b1−0.45 0.09 <0.001
W(Self-transcendence) – – – b2−0.22 0.11 0.057
X×W– – – b3−0.07 0.02 <0.001
Constant iM1 24.26 0.45 <0.001 iy28.94 2.36 <0.001
R2=0.06 R2=0.46; R2change =0.05
F=10.74; p<0.001 F=34.95; p<0.001
Indirect effects of coronavirus suffering on psychological adjustment
Coeff. BootSE BootLLCI BootULCI
Life satisfaction 0.09 0.04 0.03 0.17
FIGURE 10 | Moderating effect of self-transcendence on the link between coronavirus-related suffering and psychological adjustment problems.
adjustment problems (r= −0.47, p<0.001), as seen in
Table 3.
Second, we conducted the moderated mediation model to test
the protective role of self-transcendence on the mitigating effect
of life satisfaction on the association between coronavirus-related
suffering and psychological adjustment problems. The findings
from the moderated mediation model showed that coronavirus-
related suffering had a significant predictor effect on the life
satisfaction of people (b= −0.2, p<0.001) and accounted for
5% of the variance in this variable. Psychological adjustment
problems were significantly predicted by coronavirus-related
suffering (b=0.66, p<0.001) and life satisfaction (b=
−0.45, p<0.001). These results indicated that life satisfaction
mitigated the adverse impacts of coronavirus-related suffering
on the psychological adjustment of people. Further, the analyses
demonstrated that the interaction between coronavirus-related
suffering and self-transcendence on psychological adjustment
problems was significant (b= −0.07; F=16.71, p <
0.001), accounting for 5% of the additional variance in the
model, as shown in Table 4. Overall, the model explained
46% of the variance in psychological adjustment problems.
Moreover, the simple slope effect revealed that the indirect effect
of coronavirus-related suffering on psychological adjustment
was observed when self-transcendence was high (+1SD),
moderate, and low (−1SD), as seen in Figure 10. These
results indicate the protective effect of self-transcendence on the
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 15 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
psychological adjustment of people during the coronavirus public
health crisis.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to test a moderated mediation
model examining whether life satisfaction mediates the
association between suffering during the pandemic and
psychological adjustment problems and whether self-
transcendence moderates this association. The results showed
that coronavirus suffering was a significant predictor of life
satisfaction and psychological adjustment problems, and life
satisfaction mitigated the effect of suffering on psychological
adjustment. Most importantly, self-transcendence is the
mediating effect of life satisfaction on the association between
suffering and adjustment. Self-transcendence served as a buffer
against coronavirus suffering and promoted the adaptive
psychological adjustment of people. Recently, the American
Psychological Association (2020b) reported a nationwide mental
health crisis in 2020 because of COVID-19. However, there is
still a silver lining in the dark cloud ahead of us, that is, the
prolonged lockdown and social isolation also provide a rare
opportunity for self-reflection and self-transformation. More
specifically, we suggest that learning to accept the current
condition and re-orienting our own values and life goals toward
something greater than ourselves can elevate our lives to a
higher plane. The research of Emmons (1986, 2003) on Personal
Goal Striving Theory can also account for the connection
between self-transcendence and well-being because some of
the worthy life goals, such as spirituality and generativity, are
clear examples of self-transcendence. Meaning research has
demonstrated that self-transcendence is a source of well-being
as we reviewed in the introduction. Future research will clarify
the importance of self-transcendence in all kinds of happiness,
including an attunement with oneself, with others, and the world
as a fundamental state of happiness and well-being (Haybron,
2013; Wong, 2014b).
We suggested that the STM represents an important
instrument in advancing second-wave positive psychology (PP
2.0; Wong, 2011; Ivtzan et al., 2015) for several reasons. Firstly,
it measures a sustainable well-being that is less dependent
on positive emotions and positive circumstances. Secondly, it
shifts the focus from behavior and cognition to the spiritual
dimension that really separates human beings from other
animals. Thirdly, it acknowledges that self-transcendence is the
most promising path to moral virtue, eudaimonic happiness,
and existential meaning. Frankl wanted to make sure that a
good theory of self-transcendence needs to pass the Hitler test,
that is, someone like Hitler can never lay claim to having
lived a worthy self-transcendent life. This is why he was
at pains to emphasize the conscience test, objective values,
and ethical responsibility toward others. Similarly, Levinas
(1972/2003) also emphasized that a fully functioning human will
transcend self-interest in order to be ethically responsible for
the Other.
To attain self-transcendence is our crowning humanistic
and spiritual achievement, which enables us to move from
instinctive selfishness to a state of selflessness and a higher
level of consciousness. Self-transcendence motivates people to
devote their time and energy to make positive contributions
in society and appreciate little miracles in everyday life, thus
resulting in greater well-being for themselves and others.
Costin and Vignoles (2020) reported that a sense of mattering
consistently emerged as a significant precursor of meaning
in life. Mattering refers to the belief that the actions of an
individual have made a difference in the world and that they
have lived a significant life. We propose that such a belief is
more based on living a life of self-transcendence, as measured by
the STM-B.
It has taken more than 5 years, beginning with Wong
(2016c), and involved many researchers from different countries
to develop a reliable and valid measure of self-transcendence.
Consistent with the literature (for examples, see Wong, 2014c;
Yaden et al., 2017; Kaufman, 2020), our series of validation studies
have demonstrated that the STM-B as a measure of or-orientation
our focus and values away from egotism toward others and higher
ideals s indeed significantly connected with meaning, benevolent
values, virtues, eudaimonia, and mature happiness.
More importantly, we have demonstrated that the STM-B
is a buffer against COVID-19 suffering. Thus, we propose that
self-transcendence may be a unique antidote to adversity and
suffering and a pathway toward personal growth and mature
happiness. We hope that the STM-B can be used widely as
an instrument to monitor global well-being in the era of the
coronavirus pandemic. In sum, the concept of self-transcendence
proposed by Frankl added both depth and breadth to meaning
in life and may be an important breakthrough in mental health
because it restores the soul or spiritual dimension as the healthy
core in overcoming suffering and mental illness.
We realized the limitations of not relying more on prospective
or longitudinal studies. Other recent research in the special
issue of Frontiers on Self-Transcendence (Wong et al., 2021) has
remedied this deficiency. On the positive side, it provided a useful
instrument to study self-transcendence as a spiritual motivation
or value.
Everyone is free to pursue what they believe will make them
happy, but they are not free from the negative consequences of
their choices. Often, the consequence could be the painful regret
of hurting their loved ones or getting punished for their unethical
means to achieve their egotistic ends.
This study showed that, by re-orienting the focus and values
of an individual from their pre-occupation with happiness
as their main life goal to selflessly striving toward a worthy
life goal that benefits society, an individual is given a sense
of satisfaction from the intrinsic value of pursuing meaning
self-transcendence. Interestingly, some Japanese psychologists
have developed a Fear of Happiness Scale and Fragility
of Happiness Scale (Namatame et al., 2021). Such a fear
is warranted in view of the avoidable sufferings from the
blind pursuit of happiness. We hope that the STM-B will
contribute to the global well-being through the less-traveled path
of self-transcendence.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 16 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be
made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
ETHICS STATEMENT
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and
approved by Trent University. The Ethics Committee waived the
requirement of written informed consent for participation.
AUTHOR’S NOTE
PW was part of a working group of philosophers, theologians,
and psychologists wrestling with the topic of virtue, happiness,
and meaning. Given the absence of a general psychological theory
and a valid measure of self-transcendence, the project by PW
in that research working group was to fill this void. All of
the presentations made by PW were first posted on a personal
website. Only one presentation was published as a journal article;
the rest of the materials were further developed and published for
the first time.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
PW and GA contributed to the design of the study. GA
analyzed the data and wrote the method and results sections.
PW wrote the introduction and discussion sections. All authors
contributed to manuscript revisions, read, and approved the
final version of the manuscript, agreed to be accountable for
the content of the work, and approved the submitted version of
the article.
FUNDING
The study was partially supported by a 3-year Templeton
Grant (https://www.templeton.org/grant/virtue-happiness-and-
the-meaning-of-life-2).
REFERENCES
Ackerman, C. E. (2021, February 18). What is self-transcendence?
Definition and 6 examples. PositivePsychology.com. Available online
at: www.positivepsychology.com/self-transcendence/
Adler, A. (1938/2011). Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind. Eastford, CT:
Martino Fine Books.
Aiello, R. (2020). Even if there’s a vaccine, pandemic may persist for years to
come: Tam. CTV News. Available online at: https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/
coronavirus/even-if-there-s- a-vaccine-pandemic- may-persist- for-years- to-
come-tam- 1.5050584
Ainsworth, M. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. Am. Psychol. 44, 709–716.
doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.44.4.709
Allen, S. (2018). The Science of Awe. Greater Good Science Center. Available
online at: https://ggsc.berkeley.edu/images/uploads/GGSC-JTF_White_Paper-
Awe_FINAL.pdf
American Psychological Association (2020a). Self-Transcendence. APA
Dictionary of Psychology. Available online at: https://dictionary.apa.org/
self-transcendence
American Psychological Association (2020b). Stress in America 2020 Survey Signals
a Growing National Mental Health Crisis. Available online at: https://www.apa.
org/news/press/releases/2020/10/stress-mental-health-crisis
Augustine (2009). Confessions (H. Chadwick, Trans.). New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Bartlett, M. Y., and DeSteno, D. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial
behavior helping when it costs you. Psychol. Sci. 17, 319–325.
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01705.x
Baumeister, R. F., and Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for
interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychol. Bull.
117, 497–529. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Bethelmy, L. C., and Corraliza, J. A. (2019). Transcendence and sublime
experience in nature: awe and inspiring energy. Front. Psychol. 10:509.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00509
Bonner, E. T., and Friedman, H. L. (2011). A conceptual clarification of
the experience of awe: an interpretative phenomenological analysis.
Humanistic Psychol. 39, 222–235. doi: 10.1080/08873267.2011.
593372
Braaten, A., and Huta, V. (2016). How Fundamental Worldviews About Life and
the World Relate to Eudaimonia, Hedonia, and the Experience of Meaning.
Paper presented at the 9th Biennial International Meaning Conference
(Toronto, ON).
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., and Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon’s Mechanical Turk:
a new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 6, 3–5.
doi: 10.1177/1745691610393980
Camus, A. (1942/1955). The Myth of Sisyphus (Trans. J. O’Brien). London:
Hamish Hamilton.
Clewis, R. R., Yaden, D., B., and Chirico, A. (2021). Intersections Between Awe and
the Sublime: A Preliminary Empirical Study. Empirical Studies of the Arts.
Costin, V., and Vignoles, V. L. (2020). Meaning is about mattering: evaluating
coherence, purpose, and existential mattering as precursors of meaning in life
judgments. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 118, 864–884. doi: 10.1037/pspp0000225
Cruz, R. A., Peterson, A. P., Fagan, C., Black, W., and Cooper, L. (2020).
Evaluation of the Brief Adjustment Scale−6 (BASE-6): a measure of general
psychological adjustment for measurement-based care. Psychol. Serv. 17,
332–342. doi: 10.1037/ser0000366
Csikszentmihalyi, M., and Hunter, J. (2003). Happiness in everyday
life: the uses of experience sampling. J. Happiness Stud. 4, 185–199.
doi: 10.1023/A:1024409732742
Curry, O. S., Rowland, L. A., Van Lissa, C. J., Zlotowitz, S., McAlaney, J., and
Whitehouse, H. (2018). Happy to help? A systematic review and meta-analysis
of the effects of performing acts of kindness on the well-being of the actor. J.
Exp. Soc. Psychol. 76, 320–329. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2018.02.014
Cushman, P. (1990). Why the self is empty. Toward a historically situated
psychology. Ame. Psychol. 45, 599–611. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.45.5.599
Cutler, D. M., and Summers, L. H. (2020). The COVID-19 pandemic and the $16
trillion virus. JAMA 324,1495–1496. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.19759
DeRobertis, E. M., and Brand, A. M. (2019). Lifespan human development and “the
humanistic perspective: a contribution toward inclusion. Humanistic Psychol.
48, 3–27. doi: 10.1037/hum0000141
Dhillon, S. K. (2020). Empirical Support of Wong’s Self-Transcendence Spiral:
Meaning in Life, Virtues and Happiness. Available online at: https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/349708313_Empirical_Support_of_Wong%27s_
Self-transcendence_Spiral_Meaning_in_life_Virtues_and_Happiness
Dhillon, S. K. (2021). Pathway of happily divorce: Role of self-transcendence, social
support and meaning in life introduction. Available online at: https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/349708435_Pathway_of_Happily_Divorce_Role_
of_Self-transcendence_Social_Support_and_Meaning_in_Life_Introduction
Dhillon, S. K., and Singh, N. R. (2021). Self-Transcendence, Mindfulness
and Virtues. Available online at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
349297559_Self-transcendence_Mindfulness_and_Virtues
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., and Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with
life scale. J. Pers. Assess. 49, 71–75. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 17 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
Dobson, J. A. (2015). Examining the psychological consequences of experiencing awe
(Unpublished PhD dissertation). University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
Eisenberg, N., and Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy to
prosocial and related behaviors. Psychol. Bull. 101:91. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.
101.1.91
Elmer, L. D., MacDonald, D. A., and Friedman, H. L. (2003). Transpersonal
psychology, physical health, and mental health: theory, research, and practice.
Humanistic Psychol. 31, 159–181. doi: 10.1080/08873267.2003.9986929
Emmons, R. A. (1986). Personal strivings: an approach to personality
and subjective wellbeing. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 51, 1058–1068.
doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.51.5.1058
Emmons, R. A. (2003). “Personal goals, life meaning, and virtue: wellsprings of a
positive life.” in Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-Lived, eds C.
L. M. Keyes and J. Haidt (American Psychological Association), 105–128.
Emmons, R. A. (2005). Striving for the sacred: personal goals, life meaning, and
religion. J. Soc. Issues 61, 731–745. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00429.x
Feigin, S., Owens, G., and Goodyear-Smith, F. (2014). Theories of human altruism:
a systematic review. J. Psychiatry Brain Funct. 1:5. doi: 10.7243/2055-3447-1-5
Frankena, W. K. (1973). Ethics, 2nd Edn. Toronto, ON: Pearson.
Frankl, V. (1946/1985). Man’s Search for Meaning. Albany, NY: Washington
Square Press.
Frankl, V. E. (1977/2011). The Unheard Cry for Meaning: Psychotherapy and
Humanism. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Frey, J. A., and Vogler, C. (2019). Self-Transcendence and Virtue: Perspectives From
Philosophy, Psychology, and Theology. Oxfordshire: Routledge.
Fritz, M. S., and Mackinnon, D. P. (2007). Required sample
size to detect the mediated effect. Psychol. Sci. 18, 233–239.
doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01882.x
Fromm, E. (1956/2019). The Art of Loving. Harper Perennial Modern Classics.
Golemen, D. (2007). Social Intelligence: The New Science of Human Relationships.
New York, NY: Bantam.
Goodman, B. (2020). Faith in a Time of Crisis. American Psychological
Association. Available online at: https://www.apa.org/topics/COVID-19/faith-
crisis doi: 10.1037/e503942020-001
Graham, C. (2020). The human cost of the pandemic: is it time to prioritize
wellbeing? Brookings.edu. Available online at: https://www.brookings.edu/
research/the-human-costs-of- the-pandemic-is- it-time- to-prioritize-well-
being~/
Guan, F., Chen, J., Chen, O., Liu, L., and Zha, Y. (2019). Awe and prosocial
tendency. Curr. Psychol. 38, 1033–1041. doi: 10.1007/s12144-019-00244-7
Guerra, C. C. W. (2017). The scholarship of self-transcendence. Tableau. Available
online at: https://medium.com/uchicago-humanities/the-scholarship-of- self-
transcendence-a280e21ecc5d
Haidt, J. (2000). The positive emotion of elevation. Prevent. Treatment 3.
doi: 10.1037/1522-3736.3.1.33c
Haidt, J. (2003). “Elevation and the positive psychology of morality,” in Flourishing:
Positive Psychology and the Life Well-Lived, eds C. L. M. Keyes and J. Haidt
(Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 275–289.
Harris, K. A., Howell, D. S., and Spurgeon, D. W. (2018). Faith concepts in
psychology: Three 30- year definitional content analyses. Psycholog. Relig.
Spiritual. 10, 1–29. doi: 10.1037/rel0000134
Haybron, D. M. (2013). Happiness: A Very Short Introduction. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press.
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional
Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Holiday, R. (2016). Ego Is the Enemy. London: Penguin.
Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., and Mullen, M. R. (2008). Structural equation modelling:
guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic J. Business Res. Methods
6, 53–60.
Hui, B. P., Ng, J. C., Berzaghi, E., Cunningham-Amos, L. A., and Kogan, A. (2020).
Rewards of kindness? A meta-analysis of the link between prosociality and
well-being. Psychol. Bull. 146, 1084–1116. doi: 10.1037/bul0000298
Ivtzan, I., Lomas, T., Hefferon, K., and Worth, P. (2015). Second Wave Positive
Psychology: Embracing the Dark Side of Life. Oxfordshire: Routledge.
James, W. (1902/2004). The Varieties of Religious Experience. New York, NY:
Barnes & Noble Classics.
Kaufman, S. B. (2020). Transcend: The New Science of Self-Actualization. New
York, NY: Tarcher Perigee.
Keltner, D., and Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic
emotion. Cogn. Emot. 17, 297–314. doi: 10.1080/02699930302297
Kjell, O. N. E., Daukantaite, D., Hefferon, K., and Sikström, S. (2016).
The harmony in life scale complements the satisfaction with life scale:
expanding the conceptualization of the cognitive component of subjective
wellbeing. Soc. Indic. Res. 126, 893–919. doi: 10.1007/s11205-015-
0903-z
Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New
York, NY: Guilford.
Koenig, H. G. (2009). Research on religion, spirituality, and mental health: a
review. Can. J. Psychiatry 54, 283–291. doi: 10.1177/070674370905400502
Konrath, S., Meier, B. P., and Bushman, B. J. (2014). Development and
validation of the Single Item Narcissism Scale (SINS). PLoS ONE 9:e103469.
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103469
Kristjánsson, K. (2015, December). Awe: An Aristotelian Analysis of a Non-
Aristotelian Emotion Virtue. Presented at the Virtue, Happiness, and the
Meaning of Life Meeting (Columbia, SC).
Lee, Y.-C., Lin, Y.-C., Huang, C.-L., and Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). The construct
and measurement of peace of mind. J. Happiness Stud. Interdiscipl. Forum Subj.
Wellbeing 14, 571–590. doi: 10.1007/s10902-012-9343-5
Levinas, E. (1972/2003). Humanism of the Other (Trans. N. Poller). Champaign,
IL: University of Illinois Press.
Li, J. J., Dou, K., Wang, Y. J., and Nie, Y.-G. (2019). Why Awe promotes
prosocial behaviors? The mediating effects of 369 future time perspective
and self-transcendence meaning of life. Front. Psychol. 10:1140.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01140
Lin, R.-M., Chen, Y.-P., Shen, Y.-L., Xiong, X.-X., Lin, N., and Lian, R. (2021).
Dispositional Awe and Online Altruism: Testing a Moderated Mediating Model.
Frontiers.
Lomas, T. (2021). Life balance and harmony: wellbeing’s golden thread. Int. J.
Wellbeing 11, 50–68. doi: 10.5502/ijw.v11i1.1477
Maslow, A. (1971). Farther Reaches of Human Nature. Toronto, ON: McGraw-Hill.
Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences. Columbus, OH:
Ohio State University Press.
Maurer, M. M., and Daukantaite, D. (2020). Revisiting the organismic
valuing process theory of personal growth: a theoretical review of
rogers and its connection to positive psychology. Front. Psychol. 11:1706.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01706
Mayseless, O., and Russo-Netzer, P. (2017). A vision for the farther reaches of
spirituality: a phenomenologically based model of spiritual development and
growth. Spirituality Clin. Prac. 4, 176–192. doi: 10.1037/scp0000147
McClintock, C. H. (2015). Opening the heart: a spirituality of
gratitude. Spirituality Clin. Prac. 2, 21–22. doi: 10.1037/scp00
00060
McDonald, M. J., Wong, P. T. P., and Gingras, D. T. (2012). “Meaning-in-life
measures and development of a brief version of the Personal Meaning Profile.”
in The Human Quest for Meaning: Theories, Research, and Applications, 2nd
Edn, ed P. T. P.Wong (New York, NY: Routledge), 357–382.
Meek, W. (2012). Universal relationship needs: the importance of companionship,
affection, & support. Psychology Today. Available online at: https://www.
psychologytoday.com/us/blog/notes-self/201212/universal- relationship-needs
Midlarsky, E., and Kahana, E. (2007). “Altruism, well-being, and mental health in
late life,” in Altruism and Health: Perspectives From Empirical Research, ed S. G.
Post (New York, NY: Oxford University Press), 56–69.
Mikulak, A. (2015). All about awe. Psychological Science. Available online
at: https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/all-about- awe
Millard, E. (2021). How to not let pandemic fatigue turn into pandemic
burnout. Everyday Health. Available online at: https://www.everydayhealth.
com/coronavirus/how-to-not-let- pandemic-fatigue- turn-into-pandemic-
burnout~/
Mruk, C. J. (2018). Feeling Good by.
Muthén, L. K., and Muthën, B. O. (2002). How to use a monte carlo study to
decide on sample size and determine power. Struct. Equat. Model. 9, 599–620.
doi: 10.1207/S15328007SEM0904_8
Namatame, H., Inohara, A., Asano, R., Igarashi, T., Tsukamoto, S., and Sawamiya,
Y. (2021). 日本語版幸恐尺度日本語版幸尺度信性妥性討[Reliability and
validity of the Japanese Versions of the Fear of Happiness Scale and the Fragility
of Happiness Scale]. Jpn. J. Psychol. 92, 219–26. doi: 10.4992/jjpsy.92.20206
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 18 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
Passmore, H.-A., and Holder, M. D. (2016). Noticing nature: individual and
social benefits of a two-week intervention. J. Positive Psychol. 12, 537–546.
doi: 10.1080/17439760.2016.1221126
Peterson, C., and Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character Strengths and Virtues: A
Handbook and Classification. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., and Keltner, D. (2015).
Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 108, 883–899.
doi: 10.1037/pspi0000018
Preacher, K. J., and Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling
strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple
mediator models. Behav. Res. Methods 40, 879–891. doi: 10.3758/BRM.40.
3.879
Pyszczynski, T. A., Solomon, S., and Greenburg, J. (2004). In the Wake of 9/11: The
Psychology of Terror. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
R Core Team (2016). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.
R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available online at: https://www.R-
project.org/
Rad, M. S., Martingano, A. J., and Ginges, J. (2018). Toward a psychology
of Homo sapiens: making psychological science more representative of
the human population. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 115, 11401–11405.
doi: 10.1073/pnas.1721165115
Reed, P. G. (1986). Developmental resources and depression in the elderly. Nurs.
Res. 35, 368–374. doi: 10.1097/00006199-198611000-00014
Reischer, H. N., Roth, L. J., Villarreal, J. A., and McAdams, D. P. (2021). Self-
transcendence and life stories of humanistic growth among late-midlife adults.
J. Pers. 89, 305–324. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12583
Reker, G. (1995). Test Manual: The Sources of Meaning Profile-Revised (SOMP-R).
doi: 10.1037/t45961-000
Rogers, C. R. (1961). On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s View of
Psychotherapy. London: Constable.
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: an R package for structural equation modeling. J. Stat.
Softw. 48, 1–36. doi: 10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Rudd, M., Vohs, K. D., and Aaker, J. (2012). Awe expands people’s perception
of time, alters decision making, and enhances wellbeing. Psychol. Sci. 23,
1130–1136. doi: 10.1177/0956797612438731
Schneider, K. J. (2009). Awakening to Awe: Personal Stories of Profound
Transformation. Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson.
Schneider, K. J. (2011). Awakening to an awe-based psychology.
Humanistic Psychol. 39, 247–252. doi: 10.1080/08873267.2011.
592464
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: theoretical
advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Adv. Exp. Psychol. 25, 1–65.
doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60281-6
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the content and structure of
values? J. Social Issues 50, 19–45. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1994.tb01196.x
Seaton, C. L., and Beaumont, S. L. (2015). Pursuing the good life: a short-term
follow-up study of the role of positive/negative emotions and ego-resilience in
personal goal striving and eudaimonic wellbeing. Motiv. Emot. 39, 813–826.
doi: 10.1007/s11031-015-9493-y
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness
and Well-Being. New York, NY: Free Press.
Siegal, D. J. (2010). Mindsight: The New Science of Personal Transformation. New
York, NY: Bantam.
Snyder, C. R., and Lopez, S. J. (eds.). (2009). Oxford Handbook of Positive
Psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Sortheix, F. M., and Schwartz, S. H. (2017). Values that underlie and
undermine well-being: variability across countries. Eur. J. Pers. 31, 187–201.
doi: 10.1002/per.2096
Soucheray, S. (2021). Even With 3 Vaccines Now, CDC Head Warns of Possible
4th COVID Surge. Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy.
Available online at: https://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2021/03/
even-3- vaccines-now- cdc-head-warns- possible-4th-covid- surge
Stellar, J. E., Gordon, A. M., Piff, P. K., Cordaro, D., Anderson, C. L., Bai, Y., et al.
(2017). Self-transcendent emotions and their social functions: compassion,
gratitude, and Awe bind us to others through prosociality. Emotion Rev. 9,
200–207. doi: 10.1177/1754073916684557
Stevens, J. P. (2009). Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social
Sciences. Oxfordshire: Routledge.
Tabachnick, B. G., and Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using Multivariate Statistics, 6th
Edn. Toronto, ON: Pearson.
Tillich, P. (1952). The Courage to Be. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Tolstoy, L. (1882/1921). A confession (A. Maude, Trans.). New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
van Deurzen, E. (2014). Transcendence and the Psychotherapeutic Quest for
Happiness. Royal College of Psychiatrists. Available online at: https://
www.rcpsych.ac.uk/docs/default-source/members/sigs/spirituality-spsig/
emmy-van- deurzen-transcendence- and-the-psychotherapeutic- quest-for-
happiness.pdf?sfvrsn=6a1b60b_2
Van Tongeren, D. R., and Van Tongeren, S. A. S. (2020). The Courage to Suffer:
A New Clinical Framework for Life’s Greatest Crises. West Conshohocken, PA:
Templeton Press.
Waterman, A. S., Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Ravert, R. D., Williams, M.
K., Agocha, V. B., et al. (2010). The Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Wellbeing:
psychometric properties, demographic comparisons, and evidence of validity.
J. Posit. Psychol. 5, 41–61. doi: 10.1080/17439760903435208
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., and Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of
brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. J. Pers. Soc.
Psychol. 54, 1063–1070. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Wilson, J. (2000). Volunteering. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 26, 215–240.
doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.215
Wong, P. T. P. (1998). “Implicit theories of meaningful life and the development
of the Personal Meaning Profile (PMP),” in The Human Quest for Meaning: A
Handbook of Psychological Research and Clinical Applications, eds P. T. P. Wong
and P. Fry (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum), 111–140.
Wong, P. T. P. (2005). “Existential and humanistic theories,” in Comprehensive
Handbook of Personality and Psychopathology, eds J. C. Thomas and D. L. Segal
(Hoboken, NJ: Wiley), 192–211.
Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive
model of the good life. Cana. Psychol. 52, 69–81. doi: 10.1037/a0022511
Wong, P. T. P. (2012). What is the meaning mindset? Int. J. Existential Psychol.
Psychother. 4, 1–3.
Wong, P. T. P. (2014a). “Viktor Frankl’s meaning seeking model and positive
psychology,” in Meaning in Existential and Positive Psychology,eds A. Batt hyany
and P. Russo-Netzer (New York, NY: Springer), 149–184.
Wong, P. T. P. (2014b). From attunement to a meaning-centred good life:
Book review of Daniel Haybron’s Happiness: a very short introduction. Int. J.
Wellbeing 4, 100–105. doi: 10.5502/ijw.v4i2.5
Wong, P. T. P. (2014c). The positive psychology of grit: the defiant power
of the human spirit [Review of the film Unbroken]. PsycCRITIQUES 60.
doi: 10.1037/a0039390
Wong, P. T. P. (2016a). Self-transcendence: a paradoxical way to become your best.
Int. J. Existential Positive Psychol. 6:9.
Wong, P. T. P. (2016b). “Meaning-seeking, self-transcendence, and well-being,” in
Logotherapy and Existential Analysis: Proceedings of the Viktor Frankl Institute,
Vol. 1, ed A. Batthyany (New York, NY: Springer), 311–322.
Wong, P. T. P. (2016c). Self-Transcendence as the Path to Virtue, Happiness
and Meaning. Paper presented at the research working group meeting for
Virtue, Happiness, and the Meaning of Life Project (Chicago, IL: University
of Chicago) (Funded by the John Templeton Foundation).
Wong, P. T. P. (2016d). From Viktor Frankl’s Logotherapy to the Four Defining
Characteristics of Self- Transcendence. Paper presented at the research working
group meeting for Virtue, Happiness, and the Meaning of Life Project
(Columbia, SC).
Wong, P. T. P. (2018). Objective Life Condition Assessment (OLCA). Available
online at: http://www.drpaulwong.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/
Objective-Life- Condition-Assessment- OLCA-Wong-2018.pdf
Wong, P. T. P. (2020a). How a healthy dosage of self-transcendence can
overcome COVID-19. Positive Living Newsletter. Available online at: http://
www.drpaulwong.com/how-a- healthy-dosage-of-self-transcendence- can-
overcome-covid-19/
Wong, P. T. P. (2020b). Suffering Measure During COVID-19 (SMCOVID-19).
Available online at: http://www.drpaulwong.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/
08/Suffering-Measure- during-COVID-19- SMCOVID-19.pdf
Wong, P. T. P. (2021a). Existential positive psychology (PP 2.0) and global
wellbeing: why it is necessary during the age of COVID-19. Int. J. Existential
Positive Psychol. 10, 1–16.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 19 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
Wong, P. T. P. (2021b). A festival to celebrate the human spirit [President’s
Column]. Positive Living Newsletter. Available online at: http://www.
drpaulwong.com/a-festival- to-celebrate- the-human-spirit/
Wong, P. T. P. (2021c). “Preface: Frankl’s cure for a soulless psychology and a sick
society,” in Psychobiography of Viktor Frankl, eds N. Krasovska and C.-H. Mayer
(New York, NY: Springer Publishing).
Wong, P. T. P. (2021d). Self-Transcendence: The Key to Meaning and Wellbeing
During Covid-19 [Keynote]. Centre for Advancement in Inclusive and Special
Education Faculty of Education. The University of Hong Kong International
Webinar Series on Students’Well-being [Virtual webinar].
Wong, P. T. P. (2021e). “Forword,” in Positive Psychology Across the Life Span an
Existential Perspective, ed P. Worth (New York, NY: Routledge).
Wong, P. T. P., and Bowers, V. (2018). “Mature happiness and global wellbeing in
difficult times,” in Scientific Concepts Behind Happiness, Kindness, and Empathy
in Contemporary Society, ed N. R. Silton (Hershey, PA: IGI Global) 112–134.
Wong, P. T. P., Ivtzan, I., Lomas, T., and Kjell, O. (2016). Self-Transcendence
Measure. Availableonline at: http://www.drpaulwong.com/self- transcendence-
path-virtue- happiness-meaning/
Wong, P. T. P., Mayer, C.-H., and Arslan, G. (eds.). (2021). COVID-19
and Existential Positive Psychology (PP 2.0): The New Science of Self-
Transcendence. Frontiers.
Wong, P. T. P., and Reilly, T. (2017). Frankl’s self-transcendence model and virtue
ethics. The Virtue Blog (Funded by the John Templeton Foundation). Available
online at: https://thevirtueblog.com/2017/08/15/frankls-self- transcendence-
model-and- virtue-ethics- part-1-of- 2/
Worth, P., and Smith, M. (2021). Clearing the Pathways to Self-
Transcendence. Frontiers.
Yaden, D. B., Haidt, J., Hood, R. W. Jr., Vago, D. R., and
Newberg, A. B. (2017). The varieties of self-transcendent
experience. Rev. General Psychol. 21, 143–160. doi: 10.1037/gpr00
00102
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a
potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of
the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in
this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
endorsed by the publisher.
Copyright © 2021 Wong, Arslan, Bowers, Peacock, Kjell, Ivtzan and Lomas. This
is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums
is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited
and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted
academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not
comply with these terms.
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 20 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549

Wong et al. Self-Transcendence Buffers COVID-19 Suffering
APPENDIX
Self-Transcendence Measure-Brief
(STM-B)
Please respond to the following statements by circling the most
appropriate response to the scale, from 0 (not at all characteristic
of me or my beliefs) to 4 (a great deal characteristic of me or
my beliefs).
1. My life is meaningful because I live for something greater than myself.
2. My suffering is more bearable when I believe that it is for my family,
friends, and/or for a higher purpose.
3. I enjoy the process of striving toward excellence in what matters.
4. At my funeral, I want to be remembered as a decent human being who
cared about others.
5. A worthy lifelong pursuit ought to have some intrinsic value—something
that is good in its own right.
6. What matters most to me in life is the contribution I make to society.
7. I focus on discovering the potential meaning in every situation.
8. I devote my life to pursuing the ideals of beauty, goodness, and truth.
9. I develop my full potential in order to give my best to benefit society.
10. I am more motivated by doing something meaningful than by the
prospect of receiving external rewards.
For the original Self-TranscendenceMeasure (STM) (Wong et al., 2016), please see: Wong
(2016c). For the Self-Transcendence Measure-Revised (STM-R) (Wong and Reilly, 2017),
please see: Wong (2016d).
Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 21 October 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 648549