Parasitological Assessment of Green Leafy Vegetables Sold at Masaka and Karu Markets in Nasarawa State of Nigeria

Abstract

Original Research Article This research studied the Parasitological Assessment of Green leafy vegetables sold at Masaka market Karu. The vegetables were purchased from masaka market three times a week and washed for two minutes in 250ml of normal saline and spun in a centrifuge at 3000rpm for 5 minutes, smears made on glass slides were prepared from the deposits post centrifugation, sample slides was stained with lugol's iodine and viewed in x10 and x40 objectives. Five parasites including Hookworm, Taenia spp, Ascaris lumbricoides, Entameoba histolytica and Trichuris trichura. Hookworm had the highest frequency and Ascaris lumbricoides with the lowest. A total of 10 types of vegetables were, these were, Fluted pumpkin leaf, lettuce, spinach, scent leaf, false cubeb leaf, sorrel leaf, cabbage, curry leaf, Waterleaf and Garden egg leaf. False cubeb leaf had the highest contamination while scent leaf had the lowest. A total of 200 vegetables washed were used, 129 were contaminated while 71 were not. Total prevalence of parasites present in this study was gotten to be was 64.5% with hookworm as the highest (34.5%). Data analysis was carried out by Chi square test the value was gotten to be 50.000 with df of 25. The P value was gotten to be 0.02 which is less than 0.05 which proves the alternate hypothesis to be accepted and alternate to be accepted. This shows that there was parasitic contamination present in these vegetables sold at Masaka market, Karu.

Full text

Citation: Ajobiewe H. F et al. Parasitological Assessment of Green Leafy Vegetables Sold at Masaka and Karu Markets in Nasarawa
State of Nigeria. Sch J App Med Sci, 2021 Sept 9(9): 1367-1381.
1367
Scholars Journal of Applied Medical Sciences
Abbreviated Key Title: Sch J App Med Sci
ISSN 2347-954X (Print) | ISSN 2320-6691 (Online)
Journal homepage: https://saspublishers.com
Parasitological Assessment of Green Leafy Vegetables Sold at Masaka and
Karu Markets in Nasarawa State of Nigeria
Ajobiewe HF.1, Alexander P.1, Duke EM.1, Ajobiewe JO.2, Yashim NA.2, Umeji L.3, Ogundeji AA.4, Dangana A.5,
Oguji C.5
1Bingham University Kodape Km 5 Nasarawa State of Nigeria
2National Hospital Abuja, Plot 132 Garki Central District, Nigeria
3Defence Reference Laboratory, Asokoro, Abuja, Nigeria
4United State Department of Defence, Walter Reed Program-Nigeria US Embassy Nigeria
5University of Abuja Teaching Hospital, Gwagwalada, Nigeria
DOI: 10.36347/sjams.2021.v09i09.010 | Received: 14.07.2021 | Accepted: 19.08.2021 | Published: 08.09.2021
*Corresponding author: Ajobiewe H. F
Abstract
Original Research Article
This research studied the Parasitological Assessment of Green leafy vegetables sold at Masaka market Karu. The
vegetables were purchased from masaka market three times a week and washed for two minutes in 250ml of normal
saline and spun in a centrifuge at 3000rpm for 5 minutes, smears made on glass slides were prepared from the deposits
post centrifugation, sample slides was stained with lugol’s iodine and viewed in x10 and x40 objectives. Five parasites
including Hookworm, Taenia spp, Ascaris lumbricoides, Entameoba histolytica and Trichuris trichura. Hookworm had
the highest frequency and Ascaris lumbricoides with the lowest. A total of 10 types of vegetables were, these were,
Fluted pumpkin leaf, lettuce, spinach, scent leaf, false cubeb leaf, sorrel leaf, cabbage, curry leaf, Waterleaf and
Garden egg leaf. False cubeb leaf had the highest contamination while scent leaf had the lowest. A total of 200
vegetables washed were used, 129 were contaminated while 71 were not. Total prevalence of parasites present in this
study was gotten to be was 64.5% with hookworm as the highest (34.5%). Data analysis was carried out by Chi square
test the value was gotten to be 50.000 with df of 25. The P value was gotten to be 0.02 which is less than 0.05 which
proves the alternate hypothesis to be accepted and alternate to be accepted. This shows that there was parasitic
contamination present in these vegetables sold at Masaka market, Karu.
Keywords: Green leafy vegetables, masaka market, Ascaris lumbricoides, hypothesis, Parasitological Assessment.
Copyright © 2021 The Author(s): This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License (CC BY-NC 4.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial use provided the original
author and source are credited.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Parasites
Parasites are organisms which have adapted
themselves in or on another organism which is called a
host, and lives at the expenses of the tissue and fluid of
the host deriving their nutrient and protection from the
host, thereby harming or being of no advantage to the
host [1]. They increase their fitness by exploiting host
for food, habitat and dispersal. Parasites may be
transmitted from animals to humans, from humans to
humans, or from humans to animals. Several parasites
have emerged as significant cause of food borne and
water borne disease in the whole world. This can be
achieved through consumption of contaminated food
and water or by eating any raw vegetables that has been
contaminated with parasites. This work is to access
various parasites associated with green leafy vegetables
such as Fluted pumpkin leaf (Telfairia occidentallis),
Water leaf (Hydrophyllum triangulare),
Lettuce(Lactuca sativa), Spinach (Amaranthus
hybridus), Garden egg leaf (Solanum aethiopicum),
False cubeb leaf(Piper guineense), Curry leaf (Murraya
koenigii), Sorrel leaf (Rumex acetosa), Cabbage
(Brassica oleracea var. capitata) and Scent leaf
(Ocimun gratissimum) Parasites are of different types
and ranges in size from tiny-single-celled, microscopic
organisms (protozoa) to large multi-cellular worms,
(helminthes) that may be seen with a microscope [2].
Some of the parasites are: Giardia lamblia
(intestinalis), Hookworm Ascaris lumbricoides,
Trichuris trichura, Schistosoma spp
Giardia lamblia it causes Giardiasis, It is one
celled microscopic parasites that can live in the intestine
of animals and humans. It is found in every region
throughout the world and may cause chronic diarrhea,
malabsorptoin, weight loss with symptoms for several
months [3]. Giardiasis is mainly acquired by
transmission of cysts of Giardia lamblia and soiled
hands, contaminated with faeces [4]. Lamblia cyst have
Microbiology

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been detected in flies that may serve as a vector for
contamination of foods [5]. Consumers get this disease
by consuming vegetables contaminated with G.
duodenalis cysts (infective stage of the organism) and
by putting anything into the mouth that has touched the
stool of a person or animal with giardiasis. The illness
usually goes away without medical intervention in three
to four days. But in some outbreaks in day care centers
diarrhea has lasted one to four weeks. In people with
weakened immune system, cryptosporidiosis can be
serious, long lasting and sometimes fatal. However,
there is no known effective drug or medication
whatsoever for the treatment of cryptosporidiosis [4].
Hookworm is a nematode parasite that lives in
the small intestine of its host, which may be a mammal
such as a dog, cat, or human. Two species of
hookworms commonly infect humans Ancylostoma
duodenale and Necator americanus. The geographical
distribution of these two species significantly overlaps.
Necator americanus predominates in the Americas,
Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, China and
Indonesia, while A. duodenale predominates in the
Middle East, North Africa, India and (formerly) in
southern Europe. Hookworms are thought to infect 800
million people worldwide. Hookworms are much
smaller than the large roundworm, Ascaris
lumbricoides. The most significant risk of hookworm
infection is anemia, secondary to loss of iron (and
protein) in the gut. The worms suck blood and damage
the mucosa. However, the blood loss in the stools is
occult blood loss (not visibly apparent). They are the
leading cause of maternal and child morbidity in the
developing countries of the tropics and subtropics. In
susceptible children hookworms cause intellectual,
cognitive and growth retardation, intrauterine growth
retardation, prematurity and low birth weight among
newborns born to infected mothers. Hookworm
infection is rarely fatal, but anemia can be significant in
the heavily infected individual. Hookworm infection of
human beings occurs through the penetration of the
filariform larvae through the feet.
Fig 1: Lifecycle of a hookworm source:http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx [6]
Ascaris lumbricoides is a parasitic round worm
causes Ascariasis a debilitating human disease. Perhaps
as many as one quarter of the world's people is infected,
and ascariasis is particularly prevalent in tropical
regions and in areas of poor hygiene. Other species of
the genus Ascaris are parasitic and can cause disease in
domestic animals. Infection occurs through ingestion of
food contaminated with fecal matter containing Ascaris

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eggs. The larvae hatch, burrow through the intestine,
reach the lungs, and finally migrate up the respiratory
tract. From there they are then swallowed and mature in
the intestine, growing up to 30 cm (12 in.) in length and
anchoring themselves to the intestinal wall. Infections
are usually accompanied by inflammation, fever, and
diarrhea, and serious problems may develop if the
worms migrate to other parts of the body. About 1.5
billion individuals are infected with this worm.
Ascariasis is endemic in the United States, China,
Ozark Mountains; Southeast Asia, central Africa and
the coastal regions of the West Africa. Ascariasis
sources can often be measured by examining food for
ova. In one field study in Marrakech, Morocco, where
raw sewage was used to fertilize crop fields, 73% of
children working on these farms were infected with
helminthes, particularly Ascaris, probably as a result of
exposure to the raw sewage. Roundworm infections can
retard growth. They decrease the absorption of nutrients
that the body needs to grow. They cause structural
problems in the small intestine in children and are
thought to be a cause of frequent or serious pulmonary
disease among children. Intestinal obstructions
frequently result in the hospitalization of children.
Death is common in children when worms move to
organs outside of the intestines such as the trachea,
liver, and heart, or when complications occur. Adult
worms (Fig 2) live in the lumen of the small intestine. A
female may produce approximately 200,000 eggs per
day, which are passed with the feces (Fig 2).
Unfertilized eggs may be ingested but are not infective.
Fertile eggs embryonated and become infective after 18
days to several weeks (Fig 2), depending on the
environmental conditions (optimum: moist, warm,
shaded soil). After infective eggs are swallowed, the
larvae hatch, invade the intestinal mucosa, and are
carried via the portal, then systemic circulation to the
lungs. The larvae mature further in the lungs (10 to 14
days), penetrate the alveolar walls, ascend the bronchial
tree to the throat, and are swallowed.
Upon reaching the small intestine, they
develop into adult worms (Fig 2). Between 2 and 3
months are required from ingestion of the infective eggs
to oviposition by the adult female. Adult worms can
live 1 to 2 years. Source: http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx
[6]
Fig 2: Life cycle of Ascaris lumbricoides source: http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx [6]
Trichuris trichura is the third most common
round worm of humans, with infections more frequent
in areas with tropical weather and poor sanitation
practices, especially in Asia and, to a lesser degree, in
Africa and South America., and among children. It is
estimated that 800 million people are infected
worldwide. There is a worldwide distribution of
Trichuris trichura, with an estimated 1 billion human
infections. Poor hygiene is associated with trichuriasis
as well as the consumption of shaded moist soil, or food
that may have been fecally contaminated. Children are
especially vulnerable to infection due to their high
exposure risk. Eggs are infective about 2–3 weeks after
they are deposited in the soil under proper conditions of
warmth and moisture, hence its tropical distribution.
The eggs hatch in the small intestine and then move into
the wall of the small intestine and develop. On reaching
adulthood, the thinner end (the front of the worm)

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burrows into the large intestine and the thicker end
hangs into the lumen and mates with nearby worms.
The females can grow up to 50 mm (2 inches) long.
Neither the male nor the female has much of a visible
tail past the anus. Whipworm commonly infects patients
also infected with Giardia, Endameba histolytica,
Ascaris lumbricoides, and hookworms. Infection with
this parasite is through the ingestion of the embryonated
eggs which then hatch into larvae in the small intestine,
mature into adults in the cecum. The adult worms then
lay eggs that are passed out in feaces. source:
http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx [6]
Fig 3: Life cycle of Trichuris trichura
Schistosoma spp have a typical trematode
vertebrate-invertebrate lifecycle, with humans being the
definitive host. The life cycles of all five human
Schistosoma are broadly similar: parasite eggs are
released into the environment from infected individuals,
hatching on contact with fresh water to release the free-
swimming miracidium. Miracidia infect freshwater
snails by penetrating the foot. After infection, close to
the site of penetration, the miracidium transforms into a
primary (mother) sporocyst. Germ cells within the
primary sporocyst will then begin dividing to produce
secondary (daughter) sporocysts, which migrate to the
snail's hepatopancreas. Once at the hepatopancreas,
germ cells within the secondary sporocyst begin to
divide again, this time producing thousands of new
parasites, known as cercariae, which are the larvae
capable of infecting mammals. Cercariae emerge daily
from the snail host in a circadian rhythm, dependent on
ambient temperature and light. Young cercariae are
highly mobile, alternating between vigorous upward
movements and sinking to maintain their position in the
water. Cercarial activity is particularly stimulated by
water turbulence, by shadows and by chemicals found
on human skin. Penetration of the human skin occurs
after the cercaria has attached itself to the skin. The
parasite secretes enzymes that break down the skin's
protein to enable penetration of the cercarial head
through the skin. As the cercaria penetrates the skin it
develops into a migrating schistosomulum stage. The
newly transformed schistosomulum may remain in the
skin for two days before locating a post-capillary
venule; from here the schistosomulum travels to the
lungs where it undergoes further developmental
changes necessary for subsequent migration to the liver.
Eight to ten days after penetration of the skin, the
parasite migrates to the liver sinusoids. S. japonicum
migrates more quickly than S. mansoni, and usually
reaches the liver within eight days of penetration.
Juvenile S. mansoni and S. japonicum worms develop
an oral sucker after arriving at the liver, and it is during
this period that the parasite begins to feed on red blood
cells (Fig. 4). The nearly-mature worms pair, with the
longer female worm residing in the gynaecophoric
channel of the shorter male. Adult worms are about 10
mm long. Worm pairs of S. mansoni and S. japonicum
relocate to the mesenteric or rectal veins. Parasites
reach maturity in six to eight weeks, at which time they
begin to produce eggs. Adult S. mansoni pairs residing

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1371
in the mesenteric vessels may produce up to 300 eggs
per day during their reproductive lives. S. japonicum
may produce up to 3,000 eggs per day. Many of the
eggs pass through the walls of the blood vessels, and
through the intestinal wall, to be passed out of the body
in feces. S. haematobium eggs pass through the ureteral
or bladder wall and into the urine. Only mature eggs are
capable of crossing into the digestive tract, possibly
through the release of proteolytic enzymes, but also as a
function of host immune response, which fosters local
tissue ulceration. Up to half the eggs released by the
worm pairs become trapped in the mesenteric veins, or
will be washed back into the liver, where they will
become lodged. Worm pairs can live in the body for an
average of four and a half years, but may persist up to
twenty years. Trapped eggs mature normally, secreting
antigens that elicit a vigorous immune response. The
eggs themselves do not damage the body. Rather it is
the cellular infiltration resultant from the immune
response that causes the pathology classically
associated with schistosomiasis. Source:
http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx [6].
Fig 4: Life cycle of Schistosoma spp source:http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx
Persons of all ages are at risk for infection.
Untreated manure should not be used to fertilize
vegetables. Vegetables normally carry a non-pathogenic
epiphytic micro-flora. Hence, there are certain factors
which contribute the microbiological contamination of
these products with pathogens. Consequences of
treating soil with organic fertilizers such as manure, and
savage sludge from irrigation water harvesting, cutting,
slicing, etc result in the parasitic contamination of these
vegetables [7]. Bacteria can be present in low numbers
as a result of the uptake of water through certain
irrigation or washing procedures or contaminated with
human pathogens. Vegetables can become
contaminated while growing in fields or during
harvesting, handling processing, distribution and use
[8]. The increasing use of waste water for irrigation
have prompted a series of literature reviews and
investigations into the global extent of waste water re-
use and its association with human health risk. The
infection can also be a house hold affair where infected
children or person provide the chief source of soil
contamination by their promiscuous defecation in the
soils 9.
The climate and vegetation of Karu LGA are
suitable for the cultivation of Vegetables, using rain
during wet season and irrigation during which water is
derived from two sources, streams and ponds during dry
season. It is a known fact that the use of execrate
polluted irrigation water is a health risk to farmers and
consumers of crops so produced. Raw waste water
frequently contains high number of eggs of human
intestinal nematodes where night soil is extensively
used as fertilizers or waste water re-use is practiced 7.

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This work is designed to detect the human
intestinal parasites that improperly washed vegetables
contain and ways in which they could be controlled.
More and more people are concerned these days about
the presence of parasites of medical importance in fresh
vegetables. According to the numerous studies nearly
80.9% Nigerians in the north have intestinal parasites in
their body10. Intestinal parasitic helminthes and
protozoa infections are among the most common
infections world-wide. In spite of the fact that the
mortality rate among these infections is rather low in
the case of Ascaris lumbricoides two per 1,000,000
people due to the high prevalence, these infections are
regarded as a serious public health problem [11].
Research studies have demonstrated that
drinking water is an important vehicle for transmission
in underdeveloped cities when there is a breakdown in a
water purification or cross contamination between
sewage and drinking water pipes [12]. Food borne
transmission is often due to handler and also occurs
when produce is freshened or crops are irrigated with
contaminated water which in short term leads to
diseases and in long term can lead to massive
deterioration of health [9].
Vegetables
Vegetables are parts of plants that are
consumed by humans or other animals `as food .The
original meaning is still commonly used as applied to
plants collectively to refer to all edible plants, including
the flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and seeds.
Vegetables, like fruits contain fats and are low in
calories but contain good amounts of minerals. All
green vegetables are rich sources of fibres, calcium,
magnesium, potassium, iron, beta-carotene, vitamin B-
complex, vitamin C, vitamin A and vitamin K.
Vegetables also contain many antioxidants. These
health benefiting phyto-chemicals compounds firstly
help protect the human body from oxidant stress,
diseases, and cancers. Secondly, help the body develop
the capacity to fight against these by boosting immunity
[13].
Incidence of Water Borne Disease with Special
Emphasis on Re-use of Waste Water in Agriculture
The use of contaminated water has caused
some incidence of water borne diseases in Nigeria [14].
in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria worked on 120 samples
each of various vegetables crops such as lettuce,
spinach, and cabbage. The result showed that varying
amounts of viable eggs of Ascaris, Trichuris were
recovered in about 100 gram of the various vegetables,
hence, the need to enforce the use of treatment
technology which can produce high level of parasite,
bacterial and viral removal from waste water used to
irrigate vegetables farmlands. In Africa, the growing
demand for fresh and perishable agricultural produce in
the major cities is deriving the development of pre-
urban agriculture. Recycling solid waste and waste
water into Petri-urban horticultural production
contribute to cleaning the environment. However, this is
associated with potential health risk which calls for
careful agronomic practices including water quality and
waste water management [15].
Indicator Organisms
Faecal coliform and faecal streptococcus are
the conventional indication of faecal pollution of water
is used [16]. Some more reliable indicator organisms of
faecal pollution are coliphageya, clisotridium per
fringes and bitido bacteria [17]. They are present in
greater numbers than any pathogen, yet are unable to
proliferate in water to any extent. Moreover, they
should be more resistant than other pathogen to the
stress of the aquatic environment and disinfection
process [18]. As a result of this difficulty, for direct
search for pathogens in water, microbiologist have
evolved simple and rapid test for the detection of
normal intestinal organism known as faecal indicator
organisms, which account for the highest source of
pollution especially in developing countries like
Nigeria. The organisms used as indicators are
Escherichia. Coli, Enterococcus faecal, Salmonella
Species, Bifid bacteria, Vibrio Cholerae. The most
widely used are coliforms bacteria.
Importance of Cleaning and Sanitation of
Vegetables
Clean, well designed and maintained
equipment is less likely to cause damage to fresh
produce and to introduce spillage and pathogenic
microorganism [19]. And keeping the harvested
vegetables under controlled environmental conditions
will help retard growth of post-harvest spoilage [19] and
pathogenic microorganisms. Adequate post-harvest
treatment of vegetables including handling, storage,
Transportation and cleaning helps to reduce cross
contamination of the produce from other agricultural
materials or from the workers. Environmental
conditions and transportation time will also influence
the hygienic quality of the produce prior to processing
or consumption. The presence of cut or damaged
surface provides an opportunity for contamination and
growth of microorganism and ingress into the plant
tissue [20]. Washing of vegetables remove most of the
adhering soil and dirt, hence, it should be recognized
that false washing may also be a source of microbial
contamination so should be done properly [21].
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
This research was conducted at Masaka
Market. Masaka is a town in Nasarawa state of Nigeria,
which lies between latitude 9o 0`North and longitude
7o40`East central Nigeria, It is a district of Karu Local
Government Area, Nasarawa State, it is among the
towns that form the karu urban area, a conurbation of
towns under Karu Local Government Area of Nasarawa

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State .Karu is in close proximity to the Federal capital
Territory of Nigeria. It has an area of 2,640km2. Karu
local government has its headquarters in New Karu
town, it was originally built to house the capital’s civil
servants and lower income families, but had no running
or good sanitation system [21].
Fig 5: Map of Nigeria showing the location of Masaka Sample Collection
Fifty samples of green leafy vegetables were
collected which included as Fluted pumpkin leaf
(Telfairia occidentallis), Water leaf (Hydrophyllum
triangulare), Lettuce(Lactuca sativa), Spinach
(Amaranthus hybridus), Garden egg leaf (Solanum
aethiopicum), False cubeb leaf(Piper guineense), Curry
leaf (Murraya koenigii), Sorrel leaf (Rumex acetosa),
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) and Scent
leaf (Ocimun gratissimum) were purchased from
Masaka market twice a week for a period of two weeks,
upon collection each sample was placed in a separate
zip-lock bag which had been properly labeled after
which it was transported to the microbiology laboratory
of Bingham university, K` Karu, Nasarawa state, where
it would be assessed parasitological in the time range of
24 hours.
Sample Size
A total of Two-hundred samples of green leafy
vegetables were used for this research.
Sampling Process
100g of the vegetable sample was weighed and
washed separately for two minutes in beakers
containing 250ml of distilled water and normal saline
(0.90% NaCl) each for detaching the parasitic stages
(ova, larva, cysts, and oocysts) commonly assumed to
be associated with vegetable contamination. Samples
were washed vigorously by shaking and vegetables
were removed and discarded into waste bins. 10ml of
the washed sample was sieved using fine guaze into
10ml centrifuge tube and centrifuged at 3000rpm for
five minutes using a centrifuge [22]. Supernatant was
decanted and sediment were stained with lugol’s iodine
and examined under light microscope under 10x and
40x objective lens respectively. Intestinal parasites were
identified using techniques described by [23].
Statistical Analysis
Data analysis was carried out by Chi square
test to find out the association between the parasites
present in green leafy vegetables and type of parasites
and to check the significance between the type of
contaminated parasite and type of green leafy
vegetables.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the parasites present and the
poly-parasite contamination with Fluted pumpkin leaf
and Garden egg leaf having the same poly-parasite
contamination.
Table 2 shows Hookworm (34.5%) as the
highest amount of parasites followed by Taenia spp
(31.69%), Entameoba histolytica (15.49), Trichuris
trichura (9.86%) and Ascaris lumbriocoides (8.45%)
with the least amount of parasite.
Table 3 shows the number of samples
contaminated and the percentage of each parasite
present in various samples with false cubeb leaf having
the highest positive contamination with 100% and scent
leaf having the lowest with 40%.
Table 4 shows the type of parasitic
contamination according to type of vegetable with
fluted pumpkin leaf being the highest with a total of 23
parasites present and scent leaf being the lowest with a
total of 8 parasites present.

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Table 1: Parasites present and Poly-parasites contamination of Green leafy vegetables
Parasites
F1
W
S1
L
S2
F2
C1
S3
C2
G
Hookworm
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Trichuris trichura
+
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
+
Teania spp
+
-
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
Entameoba histolytica
-
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
-
Ascaris lumbricoides
+
+
-
-
-
-
+
-
-
+
Key; F1- Fluted pumpkin leaf, W- Waterleaf, S1- Scent leaf, L- Lettuce, S2-Spinach, F2-False cubeb leaf, C1-Cabbage, S3-
Sorrel leaf, C2-Curry leaf, G-Garden egg leaf. + = Present; - = Absent
Table 2: Distribution of intestinal parasites in green leafy vegetables sold at Masaka market
Detected parasite
Frequency
Prevalence (%)
Hookworm
49
34.5
Trichuris trichura
14
9.86
Taenia spp
45
31.69
Entameoba histolytica
22
15.49
Ascaris lumbricoides
12
8.45
TOTAL
142
99.99
Table 3: Prevalence of parasites assessed in green leafy vegetables at Masaka market
Vegetables
Sample No.
Positive (%)
Negative (%)
X2
P value
Fluted pumpkin leaf
20
15(75%)
5(25%)
Waterleaf
20
12(60%)
8(40%)
Scent leaf
20
8(40%)
12(60%)
Lettuce
20
12(60%)
8(40%)
Spinach
20
15(75%)
5(25%)
50.000
0.002
False cubeb leaf
20
20(100%)
0(0%)
Cabbage
20
10(50%)
10(50%)
Sorrel leaf
20
17(85%)
3(15%)
Curry leaf
20
12(60%)
8(40%)
Garden egg leaf
20
10(50%)
10(50%)
TOTAL=
200
129(64.5%)
71(35.5%)
X2= 50.000
df =25
P-value=0.002; the result is significant at p>0.00
Table 4: Type of parasitic contamination according to type of vegetable
Vegetables
H
T1
T2
E
A
TOTAL
Fluted pumpkin leaf
6
5
7
0
5
23
Waterleaf
5
0
0
7
3
15
Scent leaf
3
0
5
0
0
8
Lettuce
5
0
0
8
0
13
Spinach
5
4
6
0
0
15
False cubeb leaf
7
0
7
0
0
14
Cabbage
5
0
0
7
2
14
Sorrel leaf
5
0
6
0
0
11
Curry leaf
5
0
7
0
0
12
Garden egg leaf
3
5
7
0
2
17
TOTAL
49
14
45
22
12
142
Key: H- Hookworm; T1- Trichuris trichura; T2- Taenia spp.; E- Entameoba histolytica;
A- Ascaris lumbricoides.

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Fig 6: Bar chart showing type of parasitic contamination according to type of vegetables
Fig 7: Pie chart showing Prevalence rate of Hookworm in vegetables sold at masaka market
Fig 8: Pie chart showing Prevalence rate of Trichuris trichura in vegetables sold at masaka market

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Fig 9: Pie chart showing Prevalence rate of Taenia spp. in vegetables sold at masaka market
Fig 10: Pie chart showing Prevalence rate of Entameoba histolytica in vegetables sold at masaka market
Fig 11: Pie chart showing Prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides present in vegetables sold at masaka market

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Fig 12: Larvae of Hookworm
Fig 13: Ova of Entameoba histolytica
Fig 14: Teania spp

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Fig 15: Ova of Trichuris trichura
Fig 16: Ova of Ascaris lumbricoides
DISCUSSION
This study showed a considerably high level of
intestinal parasites contamination of Green leafy
vegetables sold at Masaka market, Karu, Of the 200
samples of green leafy vegetables that were collected,
processed and examined, 127 of them were
contaminated with parasites and the overall prevalence
of parasitic contamination was 64.5%. Contamination
may have resulted from contaminated manure, manure
compost, sewage sludge, irrigation water, runoff water
from livestock operations or directly from wild and
domestic animals. These potential contamination events
are all plausible and consistent with the assumption that
the level of contamination must have been high 24. The
overall prevalence of 64.5 % recorded in this study is
higher than 36% recorded in Jos, Plateau state by
Damen et al., (2007) [25], 20% Akyala et al., (2013)
[26] in Alhamis Lafia Nasarawa State, 14% by Umoh et
al. (2001) [27] in Kaduna and Zaria, 33% by Oranusi et
al., (2012) [28] in Owerri, Imo State and 11% in
Zamfara by Shehu and Amina, (2014) [29], all in
Nigeria. The prevalence was also higher than 20.1% by
Takayanagui et al., (2002) [30] in Brazil, 29% by Uga
et al., (2009) [31] in Vietnam and 31.7% by Doaa and
Said (2012) [32] on green vegetables foodstuff in
Alexandria, Egypt. However, prevalence of the present
study was lower than 65.8% by Amaechi et al., (2011)
[33] in Owerri. However, the result was comparable to
64% recorded by Kenneth and Nsima (2002) [33], in
Uyo, Akwa Ibom. Differences could have arisen from
several factors which may include, geographical
location, type and number of samples examined,
methods used for detection of the intestinal parasites,
type of water used for and post-harvesting handling
methods of such vegetables which are different from
country to another.
In table 3, it was made obvious that Fluted
pumpkin, false cubeb leaf, sorrel leaf, water leaf,
spinach, lettuce and cabbage were more contaminated

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1379
than curry leaf, scent leaf and Garden egg leaf. Low
growth vegetables seem to be more exposed to
contamination with parasite stages during high rainfall
and floods unlike high growth vegetables. False cubeb
leaf, Cabbage, lettuce and fluted pumpkin are short
growth plants. This tendency of growing near the soil
and trailing on the soil predispose them to
contamination with various types of parasites which
normally undergo part of their development in the soil.
The contamination can also come from manure used for
cultivation of these vegetables. These low growth
vegetables tend to come in contact with applied manure
in the soil since they are close to the ground and the
manure can be compost or animal manure containing
fecal material of animals like poultry, pig, cow and
goat.
The higher contamination found in fluted
pumpkin and false cubeb leaf may also be attributed to
the shape and surface of these vegetables. The leaf folds
of green leafy vegetables such as fluted pumpkin, scent
leaf and false cubeb leaf have uneven surfaces that
make parasitic eggs and cysts attach to the surface more
easily, either in the farm or when washed with
contaminated water. They could also retain dirts which
may not be easily removed by slight washing and these
dirts most times harbor parasite eggs and cysts. This
may indicate why contamination is higher in leafy
vegetables than root vegetables (Damen et al., 2007).
This agrees with the findings of Damen et al., (2007)
and Doaa and Said (2012), who recorded highest
parasite contamination in leafy vegetables in Jos,
Plataeu state, Nigeria and Alexandria, Egypt
respectively.
The use of sewage contaminated water for
irrigation of vegetables is a common practice in
developing countries including Nigeria where Karu is
located. The water contaminated with wastes may not
be treated before being used for irrigation. Vegetables
may not only contaminate in the farm, but also from
unclean environment in the markets as well as from
vegetable vendors due to their poor sanitary status.
Vendors serve as intermediary between the
producer farmers and the final consumers, they play an
important role in the distribution chain of fruits and
vegetable produces and also on the contamination and
distribution of the contaminants bb [28]. Some vendors
display their goods on the road side exposed to dust,
flies and other insects. This practice coupled with the
handling of the vegetables by different customers
during bargain can contribute to contamination of
vegetables [28]. Flies like housefly can easily carry
parasite eggs and cysts from these dumped refuse in the
filthy market premises and surroundings and transfer
them mechanically to already displayed vegetables.
In table 1, it was noticed that Fluted pumpkin
leaf and garden egg leaf has the same poly-parasite
contamination of Hookworm, Teania spp, Trichuris
trichura and Ascaris lumbricoides. This can be related
to the ability of the parasite to survive for days to
months in the environment after being passed out in
feaces.
In table 2, Hookworm had the highest
occurrence followed by Teania spp, E. histolytica,
Trichuris trichura while Ascaris lumbricoides the least.
The presence of helminthes eggs in different vegetables
is mainly related to contamination of soil rather than
contamination of irrigating water. It must be noted that
some of these vegetables are cultivated in the tropics
and tropical climate provides a conducive atmosphere
for the development of these parasites. Biologically, the
highest health risk is found in helminthes infections
compared with other pathogens because helminthes
persist for longer periods in the environment and the
infective dose is small.
In table 3, the number of samples
contaminated and the percentage of each parasite
present in various samples with false cubeb leaf having
the highest positive contamination with 100% and scent
leaf having the lowest with 40%. Data analysis was
carried out by Chi square test the value was gotten to be
50.000 with df of 25. The P value was gotten to be 0.02
which means the 2 variables are associated with each
other, which is less than 0.05 which proved the alternate
hypothesis to be accepted, which means that the exact
type of parasites present as contaminants of vegetables
sold for consumption were determined and the parasitic
load of contaminants present were also determined. In
table 4, it was noticed that fluted pumpkin leaf had the
highest amount of parasites with a total of 23 parasites
while scent leaf had the lowest with a total of 8
parasites present.
CONCLUSION
The findings of the present study revealed the
poor socio-economic condition, as well as poor
sanitation practices in our environment. The presence of
these parasites in the local vegetables meant for
consumption might be due to lack of modern toilet
facilities, inadequate public health enlightenment and
ignorance that make people defecate indiscriminately
resulting in pollution of water and farmland. There is
dire need for the improvement of sanitary facilities in
our markets and among vegetable vendors. There
should be proper treatment of wastewater used for
irrigation of vegetables, enlightenment campaign,
environmental and friendly policies by government,
sanitation laws; therefore, local market water and
environment authorities have major roles to play.
Researches should be done on edible vegetables sold in
other markets of Nigeria to ascertain the hygienic status
of the vegetables the citizens consume on daily basis.
Combination of these results will help in policy making

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on good sanitary system that will govern the
environment
RECOMMENDATION
With increasing urban population, and the
awareness of the nutritional content and importance of
Green leafy vegetables, the following measures are
recommended;
1. Practical, simple and inexpensive methods of
improving the microbial quality of irrigation water
at the farm level should be developed or an
alternative source of water be provided for
irrigation.
2. Farmers should be encouraged to use Personal
Protective Equipment such as gloves, boots,
trousers and long sleeve shirts during farm work to
reduce the level of exposure.
3. Education on the right methods for vegetable
washing especially at the point of consumption
should be increased by the Ministry of health.
4. Vendors of these vegetables should ensure proper
hygiene in handling and sale of these vegetables to
reduce levels of contamination and exposure
5. Public awareness on effects of consumption of
vegetables contaminated with these parasites
should be done in other to educate the public on the
health risks involved.
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