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Katholische Kirche
Abstract
Eine Studie über die Konfliktlösung im Kirchenrecht in der Neuzeit kann nur ausgeführt werden, wenn man dabei das Augenmerk auf die Tendenz der Zentralisierung der Herrschaft und der Regierung richtet, die die Geschichte der kirchlichen Institutionen zwischen dem 16. und dem 18. Jahrhundert prägt. Denn genau seit Beginn des 16. Jahrhunderts wurden die Bedürfnisse einer Reform der Römischen Kurie und einer erneuten Stärkung der päpstlichen Kontrolle über die Ortskirchen nach und nach immer dringlicher. Nach den zaghaften Versuchen der Päpste der ersten Hälfte des Jahrhunderts und dem von Luther herbeigeführten dramatischen Bruch konnte die Reform nicht länger aufgeschoben werden. So versuchte die katholische Kirche durch die Einberufung des Konzils von Trient (1545–1563), welches nur mit erheblichen Schwierigkeiten zum Abschluss gebracht werden konnte, ihre Macht über den gesamten orbis catholicus wieder unerschütterlich zu befestigen. In diesem Prozess hatte das Thema Konfliktlösung eine große Bedeutung. Die erneute Stärkung einer präzisen gerichtlichen Hierarchie, die nach spezifischen Verfahrensvorschriften geregelt war, bildete einen fundamentalen Punkt in der erneuten Bekräftigung des päpstlichen Universalismus im modernen Sinne. Dieser Universalismus unterschied sich von dem während des Mittelalters verfolgten Konzept insoweit, als die Kirche nunmehr, nachdem sie mit den modernen Staaten nicht konkurrieren konnte, ein paralleles Modell ohne territoriale Grenzen anbot, in dem der Papststaat die Garantie der Grundlage für diesen Prozess darstellte (Prodi 2000, S. 271).
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Legal pluralism calls into question the monopoly of the modern state when it comes to the production and the enforcement of norms. It rests on the assumption that juridical normativity and state organization can be dissociated. From an early modern historian's perspective, such an assumption makes perfect sense, the plural nature of the legal order being the natural state of affairs in imperial spaces across the globe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This article will provide a case study of the collaborative nature of the interaction between spiritual and temporal legal orders in Spain and its overseas territories as conceived by Tomás de Mercado (ca. 1520-1575), a major theologian from the School of Salamanca. His treatise on trade and contracts (1571) contained an extended discussion of the government's attempt to regulate the grain market by imposing a maximum price. It will be argued that Mercado's view on the bindingness of economic regulations in conscience allowed for the internalization of the regulatory power of the nascent state. He called upon confessors to be strict enforcers of state law, considering them as fathers of the republic as much as fathers of faith. This is illustrative of the «collaborative form of legal pluralism» typical of the osmotic relationship between Church and State in the early modern Spanish empire. It contributed to the moral justification of state jurisdictions, while at the same time, guaranteeing a privileged role for theologians and religious leaders in running the affairs of the state.
Legal Historians are usually interested in Church Councils because of their function as the institutional setting for the production of canons, one of the major sources of the history of canon law. Nonetheless, Church Councils were also important places of communication about law and politics, an important function which often did not find any expression in the normative framework enacted by these assemblies. Taking a petition submitted by a group of mestizos from the Viceroyalty of Peru as a starting point, this article tries to analyze the way this growing interest group tried to perceive its goal – the admission to the ordination of priesthood – by making strategic use of the procedures and communication structures the Council offered for the resolution of disputes that had arisen in the Church Province. Looking carefully at the steps taken in what the mestizos themselves called a »process«, it can be shown that the Council did not only take its own decision on the matter of sacramental law, but that it was also employed by the petitioners to validate their arguments and thus prepare a submission to the King. By introducing their own arguments into the process, they transformed them into »proofs« that finally served as arguments for reaching their main goal, the revocation of a Royal Decree prohibiting their ordination, dictated by the Crown in 1578 and revoked ten years later, making explicit mention of the arguments collected before the council. This case study, based on material from the Archive of the Indies, thus not only shows how deeply intertwined secular and ecclesiastical jurisdictions were in the Indies, but also gives an insight into communication about law and legal culture in an important centre of the polycentric Spanish monarchy.
Christians are supposed to love their neighbours, including their enemies. This is never easy. When feud and honour are common realities, it is even harder than usual. This book sketches the history of peace-making between people (not countries) as an activity of churches or of Christianity between the Reformation and the eighteenth century. The story is recounted in four countries (Italy, France, Germany, and England) and in several religious settings (including Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Church of England, and Calvinist). Each version is a variation upon a theme: what the author calls a 'moral tradition' which contrasts, as a continuing imperative, with the novelties of theory and practice introduced by the sixteenth-century reformers. In general the topic has much to say about the destinies of Christianity in each country, and more widely, and strikes a chord which will resonate in both the social and the religious history of the West.
[actes des tables rondes "Papauté, offices et charges publiques, XIV-XVIIe siècle", réunies à Rome les 5-6 mars 2001 et 11-13 avril 2002]
While the Spanish Inquisition has laid the greatest claim to both scholarly attention and the popular imagination, the Roman Inquisition, established in 1542 and a key instrument of papal authority, was more powerful, important, and long-lived. Founded by Paul III and originally aimed to eradicate Protestant heresy, it followed medieval antecedents but went beyond them by becoming a highly articulated centralized organ directly dependent on the pope. By the late sixteenth century the Roman Inquisition had developed its own distinctive procedures, legal process, and personnel, the congregation of cardinals and a professional staff. Its legal process grew out of the technique of inquisitio formulated by Innocent III in the early thirteenth century, it became the most precocious papal bureaucracy on the road to the first "absolutist" state. As Thomas F. Mayer demonstrates, the Inquisition underwent constant modification as it expanded. The new institution modeled its case management and other procedures on those of another medieval ancestor, the Roman supreme court, the Rota. With unparalleled attention to archival sources and detail, Mayer portrays a highly articulated corporate bureaucracy with the pope at its head. He profiles the Cardinal Inquisitors, including those who would play a major role in Galileo's trials, and details their social and geographical origins, their education, economic status, earlier careers in the Church, and networks of patronage. At the point this study ends, circa 1640, Pope Urban VIII had made the Roman Inquisition his personal instrument and dominated it to a degree none of his predecessors had approached.
Alessandro Gnavi, Carriere e Curia romana : l'Uditorato di Rota (1472-1870), p. 161-202. Attraverso un'indagine di carattere quantitativo, basata sull'esame delle carriere di 351 uditori della Sacra Romana Rota la presente indagine indaga sulla fisionomia del tribunale romano dal 1472 al 1870. Da diverse aggregazioni di dati, sintetizzate con tabelle, si sono rintracciate alcune ricorrenze negli sbocchi offerti dalla Rota - in primo luogo il cardinalato - e nelle modalita di accesso al tribunale. Alcune esemplificazioni di carriere di singoli uditori descrivono le strategie familiari, i complessi giochi in Curia romana, per l'assegnazione di uffici diversi, in rapporto alle politiche nepotistiche dei pontefici.
Capellani papae et Apostolicae Sedis auditores causarum sacri palatii apostolici seu Sacra Romana Rota ab origine ad diem usque 20 septembris 1870
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