Lepidium sativum: A potential functional food

Abstract

Lepidium sativum Linn. (family Cruciferae) is an edible herb that is botanically related to watercress and mustard, having their peppery, tangy taste and odour. Traditionally L. sativum seeds are used to treat wounds, sprains, asthma, bronchitis, cough and is considered useful as abortifacient, aphrodisiac, antibacterial, diuretic, expectorant, gastrointestinal stimulant, gastroprotective, laxative and stomachic. Many of these traditional uses have been scientifically validated using different in vitro and in vivo studies and in this review are compiled in an inclusive manner. Seeds are reported to be rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, amino acids, proteins, triterpenoids, steroids and saponin glycosides possessing different pharmacological activities. Aim of the study: This study is an effort to collate complete scientific literature published till March 2021 in order to generate a succinct summation on the distribution, traditional beneficial potential, chemical constituents, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of this coveted species of genus Lepidium. Materials and Methods: Exploring assorted scientific databases. Results: The present methodically compiled review article accentuates medicinal and nutritional significance of this highly valued plant by focusing on various aspects of the plant such as the, physicochemical characterisation and pharmacological studies that validates folklore uses. Thus, this annotated script on L. sativum would be a handy tool to explore the future prospective of research on this traditional plant.

Full text

140
Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine 2021; 7(2): 140-149
Review Article
ISSN: 2454-5023
J. Ayu. Herb. Med.
2021; 7(2): 140-149
Received: 25-03-2021
Accepted: 27-05-2021
© 2021, All rights reserved
www.ayurvedjournal.com
DOI: 10.31254/jahm.2021.7213
*Corresponding author:
Mamta B. Shah
Professor & Head, Department of
Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, L. M. College of
Pharmacy, Ahmedabad, Gujarat,
India
Email: mbshah2007[at]rediffmail.com
Lepidium sativum: A potential functional food
Mamta B. Shah1*, Vinisha A. Dudhat1, Krupa V. Gadhvi1
1 Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, L. M. College of Pharmacy, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
ABSTRACT
Lepidium sativum Linn. (family Cruciferae) is an edible herb that is botanically related to watercress and mustard,
having their peppery, tangy taste and odour. Traditionally L. sativum seeds are used to treat wounds, sprains, asthma,
bronchitis, cough and is considered useful as abortifacient, aphrodisiac, antibacterial, diuretic, expectorant,
gastrointestinal stimulant, gastroprotective, laxative and stomachic. Many of these traditional uses have been
scientifically validated using different in vitro and in vivo studies and in this review are compiled in an inclusive manner.
Seeds are reported to be rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, amino acids, proteins, triterpenoids, steroids and saponin
glycosides possessing different pharmacological activities. Aim of the study: This study is an effort to collate complete
scientific literature published till March 2021 in order to generate a succinct summation on the distribution, traditional
beneficial potential, chemical constituents, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of this coveted species of
genus Lepidium. Materials and Methods: Exploring assorted scientific databases. Results: The present methodically
compiled review article accentuates medicinal and nutritional significance of this highly valued plant by focusing on
various aspects of the plant such as the, physicochemical characterisation and pharmacological studies that validates
folklore uses. Thus, this annotated script on L. sativum would be a handy tool to explore the future prospective of
research on this traditional plant.
Keywords: Cruciferae, Garden cress, L. sativum, Pharmacology, Phytochemistry.
INTRODUCTION
L. sativum Linn. (Family Cruciferae) is an annual, glabrous, erect, and fast-growing, herb commonly known
as “common cress,” “garden cress,” “garden pepperweed,” “chandrashoor,” “raktbija”, “aseliyo” and
many more. The plant is native to Europe and southwestern Asia, introduced and cultivated throughout
India, Europe, United States, England, France, Asia, etc. as a salad plant [1-3]. All parts are of commercial
value, but it is cultivated throughout the world mainly for its seeds and leaves of which the later are
consumed as salad for piquant flavour [4, 5]. The plant is also used in poultices for wounds and sprains [6].
Seeds are used to treat respiratory diseases like asthma [7-9] bronchitis and cough [7-9], bleeding piles [10],
scorbutic diseases [11], liver complaints [12-18], Root is specifically valued in the treatment of secondary
syphilis and tenesmus [19].
Documented records on phytochemical aspects revealed that raw seeds in particular are rich in vitamins
A, C, and K; minerals, carbohydrates, dietary fibres, protein, and fat [20-23].
L. sativum is also known for its several pharmacological actions such as anti-bacterial [6, 24-31], anti
carcinogenic [32-39], anti-inflammatory [6, 30, 40-45], cardioprotective, antioxidant [11, 30, 46-51], hypolipidemic [16,
17, 40, 52-58], diuretic [59-61], gastro-protective [62-67], stomachic [62, 64, 65, 68], gastrointestinal stimulant [62-67], and
laxative [67] and many more.
The present review is an assemblage of literature on identification, traditional uses, phytochemical and
pharmacological research work on L. sativum, that explicate the all-round medicinal utilities of this plant.
HABITAT
L. sativum can be grown all over around the year at all altitudes but the most favourable season is winter.
Cultivation is done on both mass scales and individual scales and it is suitable for hydroponic cultivation
also and can thrive well in slightly alkaline water [4, 5].

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DISTRIBUTION
Global distribution
L. sativum is native of Egypt and Southwest Asia that as a naturalised or
more frequently casual plant is widespread in Asia, Afghanistan,
Bhutan, China, India, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal, Pakistan,
Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Vietnam; Africa; Europe;
North America; South America [69].
Local distribution
It is found to be growing throughout India in cultivated fields, gardens,
roadsides and near railway tracks, at an altitude up to 2000 m [10].
Morphology and microscopy
L. sativum is an annual edible herb 15–50 cm in height, straight,
branched, glabrous, rarely pilose with pinnatisect basal leaves that are
5-10 cm long, 2.5-3.5 cm broad, stalked to subsessile, while cauline
leaves are linear and sessile with entire margin as shown in Fig. 1.
Racemes are much-branched, each 20-40 flowered, ebracteate.
Flowers are small about 3 mm in size, white or pinkish; Fruit is on
suberect to ascending pedicel that is appressed to rachis and 5 to 6.4
mm in size. It is obovate or broadly elliptic, emarginated, apically
broadly winged with apical notch 0.2 to 0.8 mm deep. Seeds are ovate-
oblong, 3 lobed, 3 mm long, 1 mm broad, brownish-red in colour as
shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 1: Leaf of Lepidium sativum
Figure 2: Seeds of Lepidium sativum
Figure 3: % Major Fatty acids
Figure 4: %Minor Fatty acids
Figure 5: % Amino acids
Traditional use
L. sativum has been traditionally used for many diseases such as cold
infusion of seed is used in treatment of high cough, spleen and liver
chronic enlargement, flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery, indigestion,
rheumatic pain, inflammation, viscous humours, tenesmus, secondary
syphilis, abortion, anaemia and weakness [70-72]. For sprains, dysentery,
leprosy, skin diseases they are mostly used as poultices. The seeds are
also recommended as depurative, tonic, aphrodisiac, hemogenic,
galactagogue and diuretic. Moreover seeds are useful in preventing the
hair loss and stimulating the appetite [73].
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
g/100g
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
Myristic Stearic Arachidic Erucic Palmitoleic acid
g/100g
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
g/100g protein

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Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine|April-June|2021
L. sativum is noted to relieve the body’s allergic responses to insect
bites. According to Ayurvedic system of medicine it exhibits hot, bitter,
tonic, and aphrodisiac properties [4, 3, 74-76].
Other uses
Recently, L. sativum is getting recognition as a functional food. As it has
high nutritive value, people consume it as a dietary supplement. In
some of the countries, noodles [77], biscuits [78], health drinks [79], flakes
[80], cereals [81], ladoo [82, 83, 72], snacks [84], instant ‘dhokla’ mix [85], and
nutricookies [86], prepared from the seeds are marketed. Leaf of L.
sativum used in salad preparation because of its tangy taste and health
benefit [22, 69,73, 87-92]. Seeds serve a source of mucilage that is used as
pharmaceutical excipients [ 22, 93, 94].
Seed cake of L. sativum is also used as a water purifying bed. Also
seeds have the capacity to absorb heavy metals from the soil and so
are used as soil purifier for their removal of from the soil [95, 96].
Phytochemistry
L. sativum is known for its various activities since ancient time and
recently seeds in particular are being popularly promoted as functional
food too. The seeds are rich in minerals, vitamins, essential fatty acids.
protein, amino acids and flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins.
Basic component
Basic nutrient like total carbohydrate, protein, moisture content, and
ash value of L. sativum is mentioned in Table 1 [4, 20-23].
Table 1: Basic components of L. sativum
Parameter
% w/w± SD
Moisture
5.70±1.71
Protein
22.6±2.32
Ash
5.14±0.49
Crude fibre
8.21±1.85
Carbohydrates
34.23±4.71
Fat
24.82±2.66
oil
22.66
Vitamins
Vitamins are essential in our day to day life. Some evidences confirm
the presence of vitamins in L. sativum as mentioned in Table 2 [20, 97, 98].
Table 2: Vitamins obtained from L. Sativum
Vitamins
% daily value
Vitamin A
138%
Vitamin C
115%
Vitamin D
0%
Vitamin B-6
10%
Cobalamin
0%
* % Daily Values are based on a 2000 calorie diet.
Minerals
Minerals are those elements which are required for our body
development and function normally. L. sativum is reach in minerals
Table 3 [4, 20-23, 97-99].
Table 3: Mineral content of L. sativum
Mineral Content
% DWB± SD
Iron (Fe)
0.04±0.02
Copper (Cu)
0.01±0.02
Zinc (Zn)
0.01±0.02
Manganese (Mn)
0.01±0.008
Boron (B)
0.01
Molybdenum (Mb)
0.004
Aluminium (Al)
0.02
Potassium (K)
4.63±5.16
Phosphorus (P)
2.87±2.62
Calcium (Ca)
1.16±1.26
Sodium (Na)
0.13±0.08
Magnesium (Mg)
1.73±1.42
Sulphur(S)
2.93
Essential fatty acids
L. sativum serves as a potential source of fatty acids, some essential
fatty acids are ethyl linolate; ethyl octadecenoate and many more and
their diagrammatical representation is given in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 [20, 22, 97,
101, 102].
Saturated fatty acids and its derivative
L. sativum is reported to contain n-hexadecanoic acid, hexadecanoic
acid ethyl ester, glycidyl palmitate; ethyl (E)-octadec-9-enoate;
ethyl icosanoate; glycidyl Oleate; 1,3-dihydroxypropan-2-yl
hexadecanoate, dodecanoic acid, ethyl pentadecanoate, tetradecanoic
acid, ethyl tetradecanoate; pentadecanoic acid, ethyl pentadecanoate,
pentadecanoic acid, 6,10,14-trimethylpentadecan-2-one,
pentadecanoic acid ethyl ester, hexadecanoic acid methyl ester, 9-
hexadecenoic acid, ethyl 9-hexadecenoate, (e)-9-octadecenoic acid
ethyl ester, heptadecanoic acid, ethyl ester, octadecanoic acid, ethyl
ester; 4,8,12,16-tetramethylheptadecan-4-olide, behenic alcohol,
docosanoic acid, ethyl ester, hexacosylheptafluorobutyrate, ethyl
tetracosanoate, 1-heptacosanol [20, 97, 101-04].
Unsaturated fatty acids and its derivatives
Unsaturated fatty acids and their derivatives are identified in L.
sativum are γ-tocopherol, 8,11,14-eicosatrienoic acid methyl ester,
linoleoyl chloride, trans-9,12-octadecadienoic acid propyl ester,
ethyl (9z,12z)-octadeca-9,12-dienoate, benzenepropanoic acid
octadecyl ester [20, 97, 101-105].
Different monounsaturated fatty acids and their derivatives are
identified include cis-9-hexadecenal; erucic acid, oleoyl chloride, (Z)-18-
octadec-9-enolide, (E)-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadec-2-en-1-ol, trans-
phytol, dichloroacetic acid tridec-2-ynyl ester, (14r)-14-methylhexadec-

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8-yn-1-ol, (z)-octadec-9-enal;fumaric acid, 2-dimethylaminoethyl
octadecyl ester [20, 101, 102, 104].
Phytosterols and its derivatives
Phytosterols are the phytoconstituent which have steroidal skeleton.
They serve lots of advantages as they act as steroids present in human
body. Important phytosterols such as stigmasterol, γ -Stigmasterol; β-
sitosterol, campesterol, isofucosterol, squalene, along with [(3s)-17-
[(e)-5-ethyl-6-methylhept-3-en-2-yl]-10,13-dimethyl 2,3,4,7,8,9,11,12,
14,15,16, 17-dodecahydro-1h-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-yl] acetate,
stigmast-5-en-3-ol, oleate, stigmast-5-en-3-ol, 4-campestene-3-one,
4,22-stigmastadiene-3-one, gamma-sitostenone, (5r,8s,9s,10r,13r,
14s,17r)-4,4,10,13-tetramethyl-17-[(2r)-6-methylheptan-2-yl]-2,5,6,7,
8,9,11,12,14,15,16,17-dodecahydro-1h-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-
one,(5s,8s,9s,10r,13r,14s,17r)-17-[(2r,5r)-5-ethyl-6-methylheptan-2-yl]-
10,13-dimethyl2,4,5,7,8,9,11,12,14,15,16,17 -dodecahydro-1h-
cyclopenta[a]phenanthrene-3,6-dione have been identified in L.
Sativum [101, 102, 104, 106].
Amino acids
Essential amino acids and non-essential amino acids both are required
for human body development. Entire genomes of human based on
amino acids but human body dose not generate these amino acids by
themselves. In such situation amino acids are taken from the natural
sources. L. sativum is reach in amino acid content, some of them are
mentioned in Table 5 and their percentage description given in Fig. 6 [4,
20, 22, 97, 100].
Volatile compounds/aromatic compounds
Seeds of L. Sativum contain plenty of volatile oil that is rich in neral,
citral, linalool (monoterpenoid), carvone (terpenoid), linalyl acetate,
geraniol (monoterpenoid), terpinyl formate, eugenol, geranyl acetate,
methyl eugenol, (4R,4aR)-1,1,4,7-tetramethyl-1a,2,3,4,4a,5,6,7b-
octahydrocyclopropa[e] azulene (tricyclic sesquiterpene),
caryophyllene (bicyclic sesquiterpene), 1,2-15,16-diepoxyhexadecane,
1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid [101, 104].
Organic compounds
Important secondary metabolites recorded in the L. Sativum comprise
kaempferol-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside; quercetin-7-O-L-rhamnoside;
rutin; 3-methoxy-4-hydroxybenzoic acid; syringaldehyde; 2-
phenylacetamide; benzoic acid, 2-(dimethylamino) ethyl ester; benzyl
nitrile; (isothiocyanatomethyl)-; 3',5'-dimethoxyacetophenone; 2-
(dimethylamino) ethyl 3-cyclopentylpropanoate; 4-O-[2-
(dimethylamino) ethyl] 1-O-nonyl (E)-but-2-enedioate; O-ethyl s-2-
dimethylamino ethyl ethyl phos; eucalyptol; benzyl isocyanate; 2,4-
ditert-butyl-6-(1-phenylethyl)phenol; neophytadiene; 1,5-pent-2-ene-
3-methyl-5-(2,6- dimethylhept; 3-cyclopenta-2,4-dien-1-yl-n,n-
dimethylpropan-1-amine; 3-cyclopentylpropionic acid 2-
dimethylaminoethyl ester; 1-cyclohexyldimethylsilyloxybutane;
cyclododecanone; 2-(3-hydroxybutyl)-2-nit [101, 104, 106].
Pharmacological activity
Anti carcinogenic activity
Phenolics compound present in the seed coat of L. sativum has been
shown to possess inhibitory action of trypsin with an IC50 value of 14.6
µg/mL [32]. L. sativum juice is reported to exhibit protective action
against benzo(a)pyrene-induced DNA damage in human derived cells
[33]. Furthermore, chemoprotective effect of L. sativum constituents,
glucotropaeolin and benzylisothiocyanate is shown to be mediated
through enhancement of detoxification of 2-amino-3-methyl-imidazo
[4,5-f] quinoline by glucuronosyl transferase [34-36]. The methanolic
extract is shown to be cytotoxic in MTT and neutral red assays in-vitro
on colon and endometrium cancer cells and human peripheral
lymphocyte cells in a concentration-dependent manner. A high content
of phenolic and flavonoid compounds in the extract is shown to be
responsible for significant antioxidant activity. Apoptotic activity and
genotoxic effects of the plant extract were significantly found to be
increasing with 200 µg/ml concentrations at 48 hours incubation [37].
Alkaloid extract of L. sativum containing six alkaloids and proto-
alkaloids, viz., benzyl isothiocyanate (1), 2-ethoxy-4H-3,1-benzoxazin-4-
one (2), (4R)-2-(2-aminophenyl)-4-phenyloxazoline (3), 5-acetyl-1,2-
dihydro-6-methyl-2-oxo-4-phenyl-3-pyridinecarbonitrile (4), benzo[b,
1,8]-naphthyridin-5(10H)-one,2,4,7-trimethyl (5) and 1,4-
diaminoanthraquinone (6) is reported to be cytotoxic to Jurkat E6-1
cells, with median lethal concentration (LC50) of 75.25 µg/mL. In further
experiments with Jurkat cells at LC50 and sub-LC50 doses the extract is
shown to demonstrate DNA fragmentation, activate caspase-3 and
cause time-dependant phosphatidylserine translocation (apoptosis)
from inner to outer cell membranes [38]. However, the alkaloid extract
is also shown to be possessing nontoxic and proliferative (1.6-fold)
effects in healthy PBMCs. The aqueous extract of seed is shown to
inhibit growth of breast cancer cells MCF-7 cells, time and dose-
dependent manner [39].
Anti-diarrheal and anti-spasmodic activities
The methanolic extract of L. sativum seeds is reported to have a
substantial reduction in the severity and frequency of diarrhoea
produced by castor oil due to the ability of the extract to increase re-
absorption of NaCl and water by decreasing the intestinal motility.
Further, this activity of the extract is attributed to the presence of
flavonoids, alkaloids and saponins that are known for inhibiting
autacoid and prostaglandin, in that way inhibiting the motility and
secretion [62-67].
In various animal experimental studies the crude extract of L. sativum
is shown to exert antispasmodic effect through a combination of
multiple pathways including activation of K+ channels, and inhibition of
muscarinic receptors, Ca++ channels and PDE enzyme [62, 64, 65, 68].
Anti-hypertensive activity
The aqueous extract of L. sativum in various experiments is shown to
cause a significant decrease in blood pressure while no changes in
heart rate [41, 60, 70, 97, 99, 107-109].

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Anti-inflammatory activity
Several studies on anti-inflammatory potential of seed oil of L. sativum
report its potential to alleviate inflammatory conditions by modulating
inflammatory mediators such as NO and leukotriene B4 and the effect
has been attributed presence of α-linolenic acid, 7,10-hexadecadienoic
acid, 11-octadecenoic acid, 7,10,13- hexadecatrienoic acid, and
behenic acid in the seed oil at 300µg/mL [41, 6]. The anti-inflammatory
activity of methanolic extract of seed was studied in rats at three
different doses 50 mg/Kg, 100 mg/Kg, and 200mg/Kg and the highest
activity is shown to be at 50mg/kg dose [43]. L. sativum crude extract
containing a high concentration of flavonoids quercetin, kaempferol,
luteolin, apigenin, naringin and naringenin has been found to mitigate
inflammatory conditions in experimental animals [40]. In another study
crude extract of L. sativum, polyphenols and organosulfur compounds
are shown to be responsible for the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
activities [42]. The crude extract of L. sativum is shown to exert strong
anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced paw oedema and
reduce the yeast-induced hyperpyrexia by inhibiting the proliferation
of fibroblasts and also modulation of connective tissue [30, 44, 45, 110].
Anti-microbial activity
The ethanol extract of seeds of L. sativum at 200 mg/ml is reported to
inhibit growth of Streptococcus equine and Corynebacterium
pseudotuberculosis [24]. In multiple experiments seed extracts (ethanol,
methanol and chloroform) are assessed against different strains of
bacteria like Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Methicillin-
Resistance Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumonia and
Escherichia coli strains and the major compounds fatty acid esters and
alkaloids are shown to be responsible for anti-microbial activity [25-31,
104, 111]. L. sativum seed oil is reported to possess anti-microbial effect
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica, K. pneumoniae,
S. aureus, Bacillus subtilis, E. coli and Candida albicans [6].
Analgesic activity
The methanolic extract of seed L. sativum rich in carbohydrates,
proteins, fatty acids and vitamins (β-carotene, riboflavin, niacin and
ascorbic acid) along with volatile oils, fixed oils, flavanoids,
isothiocynate glycoside is reported to possess analgesic activity in mice
in tail flick and hot plate methods [43, 45]. In one of the study on the
neurobehavioral effects, the total alkaloid fraction from seeds of L.
sativum is reported to considerably potentiate the thiopental induced
hypnosis, decrease locomotor activity and motor coordination, and
increase preference to plus maze open arm [112]. Flavonoidal
constituents from the methanolic extract of L. sativum seed has been
shown to give analgesic activity in rat model [113]. The seed of L.
sativum is found to exert analgesic activity of in the acetic acid-induced
writhing syndrome and formaldehyde-induced paw licking response by
significantly increasing latency of onset and producing significant
inhibition of neurogenic and inflammatory pain [114].
Anti-osteoporotic effect
Treatment with L. sativum is shown to improve the serum Ca, albumin,
P, bone architecture bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (b-ALP), and
decreased tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) in
glucocorticoids-induced osteoporosis in experimental animals [114, 115].
Anti-oxidant activity
Lepidium seed oil consists of fatty acid (oleic acid and linoleic acid), γ-
tocopherol, δ-tocopherol and flavonoid is reported to cause significant
reduction in free oxidative species in blood [11, 47-50]. 7,10-
hexadecadienoic acid, 11-octadecenoic acid, 7,10,13- hexadecatrienoic
acid, and behenic acid phytoconstituents found in L. sativum are shown
to possess free radical scavenging activity (DPPH) [6, 46]. Of the ethanolic
extracts of different parts of L. sativum studied for antioxidant activity
(DPPH assay) shoot extract is shown to be supreme in scavenging
activity and stem as least active [51] In one of the study L. sativum
antioxidant activity is reported against melanin production
enhancement on exposure to UV-c radiation [116]. The activity of
glutathione s-transferase enzyme, reduced glutathione activity and
reducing power was found to be more in ethanolic extract of seed than
other plant parts [51, 117].
Anti-pyretic activity
The methanolic extract of L. sativum in dose of 100 mg/Kg is reported
to produce significant reduction in the yeast-induced hyperpyrexia
(antipyretic effect) [45].
Bronchodilatory effects
L. sativum is extensively used in traditional medicine to treat
respiratory tract disorders, such as asthma, bronchitis and cough. The
crude extract of L. sativum at higher concentration is shown to inhibit
carbachol and K+ induced contractions in a pattern which is similar to
that of dicyclomine, suggesting that bronchodilatory effect of these
crude extract is mediated through a combination of anticholinergic,
calcium ion channel antagonist and phosphodiesterase inhibitory
pathways, providing complete mechanistic background for its
medicinal use in the overactive airways disorders [8, 9, 62, 70, 118- 126].
Cardioprotective effect
The ethanolic extract of L. sativum (i.p.) is recorded to cause significant
rise in blood pressure and increase the rate and force of auricular and
ventricular movements of open chest cat heart preparation. The
cardio-stimulant action is also reported to be observed on isolated
rabbit auricles. It is noted in the study that the extract, when given
intraperitoneal route to mice at up to 1000 mg/kg, did not produce
behavioural or toxic effects [127].
Coagulant activity
The ethanolic extract of L. sativum is shown to significantly increase in
fibrinogen level and an insignificant decrease in prothrombin time,
confirming its coagulating property [45].
Diuretic activity
The aqueous extract of L. sativum produces has been shown to
increase glomerular filtration rate causing significant increase of
urinary excretion, along with sodium, potassium and chlorides ions in
normotensive rats [60]. The aqueous saponin rich fraction extract of L.
sativum on oral administration is reported to show dose-dependent
increase in urinary excretion along with sodium ion excretion [61].

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Fracture healing activity
L. sativum is reported to show fracture healing activity in fracture in
the midshaft of the left femur induced in adult white rabbits [94, 107, 128].
Growth performance and gonadotropins secretion
The gonadotropins effect of L. sativum seed supplement because of
presence of phytosterols is reported to be mediated through the
activation of estrogen receptors thereby producing agonistic effects
that resulted in significant increase in LH and FSH secretion dose-
dependently in rabbits [129].
Hepatoprotective effect
L. sativum has been widely used to treat numeral aliments in our folk
medicine. Many investigations are done to ensure hepatoprotective
this activity of L. sativum. The extract of L. sativum is noted to reduce
oxidative stress and thereby reduce cytotoxicity induced by hydrogen
peroxide in the human liver cell (HepG2) [14]. In an experimental study,
the ethanolic extract of L. sativum is shown to significantly decrease
oxidative stress markers, protein level and albumin level along with
down-regulating mRNA expression of iNOS and HO-1 and also noted to
cause concomitant increase in MPO activity and NFkB DNA-binding
effect [15, 16]. The seed oil of L. sativum also is recorded to exhibit
hepatoprotective activity by helping in reducing bad cholesterol and
hence improving liver enzyme activity [17]. In an experiment, L. sativum
is rated as functional food that possesses number of activities and
hepatoprotective activity is one of them [18].
Hypoglycemic activity
In our folk medicine L. sativum is used to treat diabetes as well. There
are many evidences which give base to this claim. Many scientific
activities have been done to establish proper mechanism of
hypoglycemic activity of L. sativum as raw and its crude extract.
Oxidative stress is a major cause of diabetes and its associated
complication. In streptozotocin along with high-fat diet diabetes
mellitus experimental mouse model among raw L. sativum and crude
extract, the former is reported to give better effect as evidenced by
significant reduction into the blood glucose level and improved blood
lipid metabolism in diabetic mice by improving activity of antioxidant
defence enzymes with improved the body’s antioxidant emergency
response [16, 130, 47, 53]. The flavonoid rich extract of L. sativum is shown
to improve insulin sensitivity, dyslipidaemia, inflammation, and
pancreas β cell integrity [40]. A research study shows that trace element
present in plant gives antidiabetic activity [131]. The methanolic extract
of the L. sativum is shown to exhibit potent antioxidant and
hypoglycemic activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rate model through
changing the pathology of the pancreas [54]. In some of the
experimental studies L. sativum is given as a dietary supplement and
daily consumption of seeds of L. sativum is reported to significantly
improve body functioning. Also, phenolics present in the seed coat of
the L. sativum are noted to inhibit carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes
such as α-amylase and α-glucosidase and lower postprandial glucose
level [32]. Furthermore, imidazole alkaloids, lepidine and semilepidine of
seeds of L. sativum are reported to produce antidiabetic action by the
potentiating of pancreatic secretion of insulin from the remaining islet
β-cells [55]. The aqueous L. sativum extract is shown to inhibit renal
glucose reabsorption which in turn reduce blood sugar [132, 133]. All of
this experiment conclude that L. sativum have significant role in
hypoglycemic activity [107, 111, 118, 134-138].
Hypolipidemic activity
There are several experiments which provide strong evidence for the
hypolipidemic activity of L. sativum. Several experimental reports show
that after consumption of L. sativum in raw form or extract, there a
significant reduction in total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), low-
density lipoprotein (LDL) while the major increase in high-density
lipoprotein (HDL) level indicating improved lipid metabolism because
of flavonoids [16-18, 30, 40, 48, 52-58, 139-141].
Laxative activity
The seeds of L. sativum have been shown to possess a strong laxative
effect in mice and thus supports a rationale for its traditional use in
indigestion and constipation. Various experiments performed on the
intestine and jejunum tissue of rat, mice, and rabbit revealed that
tissue selectivity differed based on the type of animal tissue. The
methanolic seed extract of L. sativum is reported to be antidiarrheal as
well as laxative [67].
Menstrual cycle regulation
One of the experiments aimed to determine the effect of the L.
sativum seed consumption on the endocrinology of ovulation and the
development of visceral organs in the rat model. showed that L.
sativum supplementation tended to cause an earlier, attenuated
preovulatory surge-like GnRH secretion. Also temporally, luteinizing
hormone (LH) secretion from the pituitary gland in all treatment
groups decreased over time. Overall, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
decreased from time 0 to about 180 min before stabilizing. L. sativum
extract administration is reported to significantly increase average FSH
secretion in ovariectomized, estrogen-primed rats but did not affect in
the ovariectomized, estrogen-primed, and progesterone-treated rats
[142].
Nephroprotective and curative activities
L. sativum is reported to give compelling nephroprotective and curative
activities by scavenging of free oxidative radicals in cisplatin induced
nephrotoxicity experimental animal model. The methanolic seed
extract balanced border enzymes like Na+/K+ ATPase, Ca++ ATPase and
Mg++ ATPase [32, 46, 71, 123, 143-145].
Male fertility improvement
In one of the experiment, Oral supplementation of tocopherol
extracted from seeds of L. sativum is reported to improve
histoarchitecture of rabbit testis and could be used to improve the
fertility of rabbits [105].

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Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine|April-June|2021
CONCLUSION
L. sativum has been used for many purposes. The scientific research on
L. sativum suggests a huge biological potential of this plant. L. sativum
has been used as nutraceuticals, and pharmaceutical excipient. Besides
being used as nutraceutical and pharmaceutical excipients L. sativum
has been extensively used for functional food and as a traditional
medicine. Besides being used as traditional medicines, several
compounds and extracts of L. sativum showed pharmacological
activities. It is believed that detailed information as presented in this
review on pharmacognostical, phytochemical and various
pharmacological activities and the uses of different extracts might
provide detailed evidence for the use of this plant in different
medicinal systems. The phytochemical variations and efficacy of the
medicinal values of the L. sativum is dependent on geographical
location. L. sativum is effective in asthma, cough, gastrointestinal track
disorders, cardiac disease, diabetes, hepatic function, infections and
many more. Therefore, with appropriate management, L. sativum
could be promoted to be used for the benefits of local people and
industry, especially pharmaceutical industry, and it may enhance food
security, health security, environmental security and economic
security.
Conflict of Interest
None declared.
Financial support and sponsorship
Nil.
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HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE
Shah MB, Dudhat VA, Gadhvi KV. Lepidium sativum: A potential functional
food. J Ayu Herb Med 2021;7(2):140-149. DOI: 10.31254/jahm.2021.7213
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