ArticleLiterature Review

Effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields on flora and fauna, Part 3. Exposure standards, public policy, laws, and future directions

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Due to the continuous rising ambient levels of nonionizing electromagnetic fields (EMFs) used in modern societies-primarily from wireless technologies-that have now become a ubiquitous biologically active environmental pollutant, a new vision on how to regulate such exposures for non-human species at the ecosystem level is needed. Government standards adopted for human exposures are examined for applicability to wildlife. Existing environmental laws, such as the National Environmental Policy Act and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in the U.S. and others used in Canada and throughout Europe, should be strengthened and enforced. New laws should be written to accommodate the ever-increasing EMF exposures. Radiofrequency radiation exposure standards that have been adopted by worldwide agencies and governments warrant more stringent controls given the new and unusual signaling characteristics used in 5G technology. No such standards take wildlife into consideration. Many species of flora and fauna, because of distinctive physiologies, have been found sensitive to exogenous EMF in ways that surpass human reactivity. Such exposures may now be capable of affecting endogenous bioelectric states in some species. Numerous studies across all frequencies and taxa indicate that low-level EMF exposures have numerous adverse effects, including on orientation, migration, food finding, reproduction, mating, nest and den building, territorial maintenance, defense, vitality, longevity, and survivorship. Cyto- and geno-toxic effects have long been observed. It is time to recognize ambient EMF as a novel form of pollution and develop rules at regulatory agencies that designate air as 'habitat' so EMF can be regulated like other pollutants. Wildlife loss is often unseen and undocumented until tipping points are reached. A robust dialog regarding technology's high-impact role in the nascent field of electroecology needs to commence. Long-term chronic low-level EMF exposure standards should be set accordingly for wildlife, including, but not limited to, the redesign of wireless devices, as well as infrastructure, in order to reduce the rising ambient levels (explored in Part 1). Possible environmental approaches are discussed. This is Part 3 of a three-part series.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Nonionizing EMF has traditionally been thought not to have enough energy to do that, with damage being limited to electric shock in the ELF-EMF range and tissue heating at high enough intensities in the RFR bands. But that does not mean that nonionizing radiation is incapable of a host of potentially deleterious biological effects below those thresholds, such as indirect DNA damage from free radical production, among many others (3)(4)(5)7). ...
... so many capacities in domestic animal and wildlife populations, a word about the Earth's increasing ambient exposures is in order as these devices have now become a contributing factor to increased radiation exposure, among so many others. In 2021, these authors published a 3-part series in the Reviews in Environmental Health (3)(4)(5) that mapped for the first time measured rising ambient levels of radiofrequency radiation (from 20 kHz to 300 GHz) in many global environments, including urban, suburban, and rural areas, and compared it to the increasing database of over 130 studies that found biological effects at vanishingly low intensities (equivalent to far field exposure intensities) in all taxa studied [see Supplemental material in Levitt et al. (3,4)]. This data pairing, with over 1,000 citations, was clearly able to broaden today's chronic low-level nonionizing radiation exposures to ecosystem levels. ...
... Most of the negative consequences from ELF-EMF/RFR have been documented in laboratory animals, domestic pets, and humans (3)(4)(5)(6)(7). Generally, the consequences and potential negative radiation impacts from using radio telemetry and radio tracking gear on/in animals in the wild are mostly undocumented but of growing concern (3, 48). ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper discusses the potential health risks and benefits to tagged wildlife from the use of radio tracking, radio telemetry, and related microchip and data-logger technologies used to study, monitor and track mostly wildlife in their native habitats. Domestic pets, especially canids, are briefly discussed as radio-tagging devices are also used on/in them. Radio tracking uses very high frequency (VHF), ultra-high frequency (UHF), and global positioning system (GPS) technologies, including via satellites where platform terminal transmitters (PTTs) are used, as well as geo-locating capabilities using satellites, radio-frequency identification (RFID) chips, and passive integrated responder (PIT) tags, among others. Such tracking technologies have resulted in cutting-edge findings worldwide that have served to protect and better understand the behaviors of myriad wildlife species. As a result, scientists, field researchers, technicians, fish and wildlife biologists and managers, plus wildlife and other veterinarian specialists, frequently opt for its use without fully understanding the ramifications to target species and their behaviors. These include negative physiological effects from electromagnetic fields (EMF) to which many nonhuman species are exquisitely sensitive, as well as direct placement/use-attachment impacts from radio collars, transmitters, and implants themselves. This paper provides pertinent studies, suggests best management practices, and compares technologies currently available to those considering and/or using such technologies. The primary focus is on the health and environmental risk/benefit decisions that should come into play, including ethical considerations, along with recommendations for more caution in the wildlife and veterinarian communities before such technologies are used in the first place.
... In addition, there have been extensive EMF wildlife reviews published between 2003 and 2021 (10-22). Recently, Levitt et al. (23)(24)(25) extrapolated to broad ecosystem level effects for the first time, including extensive tables that match rising ambient levels to effects seen at vanishingly low intensities now common in the environment as chronic exposures, and offer policy recommendations based on existing environmental laws. ...
... They also fail to include important signaling characteristics (29), like modulation with significant biological effects particular to different transmission features (30). Many European countries, as well as Canada and Australia, have traditionally adopted ICNIRP guidelines (sometimes with slight variations) while others, like Switzerland, have adopted more stringent levels (25). ...
... Radiofrequency radiation is a form of energetic air pollution and should be regulated as such (25). U.S. law (130) [42 USC § 7602 (g)] defines air pollution as: ...
Article
Full-text available
There is enough evidence to indicate we may be damaging non-human species at ecosystem and biosphere levels across all taxa from rising background levels of anthropogenic non-ionizing electromagnetic fields (EMF) from 0 Hz to 300 GHz. The focus of this Perspective paper is on the unique physiology of non-human species, their extraordinary sensitivity to both natural and anthropogenic EMF, and the likelihood that artificial EMF in the static, extremely low frequency (ELF) and radiofrequency (RF) ranges of the non-ionizing electromagnetic spectrum are capable at very low intensities of adversely affecting both fauna and flora in all species studied. Any existing exposure standards are for humans only; wildlife is unprotected, including within the safety margins of existing guidelines, which are inappropriate for trans-species sensitivities and different non-human physiology. Mechanistic, genotoxic, and potential ecosystem effects are discussed.
... The modern world is full of electrical gadgets, and their number is increasing day by day in the name of luxury. Numerous undetectable and invisible radiations are continually striking people or other living things [4]. A few electron volts to several hundred electron volts of energy are normally needed to ionize a sensitive human cell, such as a skin or blood cell. ...
Article
Electromagnetic fields are essential components of all electronic devices and have potential effects on our neurological system. Despite the lack of evidence linking non-ionizing electromagnetic fields to cancer, several recent studies have shown that prolonged exposure to mobile device radiation causes a broad variety of deleterious consequences. The electromagnetic exposure is more prevalent in the case of young science students, particularly physics students. The study examined the impact of the instrument's magnetic field on students, who are often exposed. Such instruments are classified into three categories by the WHO based on their magnetic field. It is found that category 2 may have some impacts in terms of numbers and time. These are around 34% of laboratory instruments, and their impact may be lowered by following certain safety norms such as appropriate distance and use time.
... A number of more recent reviews on anthropogenic RF EMF exposure have assessed the impact on animals and plants [26][27][28], as well as specific environmental topics such as animal orientation and migration [29], effects on insect pollinators [30], and alterations in the morphology and development of plants [31]. However, these reviews were not systematic, lacking detailed literature search methods or a rationale for the inclusion or exclusion of relevant studies. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF), particularly from telecommunications sources, is one of the most common and fastest growing anthropogenic factors on the environment. In many countries, humans are protected from harmful RF EMF exposure by safety standards that are based on guidelines by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). The ICNIRP guidelines are based on knowledge of how RF EMF affects the human body, however, there are currently no recognised international guidelines to specifically protect animals and plants. Whether the ICNIRP guidelines for humans are adequate to provide protection to the environment is a subject of active debate. There is some public concern that new telecommunications technologies, like the 5G mobile phone network may affect the natural environment. This systematic map presents a searchable database of all the available evidence on whether anthropogenic RF EMF has an effect on plants and animals in the environment. The map also identifies gaps in knowledge, recommends future research and informs environmental and radiation protection authorities. Methods The method used was published in an a priori protocol. Searches included peer-reviewed and grey literature published in English with no time and geographic restrictions. The EMF-Portal, PubMed and Web of Science databases were searched, and the resulting articles were screened in three stages: title, abstract and full text. Studies were included with a subject population of all animals and plants, with exposures to anthropogenic RF EMF (frequency range 100 kHz–300 GHz) compared to no or lower-level exposure, and for any outcomes related to the studied populations. For each included study, metadata were extracted on key variables of interest that were used to represent the distribution of available evidence. Review findings The initial search, search update and supplementary searches produced 24,432 articles and of those 334 articles (237 on fauna and 97 on flora) that were relevant were included in the systematic map. The vast majority of studies were experiments conducted in a laboratory rather than observational studies of animals and plants in the natural environment. The majority of the studies investigated exposures with frequencies between 300 and 3000 MHz, and although the exposure level varied, it was mainly low and below the ICNIRP limits. Most of the animal studies investigated insects and birds, whereas grains and legumes were the most investigated plants. Reproduction, development and behaviour were the most investigated effects for animals, and germination and growth for plants. The vast majority of the studies employed poor quality methods. Conclusion There are distinct evidence clusters: for fauna, on insect and bird reproduction, development and behaviour; and for flora, grain and legume germination and growth that would benefit from specific systematic reviews. The systematic map also highlights the clear need for investigating the effects of RF EMF on more species and more types of effects, and for an improvement in the quality of all studies.
... The majority of these frequencies are difficult to detect without specialized equipment, therefore most individuals are not aware they are exposed to them. This type of radiation exposure study is reliant on four interrelated variables, including radiation dose equivalent, exposure time, actual absorbed dosage, and radiation intensity [10]. ...
Technical Report
Full-text available
Growing urbanization and population demand more intricate electrical infrastructure. Electric and magnetic fields link these tools together. These electric and magnetic fields are extremely hazardous to human health because of the potential effects they could have on the nervous system. Numerous recent studies have demonstrated that chronic exposure to non-ionizing radiation from mobile devices is associated with a wide range of adverse effects, despite the fact that no studies have conclusively linked non-ionizing electromagnetic fields with diseases like cancer. Knowing how to measure electromagnetic radiation and what levels are safe to use is the first step in taking the necessary precautions. In this study, we looked at the electromagnetic radiation that electrical and electronic devices emit to determine safe operating distances. Generally, science students are routinely exposed to such lab equipment and related electromagnetic fields. In view of the vast field and limited time, we have restricted our study to the physics department's offerings at Swami Shraddhanand College, University of Delhi. Our study found two categories of types of instruments out of three, per ICNIRP regulations based on magnetic fields up to March 2023. Around 66% of the instruments are in Category 1 (>2 µT), 34% are in Category 2 (2µT to 100µT), and no instruments are in Category 3 (100µ T). It is discovered that 66% have no health-related impact and 34% have a minimal impact; both of these effects can be reduced if a suitable distance is maintained. Here, 34% of the instruments fall into the health-risk categories, which are indirectly influenced by usage time, distance from equipment, or direction from equipment. Some equipment, including electromagnet setups, B.H. curve setups, and high voltage power supplies, can have an adverse effect on students' radiation levels. It would seem that the physics lab is secure for students given the short operating hours. It is nevertheless recommended to provide EM radiation device details at the laboratory level for better student safety.
... EMR health impacts have spilled beyond humans to agricultural livestock [94] and the environment [95][96][97]. ...
Article
Full-text available
In the 1990s, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) restricted its risk assessment for human exposure to radiofrequency radiation (RFR) in seven ways: (1) Inappropriate focus on heat, ignoring sub-thermal effects. (2) Reliance on exposure experiments performed over very short times. (3) Overlooking time/amplitude characteristics of RFR signals. (4) Ignoring carcinogenicity, hypersensitivity, and other health conditions connected with RFR. (5) Measuring cellphone Specific Absorption Rates (SAR) at arbitrary distances from the head. (6) Averaging SAR doses at volumetric/mass scales irrelevant to health. (7) Using unrealistic simulations for cell phone SAR estimations. Low-cost software and hardware modifications are proposed here for cellular phone RFR exposure mitigation: (1) inhibiting RFR emissions in contact with the body, (2) use of antenna patterns reducing the Percent of Power absorbed in the Head (PPHead) and body and increasing the Percent of Power Radiated for communications (PPR), and (3) automated protocol-based reductions of the number of RFR emissions, their duration, or integrated dose. These inexpensive measures do not fundamentally alter cell phone functions or communications quality. A health threat is scientifically documented at many levels and acknowledged by industries. Yet mitigation of RFR exposures to users does not appear as a priority with most cell phone manufacturers.
... carried out intensive evaluations of the health impacts of RFR in the past decade. Since these publications, a growing experimental literature has noted both negative and positive biological impacts of RFR in systems as far-ranging as plants, C. elegans, vertebrates and human public health (Levitt et al., 2021a(Levitt et al., , 2021b(Levitt et al., , 2022. Disputing these and other similar findings, Grimes (2021) claimed that there is no evidence supporting a causal link between RFR and carcinogenesis and that weak nonthermal levels of millimeter waves of 5G cannot possibly have any biological effect. ...
Article
In an effort to clarify the nature of causal evidence regarding the potential impacts of RFR on biological systems, this paper relies on a well-established framework for considering causation expanded from that of Bradford Hill, that combines experimental and epidemiological evidence on carcinogenesis of RFR. The Precautionary Principle, while not perfect, has been the effective lodestone for establishing public policy to guard the safety of the general public from potentially harmful materials, practices or technologies. Yet, when considering the exposure of the public to anthropogenic electromagnetic fields, especially those arising from mobile communications and their infrastructure, it seems to be ignored. The current exposure standards recommended by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) consider only thermal effects (tissue heating) as potentially harmful. However, there is mounting evidence of non-thermal effects of exposure to electromagnetic radiation in biological systems and human populations. We review the latest literature on in vitro and in vivo studies, on clinical studies on electromagnetic hypersensitivity, as well as the epidemiological evidence for cancer due to the action of mobile based radiation exposure. We question whether the current regulatory atmosphere truly serves the public good when considered in terms of the Precautionary Principle and the principles for deducing causation established by Bradford Hill. We conclude that there is substantial scientific evidence that RFR causes cancer, endocrinological, neurological and other adverse health effects. In light of this evidence the primary mission of public bodies, such as the FCC to protect public health has not been fulfilled. Rather, we find that industry convenience is being prioritized and thereby subjecting the public to avoidable risks.
... The ongoing massive increase in human exposure to microwave radiation from wireless technology is expected to lead to serious consequences in the form of deteriorating public health and harmful effects on plants, insects, birds and other animals. Research shows increasing and clear evidence that this RF radiation is harmful both to humans and to other biological life at levels that are far below the ICNIRP limits approved by many countries [49]. ...
... Living organisms are very sensitive to changes in their environment and also react to the presence of or changes in the electromagnetic field. Several authors have studied the impact of an EMF on different types of organisms, ranging from bacteria to invertebrates and vertebrates [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. Currently, it is a known fact that mobile phones affect living organisms [6]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Mobile telecommunications technologies have become an indispensable part of people’s lives of all ages around the world. They affect personal life and social interactions and are a work tool in the work routine. Network availability requirements and the quality of the Internet connection are constantly increasing, to which telecommunications providers are responding. Humans and wildlife live in the permanent presence of electromagnetic radiation with just a minor knowledge of the impact this radiation has. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of a 900 MHz electromagnetic field (EMF) on the locomotor behavior of female Ixodes ricinus ticks under laboratory conditions. Experiments were performed in the radiation-shielded tube (RST) test and radiation-shielded circular open-field arena placed in an anechoic chamber. Altogether, 480 female I. ricinus ticks were tested. In the RST arena, no differences in preference for irradiated and shielded parts of experimental modules were observed; in the open-field arena, the time spent and the trajectory passed was significantly longer in the part exposed to the EMF.
... Nowadays, non-ionizing radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) is ubiquitous, especially in the industry, military, radio, and wireless communications sectors. The potential adverse effects of RF-EMR on human health and offspring development have obtained lots of public attention (1)(2)(3)(4). Notably, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has categorized RF-EMR as possible carcinogens to humans (5,6). ...
Article
Full-text available
Nowadays, concerns about the harmful effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) on male fertility and offspring health are growing. In the present study, we investigated the effects of long-term exposure (at least 10 weeks) to the RF-EMR [2.0 GHz; power density, 2.5 W/m²; whole-body specific absorption rate (SAR), 0.125–0.5 W/kg] on male mice fertility and F1 growth and glucose metabolism. No significant injuries were observed in testis organization, sperm quality, and pregnancy rate. However, mice exposed to RF-EMR exhibited a significantly elevated apoptosis rate in testis germ cells. Interestingly, paternal RF-EMR exposure resulted in sex-specific weight trajectory differences and glucose metabolism changes in male F1 mice but not in female F1 mice. The changed glucose metabolism in F1 male may result from the altered gene expression of liver Gck. These data collectively suggested that 2.0 GHz RF-EMR whole-body exposure of male mice does not cause obvious impairment in testis, sperm quality, and pregnancy rate. Paternal RF-EMR exposure causes male-specific alterations in body weight trajectories and glucose metabolism of F1.
... Nowadays, non-ionizing radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) is ubiquitous, especially in the industry, military, radio, and wireless communications sectors. The potential adverse effects of RF-EMR on human health and offspring development have obtained lots of public attention (1)(2)(3)(4). Notably, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has categorized RF-EMR as possible carcinogens to humans (5,6). ...
Article
Full-text available
Nowadays, concerns about the harmful effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) on male fertility and offspring health are growing. In the present study, we investigated the effects of long-term exposure (at least 10 weeks) to the RF-EMR [2.0 GHz; power density, 2.5 W/m 2 ; whole-body specific absorption rate (SAR), 0.125-0.5 W/kg] on male mice fertility and F1 growth and glucose metabolism. No significant injuries were observed in testis organization, sperm quality, and pregnancy rate. However, mice exposed to RF-EMR exhibited a significantly elevated apoptosis rate in testis germ cells. Interestingly, paternal RF-EMR exposure resulted in sex-specific weight trajectory differences and glucose metabolism changes in male F1 mice but not in female F1 mice. The changed glucose metabolism in F1 male may result from the altered gene expression of liver Gck. These data collectively suggested that 2.0 GHz RF-EMR whole-body exposure of male mice does not cause obvious impairment in testis, sperm quality, and pregnancy rate. Paternal RF-EMR exposure causes male-specific alterations in body weight trajectories and glucose metabolism of F1.
... Living organisms are very sensitive to changes in their environment and react also to the presence or change of the electromagnetic eld. Several authors have studied the impact of EMF on different types of organisms ranging from bacteria to invertebrates to vertebrates [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11] . Currently, it is a known fact that mobile phones affect living organisms 6 . ...
Preprint
Full-text available
Mobile telecommunications technologies have become an indispensable part of people´s lives of all ages around the world. They affect personal life and social interactions and are a work tool in the work routine. The requirements for network availability and the quality of the Internet connection are constantly increasing, to which telecommunications providers are responding. Humans and wildlife live in an environment with the permanent presence of electromagnetic radiation with just a minor knowledge on the impact this radiation has. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of 900 MHz electromagnetic field (EMF) on the exploratory behavior of female Ixodes ricinus ticks under laboratory conditions. Experiments were realized in the radiation-shielded tube (RST) test radiation-shielded circular open field arena, altogether 480 female I. ricinus ticks were tested. While in the RST arena we observed only a tendency to move towards the irradiated part of the arena, in the open field arena the time spent in the part exposed to EMF and the trajectory passed was significantly longer.
Article
Introduction The risk of harm associated with living within 10 km of industrial wind turbines (IWTs) is unresolved and continues to be debated internationally. While sources such as judicial proceedings, scientific literature, social media, and Internet websites report that some neighbors contemplate leaving their homes, research on this topic is limited. This study continues to explore why they contemplated such a housing decision. Methodology The ethics-reviewed study used the qualitative Grounded Theory (GT) methodology and interviewed 67 consenting participants, 18 years or older, who had previously lived, or were currently living, within 10 km of IWTs. Audio files were transcribed to text and the data were coded and analyzed using NVivo Pro (v. 12.6) software. Objectives The objective of this manuscript is to explore participants’ descriptions of their medical diagnoses provided by their physicians and physician specialists. Results Data analysis revealed primary and subthemes associated with environmental interference and altered living conditions. Of the 67 participants, eight described their diagnoses of medical conditions as given by their physicians and physician specialists. Descriptions of conversations with participants’ health-care providers were also surveyed. Discussion Medical diagnoses, descriptions of comments by health practitioners and the commonality of globally reported adverse health effects (AHEs), support the potential risk of locating IWTs near residential areas. It is recommended that members of the public, government authorities, policy makers, researchers, health practitioners, and social scientists with an interest in health policy and disease prevention acknowledge this risk and advocate for the immediate, effective, and timely resolution for affected neighbors. Conclusions The GT methodology was used to develop a substantive theory regarding the housing decisions of participants living within 10 km of a Wind Power Plant. Results from the interviews indicate that these decisions were motivated by the potential for, or the experience of, AHEs which they attributed to living in proximity to these installations.
Preprint
Full-text available
Background In recent years, there has been increased examination of the harmful impacts of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation (RF-EMR) on male reproductive ability, making it critical to explore effective protective measures. Melatonin has antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects, and there is growing evidence that melatonin is beneficial to the reproductive process. The understanding of melatonin's biochemical mechanisms in safeguarding against testicular damage from RF-EMR exposure is limited. Results During the present investigation, it was observed that prolonged (8 weeks) exposure to RF-EMR [2.0 GHz; power density, 2.5 W/m²; systemic specific absorption rate (SAR), 0.125-0.5 W/kg] may lead to decreased testosterone and melatonin concentrations in the serum, reduced sperm quality, increased apoptosis levels, and elevated oxidative stress in male mice. Notably, the administration of melatonin (at a dosage of 10 mg/kg via intraperitoneal injection) mitigated the oxidative harm to the testicles and ferroptosis caused by RF-EMR in mice. Mechanistically, melatonin may inhibit ROS production and ferroptosis by stimulating the Nrf2 signaling pathway through its receptors (MT1/MT2). Conclusion Taken together, these results indicate that melatonin could potentially improve oxidative harm caused by RF-EMR in the testes of mice by blocking ferroptosis through the activation of the Nrf2 pathway via MT1/MT2 receptors.
Article
Full-text available
The current research analysed the existing literature on the electromagnetic spectrum influences and made significant contributions in the perspective of the ongoing insinuations of electromagnetic frequency radiation emitted from the novel 5G network technology installations. In this case, the contemporary 5G network technology was tested along ANALOGY1, ANALOGY 2 and ANALOGY3 to find out if 5G network does emit electromagnetic non-ionizing radiation capable of destroying human body cells as already alleged. The paper observed that deploying the standalone 5G network on unmodulated ultra-high frequency beyond 20 Gigahertz will produce non-ionizable, non-visible radiation (electrons and protons interacting as fields) capable of adverse health effect including heating up the human skin through polarisation and dipolar moment urtication, thereby destabilising the equilibrium of the human DNA charged particles through the formation of free radicals that are highly reactive due to the presence of unpaired electrons that occurred when water molecules are broken within the human cell.
Article
Full-text available
This study was designed to investigate the possible effects of exposure to mobile phone base station (MPBS) emits 1800-MHz RF-EMR on some oxidative stress parameters in the brain, heart, kidney and liver of Swiss albino mice under exposures below thermal levels. Mice were randomly assigned to three experimental groups which were exposed to RF-EMR for 6 hr/day, 12 hr/day and 24 hr/day for 45 consecutive days, respectively, and a control group. The glutathione (GSH) levels and activities of glutathione-s-transferase (GST) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were significantly reduced in mice brain after exposure to RF-EMR for 12 hr and 24 hr per day. Exposure of mice to RF-EMR for 12 hr and 24 hr per day also led to a significant increase in malondialdehyde (an index of lipid peroxidation) levels in mice brain. On the contrary, exposures used in this study did not induce any significant change in various oxidative stress-related parameters in the heart, kidney and liver of mice. Our findings showed no significant variations in the activities of aspartate amino-transferase (AST), alanine amino-transferase (ALT), and on the level of creatinine (CRE) in the exposed mice. This study also revealed a decrease in RBC count with an increase in WBC count in mice subjected to 12 hr/day and 24 hr/day exposures. Exposure to RF-EMR from MPBS may cause adverse effects in mice brain by inducing oxidative stress arising from the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as indicated by enhanced lipid peroxidation, and reduced levels and activities of antioxidants.
Article
Full-text available
Radio-frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) can be absorbed in all living organisms, including Western Honey Bees (Apis Mellifera). This is an ecologically and economically important global insect species that is continuously exposed to environmental RF-EMFs. This exposure is studied numerically and experimentally in this manuscript. To this aim, numerical simulations using honey bee models, obtained using micro-CT scanning, were implemented to determine RF absorbed power as a function of frequency in the 0.6 to 120 GHz range. Five different models of honey bees were obtained and simulated: two workers, a drone, a larva, and a queen. The simulations were combined with in-situ measurements of environmental RF-EMF exposure near beehives in Belgium in order to estimate realistic exposure and absorbed power values for honey bees. Our analysis shows that a relatively small shift of 10% of environmental incident power density from frequencies below 3 GHz to higher frequencies will lead to a relative increase in absorbed power of a factor higher than 3.
Article
Full-text available
The introduction of the fifth generation (5G) of wireless communication will increase the number of high-frequency-powered base stations and other devices. The question is if such higher frequencies (in this review, 6–100 GHz, millimeter waves, MMW) can have a health impact. This review analyzed 94 relevant publications performing in vivo or in vitro investigations. Each study was characterized for: study type (in vivo, in vitro), biological material (species, cell type, etc.), biological endpoint, exposure (frequency, exposure duration, power density), results, and certain quality criteria. Eighty percent of the in vivo studies showed responses to exposure, while 58% of the in vitro studies demonstrated effects. The responses affected all biological endpoints studied. There was no consistent relationship between power density, exposure duration, or frequency, and exposure effects. The available studies do not provide adequate and sufficient information for a meaningful safety assessment, or for the question about non-thermal effects. There is a need for research regarding local heat developments on small surfaces, e.g., skin or the eye, and on any environmental impact. Our quality analysis shows that for future studies to be useful for safety assessment, design and implementation need to be significantly improved.
Chapter
Full-text available
In this study I argue that the energy of man-made electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and corresponding electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with frequencies starting from 0 Hz and approaching the low limit of infrared (3×10 11 Hz) is not quantized, in contrast to molecular/atomic/nuclear (natural) EMFs/EMR (frequencies from infrared to gamma rays). Molecular oscillations, electron orbits in atoms, and nucleon vibrations are stationary states of bound microparticles with discrete/quantized energy levels. They emit radiation only during finite-time transitions between such levels, resulting in quantization of the emissions, and in discrete lines of the corresponding emission spectra since quantized transitions correspond to discrete single frequencies. But unbound electrons accelerating in electric/electronic circuits (producing all man-made EMR types) are definitely not in any stationary/quantized state, and thus emit EMR continuously during acceleration. Their motions and corresponding electromagnetic emissions are not periodic, and as such their parameters cannot be represented by Fourier series. These facts suggest-in contrast to what is suggested by quantum electromagnetism (QEM) or quantum electrodynamics (QED) and dogmatically claimed in all modern physics textbooks-that man-made EMR types are not quantized, and thus do not consist of photons. The study finds no facts forcing us to accept quantization of man-made EMFs/EMR, and shows how the founders of QEM/QED arbitrarily extrapolated the quantization rules from bound to free microparticles, and performed mathematically the "quantization" of EMF/EMR assuming periodic properties. Moreover, it finds no evidence for existence of microwave or lower frequency photons, in environmentally accounted conditions. I conclude we should consider man-made EMR as consisting of continuous waves like those described by classical electromagnetism. In such a case Planck's basic quantum mechanical formula connecting energy with frequency of the light quanta (E = hν), or the quantum mechanical rules for the energy quantization of bound microparticles in molecules/atoms/nuclei, do not apply to man-made EMFs/EMR. This in turn suggests that for interaction of man-made EMFs/EMR with matter (living or inanimate) different rules may apply than in the case of natural (quantized) EMR. Thus, this study may initiate a better understanding of both the nature of man-made EMFs and their interaction with matter, especially living matter.
Article
Full-text available
Insects are continually exposed to Radio-Frequency (RF) electromagnetic fields at different frequencies. The range of frequencies used for wireless telecommunication systems will increase in the near future from below 6 GHz (2 G, 3 G, 4 G, and WiFi) to frequencies up to 120 GHz (5 G). This paper is the first to report the absorbed RF electromagnetic power in four different types of insects as a function of frequency from 2 GHz to 120 GHz. A set of insect models was obtained using novel Micro-CT (computer tomography) imaging. These models were used for the first time in finite-difference time-domain electromagnetic simulations. All insects showed a dependence of the absorbed power on the frequency. All insects showed a general increase in absorbed RF power at and above 6 GHz, in comparison to the absorbed RF power below 6 GHz. Our simulations showed that a shift of 10% of the incident power density to frequencies above 6 GHz would lead to an increase in absorbed power between 3-370%.
Article
Full-text available
In the near future, applications will come online that require data transmission in ultrahigh rates of 100 Gbit per second and beyond. In fact, the planning for new industry regulations for the exploitation of the sub-THz band are well advanced under the auspices of IEEE 802.15 Terahertz Interest Group. One aspect of this endeavor is to gauge the possible impact on human health by the expected explosion in commercial use of this band. It is, therefore, imperative to estimate the respective specific absorption rates of human tissues. In the interaction of microwave radiation and human beings, the skin is traditionally considered as just an absorbing sponge stratum filled with water. This approach is justified when the impinging wavelength is greater than the dimensions of the skin layer. However, in the sub-THz band this condition is violated. In 2008, we demonstrated that the coiled portion of the sweat duct in upper skin layer could be regarded as a helical antenna in the sub-THz band. The full ramifications of what these findings represent in the human condition are still very unclear, but it is obvious that the absorption of electromagnetic energy is governed by the topology for the skin and its organelles, especially the sweat duct.
Article
Full-text available
Studies in mice have shown that environmental electromagnetic waves tend to suppress the murine immune system with a potency similar to NSAIDs, yet the nature of any Electrosmog effects upon humans remains controversial. Previously, we reported how the human Vitamin-D receptor (VDR) and its ligand, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin-D (1,25-D), are associated with many chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. We have shown how olmesartan, a drug marketed for mild hypertension, acts as a high-affinity partial agonist for the VDR, and that it seems to reverse disease activity resulting from VDR dysfunction. We here report that structural instability of the activated VDR becomes apparent when observing hydrogen bond behavior with molecular dynamics, revealing that the VDR pathway exhibits a susceptibility to Electrosmog. Further, we note that characteristic modes of instability lie in the microwave frequency range, which is currently populated by cellphone and WiFi communication signals, and that the susceptibility is ligand dependent. A case series of 64 patient-reported outcomes subsequent to use of a silver-threaded cap designed to protect the brain and brain stem from microwave Electrosmog resulted in 90 % reporting “definite” or “strong” changes in their disease symptoms. This is much higher than the 3–5 % rate reported for electromagnetic hypersensitivity in a healthy population and suggests that effective control of environmental Electrosmog immunomodulation may soon become necessary for successful therapy of autoimmune disease. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12026-016-8825-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Article
Full-text available
Magnetic compass orientation in night-migratory songbirds is embedded in the visual system and seems to be based on a light-dependent radical pair mechanism. Recent findings suggest that both broadband electromagnetic fields ranging from ~2 kHz to ~9 MHz and narrow-band fields at the so-called Larmor frequency for a free electron in the Earth’s magnetic field can disrupt this mechanism. However, due to local magnetic fields generated by nuclear spins, effects specific to the Larmor frequency are difficult to understand considering that the primary sensory molecule should be organic and probably a protein. We therefore constructed a purpose-built laboratory and tested the orientation capabilities of European robins in an electromagnetically silent environment, under the specific influence of four different oscillating narrow-band electromagnetic fields, at the Larmor frequency, double the Larmor frequency, 1.315 MHz or 50 Hz, and in the presence of broadband electromagnetic noise covering the range from ~2 kHz to ~9 MHz. Our results indicated that the magnetic compass orientation of European robins could not be disrupted by any of the relatively strong narrow-band electromagnetic fields employed here, but that the weak broadband field very efficiently disrupted their orientation.
Chapter
Full-text available
The present theoretical study examines a possible revision in the current corpuscular photon model, to account for a physical quantum explanation of the light interference facts as originally described in Thomas Young's double-slit experiments as well as in subsequent experiments. The light interference effect still constitutes a "mystery" for quantum mechanics, in spite of theoretical efforts to explain it (in terms of the current photon model) that lack physical meaning. We re-examine the facts that led to the establishment of the current corpuscular photon model. We accept that - at least - natural electromagnetic radiation does not consist of continuous waves as was considered in classical electromagnetic theory, but consists of energy quanta (photons), emitted as a whole and carrying energy hv. However, we suggest that each individual photon should not be considered as (indivisible) "particle" transmitted in a single direction and absorbed only as a whole, but rather as a wave-packet. Further we suggest that this wave-packet consists of a (divisible) bundle of identical adjacent, radial waves/pulses of certain length and distinct frequency, polarization, and phase, transmitted independently from each other on a part of a spherical surface in multiple directions within a solid angle. The radius of the spherical surface increases with the velocity of light. The photon's divergence angle is determined by the screening during its emission by the electron clouds of its atomic/molecular source. Such a wave-packet can spread discontinuously over ever larger volumes by increasing the distance between adjacent radial pulses, or can be collimated and confined within narrow beams as in the case of lasers or directional antennas. According to this new photon model which we name "Spatially Confined Wave Packet" (SCWP), each photon may be generated as a whole but not necessarily absorbed or transmitted as a whole. In this way the light interference facts can be given a quantum mechanical interpretation with physical meaning, as the result of superposition between two parts of the same divisible bundle (photon) of identical pulses. We show that - in spite of widespread opposite information from text books - actually there is no condition in Planck's, Einstein's, or Compton's original works that force us to accept that photons are transmitted in a single direction or absorbed only as a whole as "particles", and neither any subsequent experimental fact force us to do so. Considering photons as SCWP, we present an alternative explanation of the photoelectric effect, as well as an alternative proof of Compton's equation, and suggest a natural quantum interpretation of the light interference facts.
Article
Full-text available
Billions of birds are estimated to be killed striking clear and reflective windows worldwide, and conservation, ethical, and legal reasons justify preventing this unintended human-associated avian mortality. Field experiments reveal that to be effective, UV signals used to prevent bird-window collisions must minimally reflect 20–40% from 300–400 nm. Field experiments reveal 3.175 mm parachute cord hung in front of clear and reflective windows separated by 10.8 cm and 8.9 cm are effective bird-window collision preventive methods. The results of the parachute cord experiment and those of previous studies support the importance of applying collision prevention methods to the outside window surface reflecting the facing habitat and sky. Comparison of field and tunnel testing experimental protocols to evaluate bird-window collision preventive methods suggest that tunnel testing is useful for initial assessment but not as a definitive measure of effectiveness.
Article
Full-text available
The rate of scientific activity regarding the effects of anthropogenic electromagnetic radiation in the radiofrequency (RF) range on animals and plants has been small despite the fact that this topic is relevant to the fields of experimental biology, ecology and conservation due to its remarkable expansion over the past 20years. Current evidence indicates that exposure at levels that are found in the environment (in urban areas and near base stations) may particularly alter the receptor organs to orient in the magnetic field of the earth. These results could have important implications for migratory birds and insects, especially in urban areas, but could also apply to birds and insects in natural and protected areas where there are powerful base station emitters of radiofrequencies. Therefore, more research on the effects of electromagnetic radiation in nature is needed to investigate this emerging threat. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Article
Full-text available
The avian magnetic compass, probably based on radical pair processes, works only in a narrow functional window around the local field strength, with cryptochrome 1a as most likely receptor molecule. Radio-frequency fields in the MHz range have been shown to disrupt the birds' orientation, yet the nature of this interference is still unclear. In an immuno-histological study, we tested whether the radio-frequency fields interfere with the photoreduction of cryptochrome, but this does not seem to be the case. In behavioural studies, birds were not able to adjust to radio-frequency fields like they are able to adjust to static fields outside the normal functional range: neither a 2-h pre-exposure in a 7.0 MHz field, 480 nT, nor a 7-h pre-exposure in a 1.315 MHz field, 15 nT, allowed the birds to regain their orientation ability. This inability to adjust to radio-frequency fields suggests that these fields interfere directly with the primary processes of magnetoreception and therefore disable the avian compass as long as they are present. They do not have lasting adverse after-effects, however, as birds immediately after exposure to a radio-frequency field were able to orient in the local geomagnetic field. © 2014 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved.
Article
Full-text available
Despite the widespread use of wireless telephone networks around the world, authorities and researchers have paid little attention to the potential harmful effects of mobile phone radiation on wildlife. This paper briefly reviews the available scientific information on this topic and recommends further studies and specific lines of research to confirm or refute the experimental results to date. Controls must be introduced and technology rendered safe for the environment, particularly, threatened species.
Article
Full-text available
Collisions and electrocutions at power lines are thought to kill large numbers of birds in the United States annually. However, existing estimates of mortality are either speculative (for electrocution) or based on extrapolation of results from one study to all U.S. power lines (for collision). Because national-scale estimates of mortality and comparisons among threats are likely to be used for prioritizing policy and management strategies and for identifying major research needs, these estimates should be based on systematic and transparent assessment of rigorously collected data. We conducted a quantitative review that incorporated data from 14 studies meeting our inclusion criteria to estimate that between 12 and 64 million birds are killed each year at U.S. power lines, with between 8 and 57 million birds killed by collision and between 0.9 and 11.6 million birds killed by electrocution. Sensitivity analyses indicate that the majority of uncertainty in our estimates arises from variation in mortality rates across studies; this variation is due in part to the small sample of rigorously conducted studies that can be used to estimate mortality. Little information is available to quantify species-specific vulnerability to mortality at power lines; the available literature over-represents particular bird groups and habitats, and most studies only sample and present data for one or a few species. Furthermore, additional research is needed to clarify whether, to what degree, and in what regions populations of different bird species are affected by power line-related mortality. Nonetheless, our data-driven analysis suggests that the amount of bird mortality at U.S. power lines is substantial and that conservation management and policy is necessary to reduce this mortality.
Article
Full-text available
Exposure of cell membranes to an electromagnetic field (EMF) in the millimeter wave band (30-300 GHz) can produce a variety of responses. Further, many of the vibrational modes in complex biomolecules fall in the 1-100 GHz range. In addition to fundamental scientific interest, this may have applications in the development of diagnostic and therapeutic medical applications. In the present work lipid vesicles of different size were used to study the effects of exposure to radiation at 52-72 GHz, with incident power densities (IPD) of 0.0035-0.010 mW/cm2, on the chemical-physical properties of cell membranes. Large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) were used to study the effect of the radiation on the physical stability of vesicles by dynamic light scattering. An inhibition of the aging processes (Ostwald ripening), that usually occur in these vesicles because of their thermodynamic instability, resulted. Giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) were used to study the effect of the radiation on membrane water permeability under osmotic stress by phase contrast microscopy. In this case, a decrease in the water membrane permeability of the irradiated samples was observed. We advance the hypothesis that both the above effects may be explained in terms of a change of polarization states of water induced by the radiation, which causes a partial dehydration of the membrane and consequently a greater packing density (increased membrane rigidity).
Article
Full-text available
Anthropogenic threats, such as collisions with man-made structures, vehicles, poisoning and predation by domestic pets, combine to kill billions of wildlife annually. Free-ranging domestic cats have been introduced globally and have contributed to multiple wildlife extinctions on islands. The magnitude of mortality they cause in mainland areas remains speculative, with large-scale estimates based on non-systematic analyses and little consideration of scientific data. Here we conduct a systematic review and quantitatively estimate mortality caused by cats in the United States. We estimate that free-ranging domestic cats kill 1.4-3.7 billion birds and 6.9-20.7 billion mammals annually. Un-owned cats, as opposed to owned pets, cause the majority of this mortality. Our findings suggest that free-ranging cats cause substantially greater wildlife mortality than previously thought and are likely the single greatest source of anthropogenic mortality for US birds and mammals. Scientifically sound conservation and policy intervention is needed to reduce this impact.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
This paper addresses the argument stating that since the energy of a single Radio Frequency (RF) photon is extremely small it cannot influence matter significantly and therefore RF radiation cannot cause cancer. The argument is shown to be wrong since most known phenomena and uses of RF radiation involve many photons acting in unison. For example, in a particle accelerator, a multitude of RF photons act simultaneously on a single elementary charged particle. We show that his holds for particle physics, capacitors, fluorescent tubes, radio communications, RADAR and living tissues. These phenomena are best treated in most cases by considering RF radiation as a wave phenomenon. On the other hand the possibility of a single RF photon per molecule producing a biological effect also cannot be ruled out.
Article
Full-text available
The existence of biological effects of radio frequency (RF) radiation on living tissue is well established, including also effects which are non-thermal, that is not caused by plain uniform warming. Still the exact mechanisms of interaction between the RF radiation and the living tissue are mostly unknown. In this work a thermodynamic perspective relevant to some aspects of those yet unknown mechanisms is presented. This perspective reveals that living tissue under RF radiation should not be assumed to be in thermal equilibrium since it is governed by two temperatures: the ambient temperature of its surroundings and a vastly higher temperature TR which is assigned by certain criteria to the RF radiation. The criteria presented here to determine the radiation temperature TR are not unique and other approaches may lead to different temperature values, however TR as presented here has an interesting physical significance. The possible relevance of this approach to the interaction mechanisms is presented; specifically some molecules in the living tissue may acquire much more energy than the one associated with the ambient temperature and biological effects may occur.
Article
Full-text available
A review on the effects of radiofrequency radiation from wireless telecommunications on living organisms and its possible impact on wild mammals are presented. Physical and technological characteristics of mobile telephone and phone masts, the scientific discoveries that are of interest in the study of their effects on the wildlife, action mechanisms on biological systems and experimental difficulties are described. Keeping in mind that electromagnetic pollution (in the microwave and radiofrequency range) is a possible source for decline of some mammal populations, it is of great importance to carry out studies on the effects of this new pollutant to wildlife. Some research types that could be useful to determine adverse health effects are proposed.
Article
Full-text available
Avian mortality at communication towers in the continental United States and Canada is an issue of pressing conservation concern. Previous estimates of this mortality have been based on limited data and have not included Canada. We compiled a database of communication towers in the continental United States and Canada and estimated avian mortality by tower with a regression relating avian mortality to tower height. This equation was derived from 38 tower studies for which mortality data were available and corrected for sampling effort, search efficiency, and scavenging where appropriate. Although most studies document mortality at guyed towers with steady-burning lights, we accounted for lower mortality at towers without guy wires or steady-burning lights by adjusting estimates based on published studies. The resulting estimate of mortality at towers is 6.8 million birds per year in the United States and Canada. Bootstrapped subsampling indicated that the regression was robust to the choice of studies included and a comparison of multiple regression models showed that incorporating sampling, scavenging, and search efficiency adjustments improved model fit. Estimating total avian mortality is only a first step in developing an assessment of the biological significance of mortality at communication towers for individual species or groups of species. Nevertheless, our estimate can be used to evaluate this source of mortality, develop subsequent per-species mortality estimates, and motivate policy action.
Article
Full-text available
It has been argued that cellphones are safe because a single microwave photon does not have enough energy to break a chemical bond. We show that cellphone technology operates in the classical wave limit, not the single photon limit. Based on energy densities relative to thermal energy, we estimate thresholds at which effects might be expected. These seem to correspond somewhat with many experimental observations.
Article
Full-text available
The night sky remains a largely unexplored frontier for biologists studying the behavior and physiology of free-ranging, nocturnal organisms. Conventional imaging tools and techniques such as night-vision scopes, infrared-reflectance cameras, flash cameras, and radar provide insufficient detail for the scale and resolution demanded by field researchers. A new tool is needed that is capable of imaging noninvasively in the dark at high-temporal and spatial resolution. Thermal infrared imaging represents the most promising such technology that is poised to revolutionize our ability to observe and document the behavior of free-ranging organisms in the dark. Herein we present several examples from our research on free-ranging bats that highlight the power and potential of thermal infrared imaging for the study of animal behavior, energetics and censusing of large colonies, among others. Using never-before-seen video footage and data, we have begun to answer questions that have puzzled biologists for decades, as well as to generate new hypotheses and insight. As we begin to appreciate the functional significance of the aerosphere as a dynamic environment that affects organisms at different spatial and temporal scales, thermal infrared imaging can be at the forefront of the effort to explore this next frontier.
Article
The biodiversity of insects is threatened worldwide. Numerous studies have reported the serious decline in insects that has occurred in recent decades. The same is happening with the important group of pollinators, with an essential utility for pollination of crops. Loss of insect diversity and abundance is expected to provoke cascading effects on food webs and ecosystem services. Many authors point out that reductions in insect abundance must be attributed mainly to agricultural practices and pesticide use. On the other hand, evidence for the effects of non-thermal microwave radiation on insects has been known for at least 50 years. The review carried out in this study shows that electromagnetic radiation should be considered seriously as a complementary driver for the dramatic decline in insects, acting in synergy with agricultural intensification, pesticides, invasive species and climate change. The extent that anthropogenic electromagnetic radiation represents a significant threat to insect pollinators is unresolved and plausible. For these reasons, and taking into account the benefits they provide to nature and humankind, the precautionary principle should be applied before any new deployment (such 5G) is considered.
Article
Abstract—The fifth-generation wireless (5G) has already started showing its capability to achieve extremely fast data transfer, which makes itself considered to be a promising mobile technology. However, concerns have been raised on adverse health impacts that human users can experience in a 5G system by being exposed to electromagnetic fields (EMFs). This article investigates the human EMF exposure in a 5G system and compare to those measured in the previous-generation cellular systems. It suggests a minimum separation distance between a transmitter and a human user for keeping the EMF exposure below the safety regulation level, which provides consumers with a general understanding on the safe use of 5G communications.
Book
1. Historical Perspective.- 2. Physical Description of Radio and Microwave Radiation.- 3. Radio and Microwave Dosimetry and Measurement.- 4. Radio and Microwave Dielectric Properties of Biological Materials.- 5. Propagation and Absorption in Tissue Media.- 6. Criteria for Evaluation of Biological Literature.- 7. Molecular, Cellular, Invertebrate Biology.- 8. Reproduction, Development, and Growth.- 9. Thermoregulation.- 10. Neural Effects of Microwave /Radiofrequency Energies.- 11. Behavioral Effects.- 12. Neuroendocrine Effects.- 13. Cardiovascular Effects.- 14. Effects on Hematopoiesis and Hematology.- 15. Effects on Immune Responses.- 16. Biochemical Effects.- 17. The Common Integument (Skin).- 18. Cataracts and Other Ocular Effects.- 19. Epidemiological and Other Investigations in the Human.- 20. Personnel Protection, Protection Guides, and Standards.- 21. Problems and Recommendations.
Chapter
This chapter reviews the current status of bird and bat populations in the contiguous United States, along with growing concerns about declines in populations of both birds (366 [36 %] of 1027 protected migratory bird species in North America) and bats (6 of 45 species federally listed as endangered in the contiguous U.S.), many from the effects of human-made structures. Specifically, this chapter assesses the human-related causes of bird and bat mortality in the U.S. due primarily to collisions and electrocutions with tall structures and known effects of nonionizing radiation from antennas. These structural effects include impacts from power transmission and distribution lines, communication towers, commercial land-based wind turbines, and industrial solar arrays. Accepted and scientifically validated conservation measures for avoiding and minimizing direct “take” (i.e., the legal term for un-permitted injury or death) are discussed. The indirect effects to migratory birds and their habitats and direct and indirect negative impacts on bats (Microchiroptera) caused primarily by land-based wind turbines are evaluated. Suggested mitigation tools are based on innovative scientifically supported best practices, best available technologies, and accepted conservation measures. Several ongoing partnerships between the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, other action agencies that implement regulations and guidelines, and industry stakeholder groups are described as examples of successful industry-agency-stakeholder coordination, partnership, and initiatives. The consequences of inaction are briefly reviewed.
Article
This document resolves several issues regarding compliance with the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC's) regulations for conducting environmental reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) as they relate to the guidelines for human exposure to RF electromagnetic fields. More specifically, the Commission clarifies evaluation procedures and references to determine compliance with its limits, including specific absorption rate (SAR) as a primary metric for compliance, consideration of the pinna (outer ear) as an extremity, and measurement of medical implant exposure. The Commission also elaborates on mitigation procedures to ensure compliances with its limits, including labeling and other requirements for occupational exposure classification, clarification of compliance responsibility at multiple transmitter sites, and labeling of fixed consumer transmitters.
Chapter
Early concepts of the cell as a unitary biological entity postulated a role for the cell membrane simply as a physical boundary enclosing the intracellular contents. At the turn of the century, awareness of differential concentrations of potassium and sodium ions inside and outside this boundary focused attention on its capacity to sustain these differentials by expenditure of metabolic energy, in accordance with equilibrium considerations. Action potentials in excitable cells meet all criteria for transmembrane currents based on transient collapse and reestablishment of these ionic equilibria. In this model, the lipid bilayer or plasma membrane functions as the essential structural element separating intracellular contents from surrounding fluid.
Article
A review is made of Soviet and foreign experimental studies furthering understanding of the mechanism of the acute resonance action of extremely high frequency† † The range of extremely high frequencies (e.h.f.) from 3 × 1010 to 3 × 1011 Hz corresponds to the millimetre wave range from 1 to 10 mm [1]. coherent electromagnetic radiations of low power on living organisms and the significance of these radiations for the functioning of the latter.
Article
Estimates of bird and bat fatalities are often made at wind-energy projects to assess impacts by comparing them with other fatality estimates. Many fatality estimates have been made across North America, but they have varied greatly in field and analytical methods, monitoring duration, and in the size and height of the wind turbines monitored for fatalities, and few benefited from scientific peer review. To improve comparability among estimates, I reviewed available reports of fatality monitoring at wind-energy projects throughout North America, and I applied a common estimator and 3 adjustment factors to data collected from these reports. To adjust fatality estimates for proportions of carcasses not found during routine monitoring, I used national averages from hundreds of carcass placement trials intended to characterize scavenger removal and searcher detection rates, and I relied on patterns of carcass distance from wind turbines to develop an adjustment for variation in maximum search radius around wind turbines mounted on various tower heights. Adjusted fatality rates correlated inversely with wind-turbine size for all raptors as a group across the United States, and for all birds as a group within the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, California. I estimated 888,000 bat and 573,000 bird fatalities/year (including 83,000 raptor fatalities) at 51,630 megawatt (MW) of installed wind-energy capacity in the United States in 2012. As wind energy continues to expand, there is urgent need to improve fatality monitoring methods, especially in the implementation of detection trials, which should be more realistically incorporated into routine monitoring. © 2013 The Wildlife Society
Article
Electromagnetic noise is emitted everywhere humans use electronic devices. For decades, it has been hotly debated whether man-made electric and magnetic fields affect biological processes, including human health. So far, no putative effect of anthropogenic electromagnetic noise at intensities below the guidelines adopted by the World Health Organization has withstood the test of independent replication under truly blinded experimental conditions. No effect has therefore been widely accepted as scientifically proven. Here we show that migratory birds are unable to use their magnetic compass in the presence of urban electromagnetic noise. When European robins, Erithacus rubecula, were exposed to the background electromagnetic noise present in unscreened wooden huts at the University of Oldenburg campus, they could not orient using their magnetic compass. Their magnetic orientation capabilities reappeared in electrically grounded, aluminium-screened huts, which attenuated electromagnetic noise in the frequency range from 50 kHz to 5 MHz by approximately two orders of magnitude. When the grounding was removed or when broadband electromagnetic noise was deliberately generated inside the screened and grounded huts, the birds again lost their magnetic orientation capabilities. The disruptive effect of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields is not confined to a narrow frequency band and birds tested far from sources of electromagnetic noise required no screening to orient with their magnetic compass. These fully double-blinded tests document a reproducible effect of anthropogenic electromagnetic noise on the behaviour of an intact vertebrate.
Article
Signals from a VLF transmitter suppress magnetospheric mid-latitude hiss in a band up to 200 Hz wide located just below the transmitter frequency. These quiet bands take 5 to 25 s to develop and last more than 30 s after the end of transmissions. The modification of the electron velocity distribution function by the transmitter signals is a possible explanation for this new phenomenon.
Article
As imperiled bird populations continue to increase, new challenges arise from the effects of growing numbers of communication towers, power lines, commercial wind facilities, and buildings. This paper briefl y reviews steps the USFWS is taking to seriously address structural impacts to migra- tory birds. New fi ndings will be briefl y reviewed that address lighting impacts, new challenges facing birds from tower radiation, and collision and habitat fragmentation effects on avifauna. See the paper in this volume by Klem on his ongoing research with building glass, lighting and windows for details in trying to resolve those challenges.
Article
The effects of microwave irradiation at two different frequencies (1.28 and 5.62 GHz) on observing-behavior of rodents were investigated. During daily irradiation, eight male hooded rats performed on a two-lever task; depression of one lever produced one of two different tones and the other lever produced food when depressed in the presence of the appropriate tone. At 5.62 GHz, the observing-response rate was not consistently affected until the power density approximated 26 mW/cm2 at 1.28 GHz, the observing-response rate of all rats was consistently affected at a power density of 15 mW/cm2. The respective whole-body specific absorption rates (SARs) were 4.94 and 3.75 W/kg. Measurements of localized SAR in a rat-shaped model of simulated muscle tissue revealed marked differences in the absorption pattern between the two frequencies. The localized SAR in the model's head at 1.28 GHz was higher on the side distal to the source of radiation. At 5.62 GHz the localized SAR in the head was higher on the proximal side. It is concluded that the rat's observing behavior is disrupted at a lower power density at 1.28 than at 5.62 GHz because of deeper penetration of energy at the lower frequency, and because of frequency-dependent differences in anatomic distribution of the absorbed microwave energy.
Article
Studies of the effects of environmental low frequency electromagnetic fields on isolated cellular systems and tissue preparations derived from brain, bone, blood, and pancreas are reported. Behavioral effects of 60 Hz fields were examined in monkeys. Bioeffects of low level microwave fields modulated at 60 Hz and other ELF frequencies were also examined. Findings in the present studies emphasize a key role for cell membrane surfaces in detecting ELF environmental fields. Two broad groups of exposure techniques have been utilized. In the ELF spectrum, 60 Hz environmental fields were imposed on monkeys during behavioral task performance. Field intensities from 50 to 1000 V/m were tested in different experiments. The monkeys were exposed to a horizontal electric field. In tissue and cell culture preparations, ELF electric fields were generated by passing current between electrodes in the solutions bathing the tissue. Tissue and cell preparations were also tested with low frequency, pulsed magnetic fields by placing the biological preparation inside Helmholtz coils. For ELF dosimetry measurements in tissue preparations, electric gradients were measured directly in relation to specific axes of tissue and cell preparations. Exposures to ELF modulated 450 MHz microwave fields were conducted in two different systems, one uses a large anechoic horn chamber, the other utilizes a Crawford cell, a double-tapered coaxial system.Environmental field levels and tissue components of these fields were studied collaboratively using implantable tissue probes developed by BRH. Concurrent environmental field levels were based on measurements with other BRH probes and a NARDA microwave probe system. (ERB)
Article
Results of millimeter wave (MMW) radiation action on refractive index of 2–10% water solutions of human blood plasma are presented. Investigations were carried out by holographic interferometry. Incident power density of MMW radiation applied was about 10 mW/cm2. Under MMW irradiation, a refractive index of a 2% solution of human blood plasma was detected to increase by 2.52 × 10″. The field effect leading to refractive index changes was opposite to the temperature effect. The MMW effect was manifested immediately after the start of irradiation, with the maximum reached after 6–7 min exposure. The initial refractive index was restored 10 min after the generator was switched off. In this paper the phenomena are explained from the point of view of collective states whose changes take place under MMW field action in aqueous solutions of biomolecules.
Conference Paper
Misunderstandings concerning stray current and equipotential planes are prevalent in North America. Clarification of and differences between equipotentials found in high voltage cable and in concrete encased reinforcing bar installations in concrete pads and swimming pools are explained. Misunderstanding and false interpretation of the IEEE Standard 80, ldquoGuide for Safety in AC Substation Groundingrdquo has led to flawed conclusions and the false concept of equipotential planes, which are shown to be erroneous and are debunked by tests performed in the field. Also discussed are the dangers associated with bare concentric neutral high voltage cable, the use of can and has contributed to the proliferation of stray current which has resulted in death.
Article
Operators of early weather-surveillance radars often observed echoes on their displays that did not behave like weather pattern, including expanding ring-like shapes they called angels. These echoes were caused by high-flying insects, migrating birds, and large colonies of bats emerging from roosts to feed. Modern weather-surveillance radar stations in the United States (NEXt-generation RADar or NEXRAD) provide detailed images that clearly show evening bat emergences from large colonies. These images can be used to investigate the flight behavior of groups of bats and population trends in large colonies of Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) in south-central Texas which are clearly imaged by local NEXRAD radar stations. In this study, we used radar reflectivity data from the New Braunfels, Texas NEXRAD station to examine relative colony size, direction of movement, speed of dispersion, and altitude gradients of bats from these colonies following evening emergence. Base reflectivity clear-air-mode Level-II images were geo-referenced and compiled in a GIS along with locations of colonies and features on the landscape. Temporal sequences of images were filtered for the activity of bats, and from this, the relative size of bat colonies, and the speed and heading of bat emergences were calculated. Our results indicate cyclical changes in colony size from year to year and that initial headings taken by bats during emergence flights are highly directional. We found that NEXRAD data can be an effective tool for monitoring the nightly behavior and seasonal changes in these large colonies. Understanding the distribution of a large regional bat population on a landscape scale has important implications for agricultural pest management and conservation efforts.