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JOURNAL OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING VOL. 13 NO. 3 (2021) 40-53
© Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Publisher’s Office
JTET
http://penerbit.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/jtet
ISSN 2229-8932 e-ISSN 2600-7932
Journal of Technical
Education and
Training
*Corresponding author: ms.abdullahi4571@gmail.com 40
2021 UTHM Publisher. All rights reserved.
penerbit.uthm.edu.my/ojs/index.php/jtet
Effect of Entrepreneurship Education on Entrepreneurial
Intention among University Students
Mohammed Sani Abdullahi1*, Nadeem Khalid2, Umair Ahmed3,
Elsadig Musa Ahmed4, Alhassan Musa Gumawa1
1Department of Business Administration,
Yusuf Maitama Sule University Kano, Kano State 3220, NIGERIA
2Executive Education Center,
KIMEP University, Almaty, 050010, KAZAKHSTAN
3Department of Innovation and Technology Management,
Arabian Gulf University, BAHRAIN
4Faculty of Business,
Multimedia University, Melaka 75450, MALAYSIA
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30880/jtet.2021.13.03.005
Received 30th October 2020; Accepted 26th March 2021; Available online 30th September 2021
1. Introduction
The role of entrepreneurship in economic development, creativity, firm formation, job creation, and wealth creation
has been emphasized in the entrepreneurship literature (Otache et al., 2019). As a result of perpetual and increase in
economic issues, particularly joblessness, the notion of entrepreneurship has become vital in recent decades (García-
Abstract: The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of entrepreneurship education (EE) through attitude toward
behaviour (ATB), subjective norm (SN) and perceived behavioural control (PBC) on Entrepreneurial intention (EI)
among University students in Nigeria. The study unit of analysis comprises of students from the three public
universities in Kano State, Nigeria, namely, Yusuf Maitama Sule University Kano (YUMSUK), Bayero University
Kano (BUK), and Kano University of Science and Technology (KUST) Wudil that participated in entrepreneurship
education programme (EEP) in 2017/2018 academic session. A questionnaire was used to collect data from the 345
target respondents while correlation and regression analysis was used as the data analysis method to test the study
hypotheses. The findings revealed that attitude toward behaviour (ATB) and subjective norm (SN) has a significant
effect on EI while perceived behavioural control (PBC) has no significant effect on EI. The study suggests that
university management should capitalize on EEP as a vehicle to improve student’s attitudes towards EI. The study
contributes to the literature by investigating the effect of EE on EI among University students in Nigeria. The study
is one of the few studies that was conducted in Northern Nigeria, particularly in the three public universities in Kano
State. Thus, the findings of this study act as a strategic tool for university management to design their institutional
policies in a way that captures an early phase of offering EEP to create knowledge of entrepreneurship for students
in order to sharpen their attitude toward behaviour and subjective norm toward EI.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship, vocational, education, intention, subjective, behavioural, attitude
Abdullah M. S et al., Journal of Technical Education and Training Vol. 13 No. 3 (2021) p. 40-53
41
Rodríguez et al., 2017). Nations are encouraged to raise entrepreneurship rates to foster social and economic well-being.
It is well established that a career in entrepreneurship provides substantial opportunities for individuals to gain financial
freedom and support the economy by contributing to job development, creativity, and economic growth. Today's students
are tomorrow's potential entrepreneurs which may demonstrate why a growing number of universities in the United States
and other countries are offering entrepreneurship programs and courses. Besides that, the factors that influence
student’s intentions to become entrepreneurs, as well as the relationship between EE and students’ entrepreneurial
behaviour and intentions are poorly understood (Ahmed et al., 2017). In most developed countries, EE has grown
significantly in recent decades (Otache et al., 2019). Nabi et al., (2017) stated that the amount of money invested in
entrepreneurship programs continues to rise. The role of entrepreneurship as a driver for economic growth is recognized
by policymakers, and hence support or endorse instruments such as EE to boost entrepreneurial activities (Karimi et al.,
2016). The belief in the beneficial effects of EE is universal and by launching new EE programs, the initiators are
following conventional wisdom (Westhead & Solesvik, 2016). The issue of EE among university students, as well as the
promotion of entrepreneurship activities, are becoming increasingly important factors that require attention on a global
scale (Khalid et al., 2019). This is true in emerging markets, where unemployment is high (International Labour
Organization, 2011). Entrepreneurship has gained worldwide attention because of the impact of EE in countries such as
the United States, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, to name a few. Passaro et al., (2018) noted that more
educational institutions now offer a wide variety of entrepreneurship programs and training activities. The program
appears to be having an impact on students' entrepreneurial interest and desire to start their own business. The
entrepreneurship challenges that students face become the subject of academic studies all over the world.
Entrepreneurship is a critical component of national economic development, and university students are a significant
feeder pool for a country's entrepreneurial supply. Entrepreneurial practices have a positive impact on the growth and
prosperity of a nation (Lee et al., 2019).
For decades, Nigeria economy has been heavily reliant on the oil and gas sector, which accounts for over 90% of the
country's foreign revenue. However, oil revenue has dropped by nearly 60% in recent years (Otache et al., 2019). Initially,
the cash flow from the oil and gas sector caused governments to ignore the growth of other sectors which might contribute
to or benefit Nigerian entrepreneurs. As a result, Nigeria's overdependence on oil has disheartened most entrepreneurs
from devoting their energy and time to other sectors of the economy which might contribute to the country's
diversification. However, beginning with the 2007/2008 academic year, the Federal Ministry of Education directed that
EE should be included in the curriculum of higher education institutions through the National Universities Commission,
National Board for Technical Education, and National Commission for Colleges of Education (Akhuemonkhan et al.,
2013). Many economies around the world have grown, developed, and industrialized because of EI, which have played
and continue to play a significant role. In Nigeria, entrepreneurship activities have underperformed expectations due to a
variety of issues ranging from entrepreneur’s attitudes and practices to environmental factors, government uncertainty,
and frequent policy changes among others (Passaro et al., 2018). The need to train students for managing or
coping with contemporary jobs and living environments has increased the value of EE. Therefore, the purpose of this
study is to look into the effect of EE on EI among Nigeria university students.
2. Literature Review
The intention is the key element in understanding human actions and attitudes (Wardana et al., 2020). Intention can
indeed be described as a person's desire to carry out a deliberate plan or make a conscious decision (Saraih, 2019). It has
been claimed that there is no consistent concept of EI; in previous research, the word has been used to refer to starting a
new business or being self-employed (either by starting a new business or buying an existing one). EI, according to
Mohamad et al., (2021) and Badri & Hachicha (2019), is the exploration of knowledge and other tools in order to start a
business, and also EI is a personal dedication to a new business. Similarly, Doğan (2015) claimed that EI is a good
predictor of engaging in entrepreneurial activity that could lead to the development of a new business. Patricia and
Silangen (2016) stated that EI is the ambition or ability to start or own a venture. EI refers to a person's desire to start an
entrepreneurial business in the future (Westhead & Solesvik, 2016). According to Passaro et al., (2018) EI is a person's
self-admitted conviction that they want to start a new venture and actively intend to do so in the future. Similarly,
Malebana (2014) described EI as a state of mind that necessitates personal attention and experience to succeed in starting
a new business. According to Tsai et al., (2016) intention serves as a stepping-stone for executing entrepreneurial actions.
Many behavioural traits, such as starting a new venture are voluntary, and intentions have been found to be the best
predictor of these behaviours (Entrialgo & Iglesias, 2016). Ahmed et al., (2018) argued that intentions are the map of our
future or potential behaviour or self-prediction. EI is not a straightforward yes or no question that can be answered.
Rather, it is a degree or level of intent in performing businesses that can vary from low, moderate to high (Tsai et al.,
2016). Individuals who wish to be entrepreneurs could set themselves apart from the competition by purposefully
sourcing the capital needed for the business performance. As a result, intentionality serves as a driving force behind
entrepreneurial decisions and behaviour, and also it direct someone's focus or attention and decides the life experiences
they have, and the decision to become an entrepreneur and start a business necessitates careful preparation and a deliberate
thought process (Kalyoncuoğlu et al., 2017).
Abdullah M. S et al., Journal of Technical Education and Training Vol. 13 No. 3 (2021) p. 40-53
42
Entrepreneurship education can be seen from a variety of perspectives. It is known as any pedagogical program or
process of learning for entrepreneurial skills and attitudes, which includes the development of certain personal
characteristics. As a result, it is not solely concerned with the immediate establishment of new companies
or businesses (Mahendra et al., 2017). EE is defined as a method of instructing or educating individuals on how to
successfully start, engage in, and operate ventures, thus contributing to or boosting the economy (Bae et al., 2014). EE can
be described as the identification of opportunities, the mobilization of resources in the face of risk, and the creation of a
business venture (Purwana & Suhud, 2017). According to Adelaja et al., (2018) EE is formally structured dissemination
of entrepreneurial ideas, skills, and knowledge used by individuals to start or develop a venture. The act of teaching
student’s entrepreneurial skills, insight and competencies they need to start their own venture or business is known as EE
(Michelle & Tendai, 2016). EE is defined as a collection of structured teachings that train, educate and inform learners
that are interested in starting a new venture (Bae et al., 2014). Efrata et al., (2016) stated that EE is the process of
equipping people with the ability to identify commercial opportunities as well as the intuition, self-esteem, expertise, and
skills to take advantage of them. EE is intended to instil an entrepreneurial culture in students and, as a result, reorient or
realign them away from cultivating a mentality of finding paying jobs after graduation. It aims to develop full-fledged
entrepreneurs (Kim, 2017). Students who are exposed to or introduced to EE are much more likely to pursue
entrepreneurial paths or occupations than students who are not introduced to EE (Yasir et al., 2019). Furthermore, a study
has demonstrated that EE has a significant and observable impact on an individual’s entrepreneurial perceptions,
intentions and behaviours (Kisubi et al., 2021). EE significance extends beyond providing undergraduate students with
entrepreneurial skills, competencies and knowledge for them to become self-employed graduates in the future; it also
improves their marketability or employability in the job market (Wardana et al., 2020). More specifically, EE assists
graduates in developing the creative, leadership, creative, logical and problem-solving skills that employers demand of
their workers in order to improve job efficiency (Otache et al., 2019). Furthermore, EE is critical in assisting youths in
developing entrepreneurial skills, attitudes and behaviour, as well as understanding entrepreneurship as a career
opportunity and developing optimistic EI (Vodă & Florea, 2019). Furthermore, EE aids in addressing the issue of
graduate unemployment that so many countries are facing today (Wardana et al., 2020). Therefore, based on this study
EE has three dimensions including ATB, SN and PBC which constitute the study aims and there are explain them as well.
According to Ajzen and Fishbein (2000), an individual's overall feeling of favourability or un-favourability toward
different stimuli objects is referred to as an attitude. If they have opinions about something or an object, they will naturally
develop an attitude about it. Individuals' attitudes toward the object are indeed a result of their assessments of the
attributes, which are linked to each belief. When people discover that an object is linked to a specific attribute, their
feelings about that attribute become linked to the object. Attitudes are shaped by a person's entire set of meaningful
beliefs as well as the evaluations linked with those beliefs (Santoso, 2021). Sagiri and Appolloni (2009) stated that a
person's behaviour is primarily determined by his or her attitudes and beliefs and that these attitudes and beliefs play a
significant role in deciding an individual's actions. Individuals’ expectations or perception of their ability to perform or
conduct specific tasks increase the probability of their attitude which become an intention and then behaviour (Ajzen,
1991). Ajzen (2002) described ATB as the level or extent to which an individual has a positive or negative assessment
or analysis of the behaviour or conduct in question. ATB is characterized by Li (2007) as an individual's desire to be self-
employed. Xavier et al., (2009) described ATB as the degree to which people believed there were good opportunities
for them to start a business or the magnitude of their commitment towards high-status entrepreneurs. Individuals who
learn about their referents' businesses are more likely to believe it is legitimate (Appiah-Nimo et al., 2018). According to
Souitaris et al., (2007), the disparity between the personal understanding of being self-employed and the expectation of
working as an employee influences entrepreneurship behaviour.
The perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the desired behaviour is referred to as SN, also known as
a social norm (Ajzen, 1991). Family, colleagues, and society all exert pressure on one's decision to become an
entrepreneur (Otache et al., 2019). SN is defined by Santoso (2021) as the social pressure to perform the action of being
monitored. These are considered as the individual's beliefs, values and norms that influence individuals such as family,
teachers, friends and other entrepreneurs that have a significant impact on the individual. This influence shapes and drives
the emergence or emergence of an individual's entrepreneurship intentions (Ajzen, 2001). SN is an individual's perception
of how other people feel about a particular behaviour (Tsai et al., 2016). Due to the location of research and the dimension
of national culture, there are differing views on the SN in evaluating EI. uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus
femininity, individualism versus collectivism and power distance are four dimensions of national culture identified by
Hofstede (2001). The culture of individualism vs. collectivism is considered. In a collectivist culture (Japan), SN has a
greater effect than in an individualistic culture (Britain) (Azjen, 2001). In a study of East Asian and Anglo-Saxon
countries, Begley and Tan (2001) discovered that individualist cultures are less likely to be influenced by SN than
collectivist cultures. Aside from these factors, locus of control influences the importance of SN in predicting EI.
SN appears to play a smaller role in intention for people who have a deep internal locus of influence (Ajzen, 2001). The
SN is often influenced by family background toward EI (Ebong et al., 2017). According to Pasic and Sestic (2016), more
research is required to resolve the discrepancy between SN and EI.
Perceived behavioural control is linked to the principles of self-efficacy and control values or beliefs. Self-efficacy
relates to one's trust in one's ability to accomplish a specific task (Otache et al., 2019). On the other hand, control
Abdullah M. S et al., Journal of Technical Education and Training Vol. 13 No. 3 (2021) p. 40-53
43
beliefs relate to an individual's perception of factors that can help or hinder them from performing a specific behaviour
(Otache et al., 2019). As a result, PBC refers to the degree to which an individual believes he or she is capable of
performing a specific behaviour (Otache et al., 2019). According to Ajzen (2015), control beliefs about the existence of
factors (such as business opportunities, resources, role models, entrepreneurial support and social encouragement from
others) that can promote or hinder behaviour success is known as PBC. PBC refers to people's perceptions about how
easy or difficult it is to conduct a certain behaviour (Lián & Chen, 2006). It is believed that it reflects people's past
experiences and anticipates obstacles (Ajzen, 1991). According to Ajzen (1991), PBC and intention fairly reflect the
individuals' actual control in a situation. PBC is a component of perceived viability and control in starting a business
(Leroy, Johan, Luc & Jonas, 2009). Control beliefs are beliefs about existing factors that disrupt and facilitate behavioural
success as well as their perceived strengths (Leck, Barbara & Allan, 2009). Furthermore, PBC refers to a person's
perception or beliefs of how convenient or difficult it would be to act in a certain way (Sanchez, 2011). The perceived
behavioural control is influenced by two factors: how opportunities are perceived and how the perceived opportunities
are handled. People or entrepreneurs will display actions that signal their intentions if their perceived self-interest
involves a reward and coincides with SN. The Control system of the presumed opportunities has an indirect impact on
entrepreneur behaviour (Leck et al., 2009). The PBC consists of internal control elements that influence personal skills
such as decision-making, problem-solving, innovation, leadership, and know-how, as well as external control elements
that change depending on the context or situation, such as the venture climate, financial sources and government
support. Both internal and external Belief’s influence behaviour. A person's perception of seeking financial resources to
start a venture, for example, will be regarded as PBC (Leck et al., 2009).
2.1 The Theory of Planned Behaviour
The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) is the foundation of this research (Ajzen, 1988, 1991). The TBP was
developed by Ajzen (1991), and at the same time, the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) inspired
the TPB (Ajzen, 1991). The TPB is a theory that has been used in the social and behavioural sciences to explain a variety
of phenomena, and also it explains people's deliberate actions, especially in the context of entrepreneurship (George &
Ernest, 2017). The argument states that an intention to perform a behaviour explains the behaviour. The TPB is an
extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) which states that an individual's intention to
perform a given behaviour or action is based on the person's ATB, SN, and PBC of the behaviour (George and Ernest,
2017). The TPB establishes a connection between intention and behaviour (Santoso, 2021). The theory proposes that
people’s deliberate behaviours are indeed a result of ATB, SN and PBC. Although the TPB does not predict or forecast
actual behaviour but however, it predicts intention and has a clear correlation between intention and behaviour (George
and Ernest, 2017). As a result, EI is a predictor of entrepreneurial behaviour (Otache et al., 2019). It has been suggested
that the higher the ATB, SN, and PBC, the greater the individual's intention to engage in a particular behaviour (Appiah-
Nimo et al., 2018). Thus, it can be deduced from the TPB that the more optimistic students' ATB, SN, and PBC are
toward their EIs, the more likely they are to engage in entrepreneurial action or behaviour. Various empirical research
was conducted by Mahmoud et al., (2020), Santoso (2021), Saraih et al., (2018), Appiah-Nimo et al., (2018), Otache et
al., (2019) used the TPB to illustrate and anticipate people's EIs and behaviours.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
Therefore, this theory has provided a positive link with the study variables that provide direction to the study. The
theoretical framework is developed in line with the evidence available. Figure 1 shows the effect of the independent
variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV).
Fig. 1 - Conceptual framework
Perceived
Behavioural
Control
Entrepreneurial
Intention
Entrepreneurship
Education
Subjective Norm
Attitude toward
Behaviour
Abdullah M. S et al., Journal of Technical Education and Training Vol. 13 No. 3 (2021) p. 40-53
44
2.3 Hypotheses Development
2.3.1 Attitude toward Behaviour and Entrepreneurial Intention
Fini et al., (2010) narrated that attitude is just what someone feels about something which can be an ideology, a brand
or an object that can be related to feeling. Krueger et al., (2000) described this precedent as an individual's desires and
attempts to develop new value in established businesses by taking entrepreneurial opportunities or carrying out
entrepreneurial actions. An attitude towards the act is characterized as "a favourable or unfavourable assessment of
actions by an individual" and is influenced by perceptions about the probable outcomes of the actions (salient perceptions)
and the assessments of such outcomes (Meijer et al., 2015). Thus, individuals immediately adopt a behavioural mindset
(Saraih, 2018). The TPB implies that people develop significant behavioural attitudes to have positive consequences, and
negative behavioural attitudes are associated with unfavourable consequences (Ajzen, 1988). Therefore, empirical studies
conducted by Mahmoud et al., (2020), Otache et al., (2019), Saraih (2018), Appiah et al., (2018), Dohse Ebong et al.,
(2017) confirmed that ATB has a substantial effect on EI, while research conducted by Pasic and Sestic (2016) discovered
an inverse outcome which revealed that ATB has no substantial effect on EI. Their result is guided by TPB (Ajzen, 1991).
Therefore, based on the above evidence and findings, the hypothesis was developed:
H1: ATB has a significant effect on EI.
2.3.2 Subjective Norm and Entrepreneurial Intention
Subjective norm shows the social elements that have an individual influence (Fini et al., 2012). SN integrates
an individual's beliefs about the magnitude in which others feel that the individual should or should not participate in the
behaviour (Yakasai et al., 2015). Normative attitudes or beliefs are the fundamental determinants in the situation of SN.
Normative attitudes or beliefs involve the probability that the performance of a given action is accepted or disapproved
by influential groups or individuals (Bagozzi, 1992). SN is assumed to assess the social pressure on individuals to
perform a given action or not (Yakasai et al., 2015). Furthermore, this kind of norm appears to contribute quite weakly
to intention (Armitage & Conner, 2001), for individuals with high levels of internal control locus (Liñán, 2008), then
those with a high levels behaviour orientation (Bagozzi, 1992; Liñán, 2008). Therefore, empirically studies conducted by
Santoso (2021), Otache et al., (2019), Patricia and Slangen (2016) revealed that SN has a substantial effect on EI. Similar
studies carried out by Ebong et al., (2017) and Pasic and Sestic (2016) revealed that SN has no substantial effect on EI.
Their result is guided by TPB (Ajzen, 1991). In line with the above outcomes, the hypothesis was established.
H2: SN has a significant effect on EI.
2.3.3 Perceived Behavioural Control and Entrepreneurial Intention
The third indicator of intention in TPB is PBC which upon to be the belief of individuals of their capacities to
perform certain behaviour predicted by the perception of an individual's consequences of performing the action
or behaviour (Yakasai et al., 2015). In the context of developing a new firm, the value of PBC lies in its predictive ability
as it represents the assumption that the person will indeed be able to control his/her behaviour (Linan, 2008). Self-efficacy
factors can also influence EI (Lee et al., 2011). Self-efficacy is the judgement of an individual about his/her ability to
conduct a targeted action (Lee et al., 2011). This self-efficacy or presumed control of action refers to the perceived ease
or difficulty of conducting the action and is presumed to represent previous experience and also expected impediments
and obstacles (Ajzen, 2005). Bandura (1982) stated that the factors for shaping efficacy judgements involve hands-on
knowledge of enactive mastery, vicarious learning, and emotional excitement. Lee et al., (2011) indicated that previous
research described self-efficacy as a major contributor to EI, either explicitly or implicitly through perceived viability
(Krueger et al., 2000). According to Ibrahim et al., (2015) PBC can improve behavioural prediction. Therefore, empirical
research conducted by Santoso (2021), Otache et al., (2019), Appiah et al., (2018), Pasic and Sestic (2016) and Ibrahim
et al., (2015) revealed that PBC has a substantial effect on EI, their results are contrary with the study of Ebong et al.,
(2017) which revealed that PBC has no substantial effect on EI. Their result is guided by TPB (Ajzen, 1991). The
preceding hypothesis was developed based on the above studies.
H3: PBC has a significant effect on EI.
3. Methodology
A survey design was used in the present research, and other empirical studies used a similar research design
(Abdullahi et al., 2021; Nuhu et al., 2018; Abubakar et al., 2015). The unit of analysis focused on student’s that
participates in entrepreneurship education programme (EEP) in the 2017/2018 academic session from the 3 public
universities in Kano State, Nigeria which comprises Yusuf Maitama Sule University Kano (YUMSUK), Bayero
University Kano (BUK), and Kano University of Science and Technology (KUST) Wudil. The study target population
Abdullah M. S et al., Journal of Technical Education and Training Vol. 13 No. 3 (2021) p. 40-53
45
amounted to 14,446 respondents which involved 3,400 respondents from YUMSUK, 6,600 respondents from BUK, and
4.446 respondents from KUST. In this study, a simple random and stratified sampling approach was used which allows
each respondent in the population to have an equal chance to be selected as a subject in a sample and allows the researcher
to divide the study sample representing each stratum of the study population without any bias of disfranchising any factor
in the population. A sample size of 345 students (respondents) from the target population was obtained via Yamane
(1967) formula for sample size determination. After the sample size is known 81 students, 158 students and 106 students
from YUMSUK, BUK and KUST make up the sample size respectively. A questionnaire was as an instrument for data
collection from the target respondents and a total of 345 questionnaires were distributed to the target sample students,
and the complete questionnaires were filled and returned successfully. Therefore, they were no missing data or outlier
despite data cleaning and screening was carried out. Based on that the research proceeded with 345 valid questionnaires
amounted to a return rate of 100% for the final estimate of the research hypotheses. Furthermore, a preliminary analysis
was conducted, and regression analysis were also used in the current study to evaluate the research hypotheses that were
all performed through SPSS version 21 software.
3.1 Measures
The research questionnaire was split up into two parts. Part one includes the participant’s profile. Part two contains
the measurement items of the study variables: ATB, SN, PBC, and EI. The study instrument was adapted from previous
studies. Therefore, EI was assessed with five adapted items from Liñán and Chen (2009) and Leong (2008), ATB was
assessed with five items adapted from Sagiri and Appolloni (2009), SN was assessed with five items adapted from Dohse
and Walter (2011), while PBC was assessed with five adapted items from Liñán and Chen (2009) and Dohse and Walter
(2011). All measurement items consist of 20 items, and all are centred on a Likert scale of 5 points varying from
1=strongly disagreed-5=strongly agreed. The study carried out content validity where 3 experts in the field render
suggestions for the perfection of the questionnaire, and a pilot test was also carried out with 30 samples recommended
by Johanson and Brooks (2010). The pilot test Cronbach’s Alpha result indicate that EI has 0.958 value, ATB has 0.921
value, SN has 0.708 value while PBC has 0.895 value which ensures that all the instrument in the construct has high
internal consistency which are above the recommended threshold score of 0.70 (Hair, 2010). As a result of having reliable
data, the researcher proceeds with the study analysis.
4. Data Analysis
4.1 Response Rate
This section discusses the response rate. Table 1 indicates the questionnaire distributed and returned. Table 1
indicated that 345 questionnaires have been distributed and the same 345 have been returned and considered valid or
accurate. Therefore, 345 questionnaires which are equal to 100% make up the total questionnaire distributed and returned
as indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 - Response rate
Description
Number
Percentage
%
Total number of distributed questionnaires
345
100%
Number of completed and returned questionnaires
345
100%
Valid questionnaire
345
100%
Source: Field Survey
4.2 Demographic Analysis
Table 2 offers information on participant’s demographic profiles. The Table began with the participant’s gender.
The participants are divided into males and females. The male participants are 191, which is equal to 55.4% and the
female participants are 154, which is equal to 44.6%. Therefore, the data revealed that most participants are male, and
this means that in the context of the EEP they were more male than female. Table 2 often provides information about
participant’s age which revealed that most participants are below 30 years of age. This means that most of the participants
who have taken the EEP are young people. Table 2 further posed various levels of participants as regards marital status
which revealed that most of the participants are not married. Table 2 also provides information concerning the
respondents' institutions, whereby most of the participants are indeed from BUK. Finally, the level at which EEP is
offered in the focused institutions is illustrated in Table 2. Thus, it shows that EEP is offered at levels 300 and 400, and
most of the participants took the course at level 400 as shown in Table 2.
Abdullah M. S et al., Journal of Technical Education and Training Vol. 13 No. 3 (2021) p. 40-53
46
Table 2 - Participants profile
Variable
Label
Frequency
Percentage %
Gender
Male
191
55.4
Female
154
44.6
Total
345
100
Age
30 year below
276
80
31-40
60
17.4
Age
41-50
09
2.6
51-Above
00
00
Total
345
100
Marital Status
Single
260
75.4
Married
75
21.7
Widow
03
0.9
Divorced
07
2.0
Total
345
100
Institution
YUMSUK
81
23.5
BUK
158
45.8
KUST
106
30.7
Total
345
100
Level
100
00
00
200
00
00
300
108
31.3
400
237
68.7
Total
345
100
Source: Field Survey
4.3 Factor Analysis
The constructs survey was evaluated using factor analysis. The appropriateness of such test has been subject to the
use of the sampling adequacy measure of Kaiser – Meyer – Olkin (KMO) and the sphericity test of the Bartlett. The
KMO significance score varies from 0-1 while 0.6 was suggested as the minimum value for successful factor analysis
and the Bartlett test is high and substantial (p<0.05) to be deemed suitable for the factor analysis (Hair, et al., 2010).
Hence, the test outcome of this research by the KMO and Bartlett is above the recommended limit, then factorability is
regarded as possible. Items with factor loads > 0.3 will indeed be accepted as a factor, as it is considered as a threshold
to fulfil the minimum standard for structural analysis (Hair, et al., 2010).
The outcome of the EI factor analysis in Table 3 demonstrated that they were no deleted items and therefore, all
items were loaded to a single factor with an eigenvalue of more than 1.0. 77.462% of the total variance explained (TVE) is
obtained from the single factor. The outcome of the ATB factor analysis in Table 3 indicated that no item was removed,
and all the items were loaded to a single factor with an eigenvalue of more than 1.0. 72.105% of the TVE is obtained
from a single factor. The outcome of factor analysis for SN in Table 3 indicated that none of the items was deleted and
all the items were loaded to a single factor higher than 1.0. 54.758% of the TVE is obtained from a single factor. The
outcome of PBC factor analysis in Table 3 revealed that no item has been removed and all the items have been loaded to
a single factor with an eigenvalue of more than 1.0. 62.472% of the TVE is obtained from a single factor.
Table 3 - Factor analysis
Items
Factor
Loading
Components
Eigenvalue
% of
Variance
KMO
Bartlett’s
Test of
Sphericity
Significance
Entrepreneurial Intention
EI1
0.848
1
EI2
0.883
EI3
0.909
3.873
77.462
0.876
618.068
0.000
EI4
0.914
EI5
0.845
Attitude toward Behaviour
ATB1
0.840
1
ATB2
0.889
ATB3
0.848
3.605
72.105
0.863
480.572
0.000
ATB4
0.838
Abdullah M. S et al., Journal of Technical Education and Training Vol. 13 No. 3 (2021) p. 40-53
47
ATB5
0.829
]Subjective Norm
SN1
0.700
1
SN2
0.826
SN3
0.738
2.738
54.758
0.807
210.925
0.000
SN4
0.729
SN5
0.701
Perceived Behavioural Control
PBC1
0.615
1
PBC2
0.726
PBC3
0.856
3.124
62.472
0.794
384.996
0.000
PBC4
0.869
PBC5
0.855
Note: EI= Entrepreneurial intention; ATB= Attitude toward behaviour; SN= Subjective norm; PBC= Perceived
behavioural control.
4.4 Reliability Result
After conducting factor analysis, a reliability test was performed to determine the presence of internal consistency
of the items. The outcome in Table 4 indicated that the study constructs satisfy the threshold value of 0.70 as suggested
by Hair et al. (2010). Therefore, the result indicated that EI has the highest internal consistency.
Table 4 - Reliability statistic
Variable
No. of Items
Cronbach’s Alpha
EI
5
0.926
ATB
5
0.903
SN
5
0.789
PBC
5
0.848
Note: EI= Entrepreneurial intention; ATB= Attitude toward behaviour; SN= Subjective norm; PBC= Perceived
behavioural control.
4.5 Correlation Analysis
Table 5, demonstrated the correlation assessment obtained across all constructs with a 2-tailed significance test to
determine Pearson's correlation coefficients. The connection between two or more factors was evaluated by correlation.
The coefficients of association vary from -1 to + 1 which is an ideal adverse and positive association, and the decision of
the statistical outcome is based on a 5% (0.05) significance level (Sekaran & Bougie 2010). Based on the consequence
in Table 5, all the predicting variables are significantly correlated with EI at a p-value below the 0.05 limit. The Pearson
correlation outcome revealed that the power of the predictive variables’ correlation with the EI is accurate and appropriate
for this research. Therefore, H1, H2 and H3 was supported.
Table 5 - Pearson correlation
EI
ATB
SN
PBC
EI
Pearson Correlation
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
ATB
Pearson Correlation
0.796**
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
SN
Pearson Correlation
0.657**
0.686**
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
0.000
PBC
Pearson Correlation
0.918**
0.795**
0.751**
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
0.000
0.000
0.000
Note: EI= Entrepreneurial intention; ATB= Attitude toward behaviour; SN= Subjective norm; PBC= Perceived
behavioural control. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01
4.6 Multicollinearity Analysis
Multicollinearity is conducted to verify the level of association between the IV's (Hair, et al., 2010). Therefore,
multicollinearity analysis was conducted in this study to determine the tolerance and the VIF. Hair et al., (2010) stated
that if the VIF exceeds 10 and the tolerance value is less than 0.10, it is suggested that the multicollinearity issue exists.
Therefore, Table 6 below revealed that there is no multicollinearity issue between factors as the tolerance value for each
Abdullah M. S et al., Journal of Technical Education and Training Vol. 13 No. 3 (2021) p. 40-53
48
variable is greater than 0.10 and the VIF value is less than 10 indicating that the factors are not associated and does not
influence one another.
4.7 Regression Analysis
The standardized path ratio shows whether the effect direction is either positive or negative while the t-value
evaluates whether this effect is substantial (Hair, et al., 2010). Table 6 presents the regression paths for the suggested
model; the regression model is defined as follows:
EIit = β0 + β1ATBt + β2SNt + β3PBCt + et (1)
EI= 0.374 + 0.693β1 + 0.252β2 + 0.063β3 + ε (2)
Entrepreneurial intention is the DV and EE (ATB, SN, and PBC) is the IV. Table 6 revealed that the study model
R2 is 0.659 while the adjusted R2 is 0.652. This means that EE (ATB, SN, and PBC) can predict 65.2% of the EI value.
Similarly, the F-statistical value was (99.193, p<0.000), the P-value is lower than 0.05 which revealed that the study
IV and DV were best defined by the model. However, the result in Table 6 below revealed that hypothesis 1 is significant
with an output of (β=.693, t=9.175, p<0.000). Hypothesis 2 was significant as well with a value of (β=.252, t=2.770,
p<0.006), while hypothesis 3 was insignificant with a value of (β=.063, t=.959, p<0.339). This showed that the effect of
ATB and SN on EI is substantial. Hence, hypothesis 1 and 2 was supported while hypothesis 3 was rejected.
Consequently, it can be agreed that ATB and SN have substantial effects on EI, while PBC has no effects on EI among
University students in Nigeria.
Table 6 - Multiple regression result
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
Collinearity Statistics
Model
B
Std.
Error
Beta
T
Sig.
Tolerance
VIF
(Constant)
0.374
1.217
0.307
0.759
ATB
0.693
0.075
0.630
9.175
0.000
0.469
2.130
SN
0.252
0.091
0.189
2.770
0.006
0.477
2.097
PBC
0.063
0.066
0.060
0.959
0.339
0.567
1.763
R
0.812
R2
0.659
Adj. R2
0.652
F-Statistic
99.193
Significance of F.
0.000
a. Dependent Variable: EI:
b. Predictors: (Constant), ATB, SN & PBC.
Note: EI= Entrepreneurial intention; ATB= Attitude toward behaviour; SN= Subjective norm; PBC= Perceived
behavioural control.
5. Discussion and Conclusion
In this research, the first hypothesis suggests that ATB has an effect on EI. Therefore, ATB has a substantial effect
on EI based on the research finding. Consequently, the research finding is compatible with the studies of Mahmoud et al.
(2020), Otache et al. (2019), Saraih (2018), Appiah et al. (2018), Ebong et al. (2017) which revealed that ATB has a
substantial effect on EI. This implies that ATB is directly related to EI, and also it implies that a rise in ATB would boost
EI among University students in Nigeria. However, the research finding has an inverse outcome with the research of
Pasic and Sestic (2016) which discovered that ABT has no substantial effect on EI. This implies that an increase in ATB
will not increase EI among University students in Nigeria. The second hypothesis suggested that SN has an effect on EI.
The study outcome revealed that the effect of SN on EI was substantial and positive. This finding is consistent with
studies of Santoso (2021), Otache et al. (2019), Patricia and Slangen (2016), Saraih (2018) and Ibrahim et al. (2015)
which found that SN has a substantial effect on EI. This implies that the higher the SN of the students, the higher their
EI. However, the research finding is incompatible with the conclusion drawn by Ebong et al., (2017), Pasic and Sestic
(2016) which discovered that SN has no substantial effect on EI. This implies that SN would not boost or encourage EI
among University students in Nigeria. The third hypothesis stated that PBC has a significant effect on EI. However, the
research outcome revealed that PBC has no substantial effect on EI. The research finding is compatible with the outcome
of Ebong et al., (2017) which revealed that PBC has no substantial effect on EI. This means that PBC will not encourage
students of Nigeria university to have the mindset toward having the intention to become entrepreneurs or start a business
of their own. Furthermore, the rise in PBC will not result in a rise in EI. However, the result is contrary to the studies of
(Santoso (2021), Otache et al., (2019), Appiah et al., (2018), Pasic and Sestic (2016) and Ibrahim et al., (2015) revealed
Abdullah M. S et al., Journal of Technical Education and Training Vol. 13 No. 3 (2021) p. 40-53
49
that PBC has a substantial effect on EI. This implies that an increase in PBC will automatically boost and encourage EI
among University students in Nigeria.
Based on this study results and discussions above, it can be deduced that EE and EI is an essential idea to be adopted
by any student who wants to excel and attain their entrepreneurial goals and objectives. This research aims to investigate
the effect of EE on EI among University students in Nigeria. The research outcome revealed that ATB and SN has a
substantial effect on EI, while PBC among University students in Nigeria has no favourable and substantial effect on EI.
It was clear that students EI and career advancement are very important. Therefore, the university management
should improve EE by focusing on ATB and SN with regards to EE, with that the EI of students will increase, however,
if the management fails in such aspect it may lead to low EI among the students. EE programs mostly focused on
theoretical and practical aspects of entrepreneurship toward achieving an optimum result. Entrepreneurship has a
significant position in the world's rapidly evolving socio-economic situation, and entrepreneurs play a significant part in
helping the growth of a nation as they assist to decrease the alarming rate of unemployment, poverty, social ills among
others. This research offers a helpful understanding for universities and other students of higher learning to know how
personal behaviour affects their desire for becoming an enterprise person. University management and policymakers
should therefore be involved in an early phase of offering EE to create knowledge of entrepreneurship for students in
order to sharpen their ATB and SN toward EI. EEP instructors should design and improve the framework of the
entrepreneurship course to be proactive enough and to be more practical-oriented rather than theoretically oriented in
order to improve the interest of the students in entrepreneurship. For example, entrepreneurial activities or programs and
workshops that can improve ATB and SN of students should be structured in order to allow students to manage their own
businesses and acquire more business knowledge. With that, the students will have the intention to set up their own
businesses and become self-employed if the stated suggestions are well utilized. Finally, future researchers should come
up with mediating variables that can strengthen the result like student satisfaction, and at the same time expand the present
study scope, with that a more robust result can be achieved in the future.
Acknowledgement
For their cooperation and support, the author would like to thank the management of Yusuf Maitama Sule University
Kano (YUMSUK), Bayero University Kano (BUK), and Kano University of Science and Technology (KUST) Wudil, as
well as their students who participated in this research.
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