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DES IGNPRINC IPL ESA NDPRACTICES.COM
VOLUME 16 ISSUE 1
The International Journal of
Design Education
__________________________________________________________________________
Beginning at the End
Visualizing User Experiences in the
Early Stages of Building Design
KEVIN NUTE
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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
OF DESIGN EDUCATION
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ISSN: 2325-128X (Print)
ISSN: 2325-1298 (Online)
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The International Journal of Design Education
Volume 16, Issue 1, 2021, https://designprinciplesandpractices.com
© Common Ground Research Networks, Kevin Nute, All Rights Reserved.
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ISSN: 2325-128X (Print), ISSN: 2325-1298 (Online)
https://doi.org/10.18848/2325-128X/CGP/v16i01/55-65 (Article)
Beginning at the End: Visualizing User
Experiences in the Early Stages of Building Design
Kevin Nute,1 University of Hawai'i, USA
Abstract: This article reports the results of an experiment intended to test the effects of increasing the use of perspective
visualizations in the early stages of building design. Compared to environments designed using plans and models, those
generated using perspective views were found to have significantly greater variety in form, materials, light, and
occupant movement. Although the results of the pilot study have still to be confirmed under controlled conditions, they
suggest that shifting the emphasis of the early stages of building design away from representations of whole buildings
and toward the way they will be experienced could help to improve built environments. The article discusses how such a
change might be integrated into a contemporary digital design process, and how the process of building design relates
to the reconciliation of the objective and subjective underlying phenomenology.
Keywords: Phenomenology, Building Design, Perspective Drawings, Perceptual Variety
Introduction
here is an extensive literature suggesting that modes of spatial representation shape the
process of building design, and thence built environments (Panofsky [1927] 1991;
Gombrich 1960; Hewitt 1985; Mitchell 1989; Suwa and Tversky 1997; Asanowicz 2003;
Suwa 2003; Scheer 2014). In considering the reconciliation of the subjective and objective in
visualizations of built space, this article takes its cue from one of the central aims of
phenomenology (Husserl 1931) and is intended as an addition to both that body of knowledge
and to design theory.
As Thomas Nagel has shown, the subjective and objective are effectively resolved in many
areas of human endeavor (Nagel 1986). Writing, for example, generally requires that an author
have a clear concept of the text as a whole, but also the capacity to see it from the limited
perspective of the reader moving through the narrative. The same need to switch between the
conceptual whole and the experienced part is central to building design. It is argued here,
however, that in building design, the concept of the whole is often emphasized at the expense of
considering the way it will actually be experienced by users, as a series of fragments, with the
result that those end experiences are less than they could be. To return to the analogy with
literature, it is as if a novelist gave the majority of their attention to the plot and neglected the
narrative.
In response to this imbalance, it was postulated that an adjustment of the early stages of the
building design process, placing greater emphasis on the realistic representation of user
experience, could potentially improve the perceptual qualities of built environments. Evidence
from a pilot study testing the effects of such a change is presented, and appears to support that
thesis. A method of objectively testing the theory under controlled conditions is proposed, and
its potential application in a digital building design process is discussed.
Historical Context
The discovery of constructed perspective in the early fifteenth century meant that the process of
visualizing architectural space was no longer entirely dependent on abstract representations of
1 Corresponding Author: Kevin Nute, School of Architecture, 2410 Campus Rd, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
email: knute@hawaii.edu
T
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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DESIGN EDUCATION
whole buildings such as plans and models (McMahon 1956; Chastel 1961; Herbert 1993). For
the first time, the subjective viewpoint of an individual walking through a building could be
represented during the process of design, which meant that those experiences could also receive
more deliberate attention (Figure 1).
Figure 1 (Left): Leonardo Da Vinci, constructed interior perspective study for “The Adoration of the Magi,” ca 1480.
Figure 2 (Right): Humphry Repton, perspective showing the context of the proposed Royal Pavilion, Brighton, 1806.
Sources: Uffizi Gallery, Public Doman, and Alchetron, The Free Social Encyclopedia
The use of perspective views was found to be especially effective in representing large
expanses of landscape, and became an important tool in the Picturesque Movement of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (Figure 2). When Enlightenment objectivism eventually
reached architecture, however, perspectives were initially excluded from the Beaux-Arts system
that dominated architectural education for most of the nineteenth century, on the grounds that
they represented subjective, and therefore inconsequential viewpoints (Hewitt 1985).
Perspective views would eventually be permitted at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in 1850, but they
were treated primarily as a mode of presentation, rather than as a means of design, which was
still dominated by the plan.
In the early twentieth century, what could loosely be described as a “picturesque” approach
to urban design was proposed by the Austrian planner Camillo Sitte in City Planning According
to Artistic Principles (Sitte [1889] 1965), but it was generally ignored by modernist architects as
historicist (Figure 3).
Figure 3 (Left): Camillo Sitte, plans and perspective views of traditional urban spaces, 1889.
Figure 4 (Right): Frank Lloyd Wright, Edgar Kaufmann House, Bear Run, PA, 1936.
Sources: johnsonfavaro, © The Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation
While modern architects derived their identity from appearing to deny tradition, they
nonetheless continued the long-established practice of plan-based design. Perspective drawings
were used primarily as a means of representing the outcomes of design decisions that had been
made primarily in plan. Indeed, perspective drawings were generally constructed from plans.
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NUTE: BEGINNING AT THE END
Even Frank Lloyd Wright, who claimed to have designed his buildings in his imagination
before committing them to paper, first drew them in the form of plans rather than perspectives
(Wright 1928). The iconic drawing of Fallingwater from below the waterfall (Figure 4), for
example, was actually constructed from plans that Wright reputedly drew from his imagination
in the two hours it took his client to drive to Taliesin (Kaufmann 1986).
Other early modernists, including Le Corbusier, also claimed to have conceived their
buildings primarily in their imagination (Pauly 1982). Corbusier, like many subsequent
modernists, also used axonometric projections, as a rapid means of generating three
dimensional representations of his buildings (Figure 5). Like the plans from which they were
generated, however, these views were not ones that could be experienced in the real world. And,
like Wright’s, many of Corbusier’s perspectives seem to have been constructed from plan
drawings rather than from the imagination (De Franclieu 1981) (Figure 6).
Figure 5 (Left): Le Corbusier, letter to the client illustrating the proposed Villa Meyer, October 1925.
Figure 6 (Right): Le Corbusier, floor plans and constructed perspectives of the Villa Savoye, 1928.
Source: ©Fondation Le Corbusier
During the late 1950s, a new generation of modernist architects led by Team 10 replaced
the concept of abstract space with the notion of experienced place, and perspective views began
to be used as a mode of design as well as simply presentation. While the plan remained the
primary mode of architectural design throughout the twentieth century, perspective sketches
that were not constructed from plans, but rather generated from the imagination, also became
part of the design process of many architects. The urban designer Gordon Cullen, for example,
took up where Camillo Sitte had left off half a century earlier demonstrating how urban spaces
are experienced and hence should be designed as sequences of perceptual images (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Gordon Cullen, illustrations of “Serial Vision” in urban spaces, Townscape, 1961.
Source: Public Domain
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Since the introduction of computer aided design in the 1990s, digital models have gradually
replaced the plan drawing as the primary vehicle for building design. Perspective views are still
typically generated from those three-dimensional models, however, much in the way they were
traditionally were generated from plan drawings. The result is that the final perceptual
experiences of built environments are still all too often the consequences of decisions made in
an abstract representation of the building as a whole, rather than being deliberately intended.
It was postulated that emphasizing perspective visualization in the early stages of building
design might help to correct this imbalance and improve the user experience of the resulting
built spaces. The author therefore set out to test whether initially designing using only
perspective views, and generating three-dimensional models of a complete built environment
from those views, rather than vice versa, which is the current norm, could potentially improve
the experiential qualities of the resulting environments.
Experimental Method
The venue used for the study was an architectural design studio class. This setting had the
advantage of enabling the comparison of different design methods used by the same designers,
but it also imposed several limits on the experiment, and was therefore treated as an initial pilot
study that could be followed up under more controlled conditions if it yielded positive results.
A group of thirteen undergraduate architecture students completed two designs projects in the
first and second halves of a semester, each lasting approximately eight weeks. Project 1 was a Zen
retreat on a rural forest site, and Project 2 was a tea house and garden on an urban rooftop. In
designing Project 1, students were required to use physical models, plans and axonometric
drawings. In Project 2, they were instructed to refrain from any drawing or modeling during the
first week, instead designing a series of experiential views in their imagination. Over the following
four weeks they were asked to draw a series of six iterations of hand-drawn perspectives, and to
refrain from drawing any plans or making models. After five weeks, students were asked to use
their fully developed sequence of hand-drawn perspectives as the basis of a digital model, and
from that to generate a walkthrough using Lumion 3D rendering software.
The criterion used to compare the resulting built environments was perceptual variety. This
was chosen as a measure of potential user satisfaction based on studies from a range of fields
indicating that, up to a point, people prefer variation over homogeneity. Those studies include
Donald Hebb’s arousal theory of perceptible change (Hebb 1955), Ernest Gombrich’s work on
graphic patterns (Gombrich 1979), and Michael Ostwald’s analyses of the fractal dimensions of
buildings (Ostwald 2001). As all of these authors suggest, it is also possible to have too much
variation, but one of the premises of the current study was that existing design processes lead to
environments lacking in perceptual variation, so for the purposes of this experiment, at least,
greater variety would be interpreted as improvement.
The degree of variety in form, materials, light and user movement of the designs resulting
from the two projects was assessed by six licensed architects who had earlier reviewed the
studio in person. The reviewers were asked to assign a numerical rating between one and ten for
each of these four parameters, with a higher number indicating greater variety.
Project 1: Model and Plan-Based Design
A total of thirteen designs were produced, three examples of which are shown in Figures 8–10.
The media used in the students’ final presentation posters reflected those used in the design
process: physical models, images of physical or digital models within the site, and axonometric
drawings which doubled as plans.
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NUTE: BEGINNING AT THE END
Figures 8–10: Three examples of final posters for Project 1.
Sources: Daniel Luna, Elias Agbayani, and Allyson Gonzaga
Project 2: Perspective-based Design
In Project 2, a total of thirteen designs were again produced. Figures 11–13 show examples of
the initial hand-drawn perspectives produced by the same three designers after an initial week
of mental visualization.
Figures 11–13: Initial sequences of sketch perspectives for Project 2 by the same three designers.
Sources: Daniel Luna, Elias Agbayani, and Allyson Gonzaga
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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DESIGN EDUCATION
Figure 14
Figure 15
Figure 16
Figures 14–16: Still images from the same three designers’ final walkthrough presentations of Project 2, together with
the digital models they produced after the design of their perspective sequences.
Sources: Daniel Luna, Elias Agbayani, and Allyson Gonzaga
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NUTE: BEGINNING AT THE END
Analyses
The perceptual variation scores for Projects 1 and 2 are shown in Figures 17 and 18.
Figures 17, 18: Reviewers’ numerical evaluations of the designs for Project 1 (A–M) and Project 2 (1–13).
The three designs illustrated are E, J and M, and 5, 10 and 13.
Source: Nute
Mean scores across all categories for Project 2 increased for twelve of the thirteen students
in the class (Figures 17 and 18). The average increase was 1.67 points. The environments
resulting from Project 2 were assessed as having greater variety in all four categories, with the
greatest increase, on average 2.27 points, in variety of materials (Figures 19 and 20).
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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DESIGN EDUCATION
Figures 19, 20: Average scores in each category for Project 1 (A–M) and Project 2 (1–13).
Source: Nute
Discussion
The initial sketch perspectives produced in Project 2 suggest that mental visualization alone
may only be able to take a design so far. Even with the aid of an unusually well-defined site, the
initial perspectives were tentative at best. Moreover, making the designs explicit in the
subsequent sketch perspectives did not, as was expected, tend to freeze their development. On
the contrary, the exposure to external feedback that this made possible had the opposite effect.
Most of the designs evolved significantly over the following six iterations, to the point that the
first sketches were often difficult to trace in the final walkthroughs.
The numerical data would seem to suggest that the perspective-based design method used
in Project 2 may have played a role in improving the perceptual variety of the resulting
environments. How much, if any, of the increase in perceptual variety was actually due to the
design process, and how much to the different program, site, and means of presentation remains
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NUTE: BEGINNING AT THE END
unclear, however. The educational obligations of the class necessitated that the same design
project could not simply be repeated, and this introduced a series of variables beyond just the
two design methods being compared. Not least among these were the contrasting rural and
urban sites, and the means of final presentation. In response to the encouraging results of the
pilot study, however, and with the goal of correcting its shortcomings, the author now plans to
test the perspective sketching design process under more strictly controlled conditions. This will
entail comparing the results of model and perspective-based design used on the same project
and site. The results will need to be presented using identical media, the studios taught by an
independent instructor with no research interest in the outcomes, and the resulting designs
assessed by a much larger group of non-professional reviewers with no previous involvement in
the studio.
Potential Implications and Applications
The results of the pilot study reported here suggest that shifting the balance between objective
and subjective modes of spatial visualization in the early stages of designing buildings could
potentially improve the experiential qualities of built environments. Were that to be confirmed,
it would raise the question of how to integrate such a change into the digital design processes
now used by most architectural practices.
In place of hand-drawn perspectives, for example, it may require more intuitive digital
sketch perspective tools. 3D sketching capabilities have already been in development for more
than three decades (Bruegmann 1989; Kallio 2005; Yu and Zhang 2007; Masry and Lipson
2007; Olsen et al. 2009; Ibrahim and Rahimian 2010; Kang et al. 2012). Many of these
applications are still based on the assumption that design “sketching” takes place primarily in
plan and elevation rather than perspective, however. Moreover, in order to reduce the current
dominance of conceptual models as argued in this paper, they would also ideally need to
develop the capacity to generate three-dimensional models from digital perspectives, reversing
the current norm.
But there are still many architects who feel that no digital sketching tool can effectively
replace the immediacy of the pencil drawing for externalizing images developed in the mind. In
response, an alternative approach has been to attempt to bridge the gap between hand drawing
and digital modeling, and several applications are beginning to include perspective recognition
capabilities (Bueno and Turkienicz 2014; Zargar et al. 2020) (Figure 21).
Figure 21: Illustration from Zargar et al, showing the reverse engineering of a 3D digital model
from a hand-drawn perspective, based on a conversion from Grasshopper to Rhino.
Source: Zargar et al. 2020
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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DESIGN EDUCATION
The development of such capacities would more closely reflect the way the human mind is
able to toggle between abstract conceptual wholes and real-life perceptions of parts of those
wholes, with changes in either being instantly integrated into the other. In turn, they would
enable a shift in the early stages of designing buildings, from considering them primarily as
conceptual wholes, to shaping them based on the way they will actually be experienced, as a
series of perceptual images.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank all of the students involved in the studio, and in particular those
who kindly agreed to allow their drawings to be shared for this article. I am also extremely
grateful to the reviewers, both for their help with the in-person presentations, and in the
subsequent numerical scoring.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Kevin Nute: Associate Professor, School of Architecture, University of Hawai'i, Mānoa,
Honolulu, Hawai'i, USA
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The International Journal of Design Education
is one
of five thematically focused journals in the family of
journals that support the Design Principles and
Practices Research Network—its journals, book
imprint, conference, and online community. It is a
section of
Design Principles and Practices: An
International Journal.
The International Journal of Design Education
explores aspects of learning to become a
designer and to develop modes of “design thinking.”
It explores design strategies, methodologies, and
tactics. It analyzes forms of professional stance. And
it examines pedagogies of engagement with design
purposes, designed objects, and design.
As well as papers of a traditional scholarly type, this
journal invites presentations of practice—including
documentation of curricular practices and exegeses
analyzing the effects of those practices.
The International Journal of Design Education
is a peer-reviewed, scholarly journal.
ISSN 2325-128X
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