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Positive school climate for school staff? The roles of administrators, staff beliefs, and school organization in high and low resource school districts

Authors:

Abstract

Despite continued calls for positive school climate, school staff members are rarely included in school climate research or theories. This qualitative case study explored how socioeconomic status (SES), school districts, leadership, and school contexts combine to create school climate. Four schools were selected from a sample of positive and negative climate schools in one high and one low-SES district. Data collection involved key informant interviews and observation. District and school SES did not directly dictate the quality of climate. Organizational variables such as the principal's decisions and vision were key influences on the quality of climate for staff members. Staff members often prioritize student experiences of climate above their own experiences. School organization and the influence of the principal are critical for the quality of school climate staff members experience; these along with staff voice are critical ongoing contributions to school climate research, theory, and practice.
J Community Psychol. 2021;123. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jcop © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC
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Received: 12 May 2021
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Revised: 2 August 2021
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Accepted: 3 August 2021
DOI: 10.1002/jcop.22701
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Positive school climate for school staff? The roles
of administrators, staff beliefs, and school
organization in high and low resource school
districts
Gordon P. Capp
1
|Ron Avi Astor
2
|Hadass Moore
3
1
Department of Social Work, California State
University, Fullerton, California, USA
2
Luskin School of Public Affairs, Graduate
School of Education and Information
Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA), Los Angeles, California, USA
3
Paul Berwald School of Social Work and
Social Welfare, Hebrew University of
Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Correspondence
Gordon P. Capp, Department of Social Work,
California State University, Fullerton, 800N.
State College Blvd; EC646, Fullerton,
CA 92831, USA.
Email: gcapp@fullerton.edu
Abstract
Despite continued calls for positive school climate, school
staff members are rarely included in school climate re-
search or theories. This qualitative case study explored how
socioeconomic status (SES), school districts, leadership, and
school contexts combine to create school climate. Four
schools were selected from a sample of positive and ne-
gative climate schools in one high and one lowSES district.
Data collection involved key informant interviews and ob-
servation. District and school SES did not directly dictate
the quality of climate. Organizational variables such as the
principal's decisions and vision were key influences on the
quality of climate for staff members. Staff members often
prioritize student experiences of climate above their own
experiences. School organization and the influence of the
principal are critical for the quality of school climate staff
members experience; these along with staff voice are cri-
tical ongoing contributions to school climate research,
theory, and practice.
KEYWORDS
elementary schools, qualitative case study, school based mental
health, school climate, school social work, school staff members,
secondary schools, teaching staff
1|INTRODUCTION
Positive school climate continues to gain importance in research and practice communities as a mechanism to
support student success. A large body of school climate research has linked positive school climate with numerous
positive outcomes for students (e.g., Astor & Benbenishty, 2019; Berkowitz et al., 2017), and research has linked
elements of school climate to outcomes for teachers (e.g., Collie et al., 2011,2012; Grayson & Alvarez, 2008).
However, the majority of school climate research is based on student perspectives and reports of school climate
(Berkowitz et al., 2017). The views of teachers, administrators, and other staff members are critical for under-
standing how schools can create positive climates and how staff members see their roles in schools.
Recent research has highlighted important variations in how staff members experience climate, and that some
individuals report much more positive experiences than others (Capp et al., 2018). Some variation in the quality of
climate experienced by staff members is connected to their jobs or roles in schools, as well as the kind of school
(elementary, secondary) where they work (Capp et al., 2018; Capp et al., 2020a). Additionally, study of stafffocused
climate indicates that profiles of climate experiences include positive and negative experiences of climate, and that
these profiles can coexist in districts and schools (Capp et al., 2020b). This suggests that there are staff members in
the same schools who are experiencing qualitatively different climate, and that a more nuanced understanding of
how staff perceive climate is needed. This study utilizes a mixed methods research design to further examine how
different dimensions of school climate influence individual experiences, and to understand how local school con-
texts influence staff member perspectives of school climate.
1.1 |Ecologically nested staff member experiences of school climate
The current study of stafffocused school climate includes a focus on the construction of climate, and how staff
both contribute to, and experience the climate of their schools. This reflects an ecological understanding of the
school where there are multiple influences on the school and that transactions between many stakeholders are
integral parts of school climate. Astor and Benbenishty (2019) describe a theoretical model where schoolbased
phenomena are influenced by a combination of variables that exist in the school, including teacherstudent re-
lationships, and external variables including community SES, student, and family characteristics. Although external
influences are important, they do not dictate what happens in the school. Instead, the school mediates and
moderates influences through the internal dynamics and transactions (Astor & Benbenishty, 2019). School climate is
one aspect of the school that helps to mediate or moderate external influences, and that also contributes to what
happens in schools. One gap in this model is how staff members experience climate, and how they contribute to the
construction of climate. Thus, how school staff members understand climate and how they understand their
contribution to climate are key questions for this study.
1.2 |Understanding and constructing stafffocused school climate
1.2.1 |Leadership
Prior research focused on climate and staff members indicated that the job of the staff member was related to the
quality of climate they experienced: Teachers working in elementary schools endorsed more positive climate than
those in high schools; Special Education teachers reported more negative climate than elementary teachers; and
noncertificated staff members (secretaries, janitors, etc.) reported more positive views of climate than elementary
teachers (Capp et al., 2020b). Principals also reported more positive views of climate than all other staff members
(Capp et al., 2018; Capp et al., 2020b). The importance of principal influence on school climate is documented in
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educational research (e.g., Allen et al., 2015; TshannenMoran & Gareis, 2015) however, this influence is rarely
researched or documented in the safe communities, school climate, or school safety research literatures. Emerging
empirical evidence does suggest that school leaders create and demonstrate positive climate in their buildings
which may lead to safer schools with more positive climate (Astor et al., 2009; McCarley et al., 2016). Yet, few of
the psychological or school climate interventions focus explicitly on the principal and instead tend to frame the
principal as an implementationfacilitator when working with teachers and and students. Despite the widely held
belief in some educational leadership literatures that principals have enormous sway over the school organizational
climate (almost as fact) empirical questions remain about how different leadership styles influence climate, and
which elements of climate are most important (Bellibas & Liu, 2018). This, coupled with evidence that principals in
California reported a need for training to create a supportive, wholechild environment(DarlingHammond &
CookHarvey, 2018) suggests that continued examination of climate from a wholistic perspective is important.
Understanding the local community is an important element for effective leadership (DarlingHammond
et al., 2007) and understanding a given school's ecological composition is necessary for understanding local cli-
mate and developing the capacity to shape climate (Astor & Benbenishty, 2019).
1.2.2 |District decisions may influence climate
Districts have clear influence over schools through budgets, policies, personnel decisions, and program decisions,
although it is unclear how this influence relates to staff member experiences of climate. Locally created inter-
ventions and programs implemented by schools and districts are increasingly important, both practically and the-
oretically, as schools and districts continue to create or select programs to target needs. In districts that are creating
interventions, these efforts reflect a communitydriven perspective that capitalizes on local resources to solve
problems that have been identified in particular local contexts (De Pedro et al., 2017). Thus, it is crucial to
understand the local district and school contexts. In fact, it is hard to imagine that trying to understand climate
relying only on existing administrative data would reflect nonstandardized, grassroots efforts or specific ideas and
desires of school leaders. Focusing on particular district and school contexts, then, is necessary to gain a holistic and
nuanced understanding of how school climate influences people, interactions, and decisions.
1.2.3 |Socioeconomic status
Research has clearly demonstrated that one of the strongest predictors of academic achievement is student and
school SES. Around the world, researchers have found that students with lowerSES backgrounds experience
poorer academic achievement than their higherSES peers (Berkowitz et al., 2017; Sirin, 2005). Poverty in com-
bination with poor school climate may influence the experiences of many people in a school. For instance, Hopson
and Lee (2011) found that among students experiencing poor climate, those from poor families report worse
behavior than students from higherincome families. This suggests a double danger, wherein students experiencing
poverty and negative school environments may have worse experiences than higherSES students in the same
schools. Further, it is not merely individual levels of poverty that matter; low neighborhood SES may also be a
source of deprivation in schools (Owens, 2010).
1.2.4 |Who creates climate and who experiences climate?
School climate definitions assume that staff members are fundamentally responsible for the quality of climate that
students experience, yet school climate literature has largely left out staff experiences of climate and their
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perspectives about creating climate. There is evidence that staff members want to shape their environment. For
instance, Kraft et al. (2015) found that teachers recognized the need for organizational interventions to address the
persistently negative and unsuccessful school experiences among lowincome students, but indicated that their
individual contributions were not enough to overcome the influences of poverty (Kraft et al., 2015).
The responsibility of staff to create climate, and to create climate that benefits students is also apparent in literature
about Social Emotional Learning (SEL) and interventions to improve SEL for students. In their comprehensive review,
Durlak et al. (2011) note the efficacy of SEL interventions delivered at school by school staff members. SEL and School
Climate are increasingly understood as being mutually reinforcing constructs (Melnick et al., 2017)andthatpositive
school climate both is a requisite for SEL and a result of good SEL programming and instruction in schools.
1.3 |Purpose
Given the increasing focus on school climate and SEL to improve the experiences and outcomes of students in schools,
the need to qualitatively understand how staff experience and understand climate is a conspicuous gap in the school
climate literature. Despite existing quantitative evidence about climate, and existing assumptions about the role of
principals in creating climate, understanding all staff views of climate and the influence of local contexts is needed.
School staff members have enormous social responsibility and great influence over students. Understanding their
perceptions and beliefs about school climate is critical, including ideas about how climate is created and how different
combinations of personal and ecological interactions contribute to school climate. This study also sought to root
quantitative findings in the actual experiences of staff members. This case study, therefore, aimed to answer these
questions:
1. How is the quality, or valence, of school climate understood by staff members, school leaders, and the district?
2. How do staff members characterize their role regarding school climate (e.g., they create it, it is a shared
responsibility, it is a result of schoolwide dynamics and interactions)?
3. How do external factors including SES and District policies and procedures influence staff perceptions of school
climate?
2|METHODS
This case study was a mixedmethods investigation of staff members in their local school and district contexts. An
explanatory sequential design was utilized (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011;quantQUAL), wherein quantitative methods
were first used to identify places of positive and negative climate. In the second step of this design, these quantitative
results were used to refine questions, the case study sample, and data collection (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011).
2.1 |Districts, schools, and individuals as participants
2.1.1 |District selection
Two school districts were selected from an existing research consortium composed of a university and several school
districts. These two districts were selected because of similar characteristics, including: their geographic proximity to
each other, similar size (number of schools), and ethnic diversity. However, one was a higherSES district (with fewer free
and reducedpricemeals)andonewasalowerSES district (more free and reducedprice meals). District SES was an
important context for understanding how climate is created and how it influences staff experiences.
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2.1.2 |District characteristics
District A, a highSES district, is a suburban school district in Southern California, with 30 schools and approximately
29,000 students. The Education Data Partnership (2018) reported that approximately 25% of students qualified for
free and reducedprice lunch, approximately 6% qualified as English learners (20162017), and 25% were socio-
economically disadvantaged (students whose parents have not received a high school diploma; who were eligible
for free and reducedprice meals; who have a direct certification for free or reducedprice meals; or who are
migrant, homeless, or foster youth) (California Department of Education, 2017). Four schools in this district were
classified as Title I schools.
District B is a lowSES suburban district in Southern California. District B has 25 schools and approximately
21,000 students. In contrast to District A, roughly 58% of District B students qualify for free or reducedprice lunch,
nearly 17% are classified as English learners (Education Data Partnership, 2018), and 64% are socioeconomically
disadvantaged (California Department of Education, 2017). In addition, this district had 22 schools classified as
Title I.
2.1.3 |Using statewide data and district responses to identify quality of climate and
select case study schools
In a previous study of school staff members in California utilizing school staff responses from the California School
Climate Survey (CSCS) and latent profile analysis, four subgroups of school staff members were identified based on
their perceptions of school climate: negative climate, disadvantageous climate, positive discipline and support, and
positive climate (Capp et al., 2020b). This statewide analysis and the resulting subgroups were then used to identify
the proportion of respondents belonging to the positive and negative profiles within the two districts described
above. Schools from each district were then sorted into two lists: one ranked by the most people endorsing a
positive climate, thus identifying schools expected to have positive climates; and one ranked by the most people
endorsing a negative climate, identifying schools expected to have a negative climate. For example, in Elementary
School 1, roughly 68% of the 31 staff who completed the CSCS were likely to be in the positive climate profile. In
high school 2, roughly 9% of the 47 respondents were identified in the negative climate profile.
Rather than relying solely on this quantitative school sorting procedure and recognizing that we would not be
automatically allowed to study the schools at the top of our lists, we met with district administrators from both
school districts. The school district administrators were interviewed as way to (a) solicit feedback about potential
case study schools from the district perspectiveespecially the presence of positive and negative climate schools
based on district knowledge, (b) confirm or disconfirm case study locations for case study activities, and (c) begin
understanding the role of transactions between the district and schools.
Conversations with district administrators clearly corroborated our quantitative findings (Capp et al., 2020b).
For example, when presented with a positive climate school based on the quantitative sorting, one district ad-
ministrator reported that school was a shining starin the district. One of the negative climate schools was
described as one of the most toxic schools we've ever seen.Following these conversations, district personnel in
both districts connected the researcher with principals from positive and negative climate schools within the two
districts for final approval and arrangements for data collection activities. Because our ability to study these schools
was contingent on district and principal approval, the final sample of schools does not include the same schools
identified as most positiveand most negativein our quantitative analysis. However, our study schools were
within the first 5 schools on each list (positive and negative schools in each district). The researcher then met with
four principals to present the goals of this project; all four principals gave permission and facilitated access to their
schools, various meetings, and events.
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The final sample consisted of four schools. Based on their position in the profilebased list and feedback from
district administrators, one of these schools was expected to have very positive climate, one with moderately
positive climate, and two with negative climate. School selection was guided by the goal to explore the quality and
creation of climate in schools, regardless of the type of school (e.g., elementary, middle and high school). Even
though district SES provided an important context in which to study climate, the SES or Title 1 status of individual
schools was not part of our sampling strategy. Further, while quantitative data and district feedback suggested the
kind of climate that might be evident in these schools, case studies were an appropriate and necessary tool to
understand what was actually happening on the ground, whether the quality of climate changed over time, and
other contextual factors that would influence staff perceptions, and the creation, of school climate.
2.1.4 |Schools selected for case studies
In District A, Elementary 1 is a small elementary school with approximately 540 students and approximately 45 staff
members. Recently, changing boundaries and regional demographics have resulted in an increase in the number of
students (37%) who are English learners, in foster care, or qualify for free or reducedprice lunch.
In the same district, Elementary 2, is one of the district's Title I schools, with 63% of students classified as
socioeconomically disadvantaged and 28% classified as English learners. Enrollment at Elementary 2 was 588
students at the time of this study, with approximately 54 staff members.
High School 1 is in District A, along with the two elementary schools. Approximately 3200 students attend High
School 1, along with approximately 230 employees. During the time of this case study, 3% of the students were
classified as English learners and 25% classified as socioeconomically disadvantaged.
Finally, High School 2 is in the adjacent lowSES district (District B). It features roughly 240 staff members and
3100 students; 5% of students are classified as English learners and 52% are socioeconomically disadvantaged.
2.2 |Qualitative data collection
Qualitative case study activities were employed to explore the school context in connection with staff perspectives
of school climate. Following the methodology detailed by Yin (2003), multiple sources of evidence were gathered.
Data collection occurred during a 7month period between December and June. This period of several months
allowed for the building of rapport with participants, observation of a wide variety of activities on the four school
campuses, and interviews with a variety of staff members. This time span also allowed for repeated triangulation of
case study data. For instance, interviews could include questions about school events or activities that were
previously observed, and interviewees could suggest further activities for observation (see Table 1). Key informants
were recruited for interviews in multiple ways. Emails were sent to school staff requesting their participation in
interviews. In some cases, principals and secretaries recommended staff members. Finally, some were recruited
during observations at schools; the duration of data collection provided many opportunities to ask more specific
questions from different interested school staff or follow up on events and patterns observed at schools.
2.2.1 |Semistructured interviews with key informants
Twenty semistructured interviews were conducted with key informants, usually lasting between 20 and 40 min.
Interviews with multiple stakeholders were critical to understanding how experiences and perceptions of climate
manifest in more than one ecological layer of the school. In addition, these interviews allowed an exploration of the
relationship between the district and school. Primary targets for these interviews included teachers, secretarial or
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TABLE 1 Select case study activities
Activity HighSES district LowSES district
Elementary 1 Elementary 2 High School 1 High School 2
Interviews Grade 3 teacher Grade 5 teacher VAPA teacher English lead
Physical education teacher Grade 5 teacher Avid teacher Math lead
Grade 4 teacher Speech and language pathologist Assistant principal Special education teacher
Grade 2 teacher Grade 2 teacher Secretary Special education teacher
Math lead Football coach and history teacher
Tennis coach
Photo teacher
Informal conversations Initial meeting, principal Initial meeting, principal Initial meeting, principal Initial meeting, leadership team
Classroom tour, principal Gym, playground supervisor After class, principal Scheduling math meeting, principal and
assistant principal
Noon duty, playground supervisor After class, assistant principal Before staff meeting, principal
Data presentation, leadership team
Observations Classroom tour Lunch and playground Staff senate Staff meeting
Lunch and playground Friday flag salute Full day of classes Staff meeting
Staff meeting End of day dismissal Curriculum lead meeting Math meeting
Friday flag salute Classroom tour English department meeting Class observations
Staff development meeting Spring showcase Leadership meeting
Student survey meeting Climate and culture meeting
Department meeting
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other staff members, counselors or school social workers, principals, and districtlevel personnel members or
administrators. An interview guide was developed for semistructured interviews (see Table 2). Questions were
intended to gather staff perspectives about: (a) what constitutes positive and negative climate, (b) how the school
and district contexts influence their experiences of climate, and (c) what they believe are the most important factors
for creating climate.
2.2.2 |Direct observation
In addition to providing additional data, direct observation helped situate findings about climate in the context of a
school, clarify interactions between district and school levels, and triangulate data from other sources. Observations
captured several aspects of daily school life, including: (a) formal (e.g., staff meetings) and informal interactions
among staff members; (b) instruction and classroom activities, general supervision (e.g., lunch or recess), and
informal interactions between staff members and students; (c) interactions among parents, other members of the
community, and school staff members; and (d) physical aspects of the school. Additionally, during observations,
many informal conversations occurred. This often resulted in the opportunity to have multiple conversations with
school professionals, including principals and department leaders, over time.
2.2.3 |Analysis
For all data collection activities, materials were kept in a case study database for storage and analysis (Yin, 2003).
Materials included field notes (e.g., observations), and interview transcripts. Key informant interviews were re-
corded and transcribed verbatim. Thus, nearly all data were transcribed and imported into NVivo for analysis.
In general, inductive coding techniques were used to generate codes from the data. Although a codebook was
not created before analysis, previous literature and the design of this study suggested possible themes
(Kohlbacher, 2006; Powell et al., 2013). An additional researcher also coded data. Four interviews and four ob-
servations were coded by each researcher, and a codebook was developed. The interrater agreement rate was 93%.
The codebook was also refined after additional interviews and observations were cocoded. Finally, data collection
and analysis happened concurrently. Thus, the process of coding and analyzing interviews and observations also
guided future observations and interviews.
TABLE 2 Semistructured interview guide
What is your job in this school, and how long have you worked here?
When people talk about school climate, what does that mean to you?
How would you describe the climate of this school?
What makes a school have positive school climate?
What role do school staff members have in relation to school climate?
What other influences (including the district) help to create school climate?
What would you like to be different about the climate in this school?
How do people (students, staff members, parents, etc.) get along here?
Are there (or have there been in the past) programs or specific efforts aimed at changing aspects of school climate? If so,
are they working, and why?
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2.2.4 |Strategies for rigor
Several strategies for rigor (Padgett, 2011) were included in the study design. First, this case study incorporated
triangulation in many stages. Data from the CSCS were used to identify school sites for analysis, then district personnel
members were interviewed to validate quantitative results. Qualitative data provided an additional layer of validation for
districtlevel information. As mentioned, data collection and analysis were concurrent and iterative, allowing the re-
searcher to ensure that a variety of activities were observed and key informants could be interviewed. The researcher
conducting observations and interviews also used regular peer debriefing and support to discuss preliminary findings
and additional questions that arose from interviews or observations, and to monitor researcher bias.
2.2.5 |Individual participant information
In addition to conversations with many staff members, key informant interviews were also conducted with 20 staff
members from the four schools in this case study. Interviews were conducted with teachers, administrators,
secretaries, coaches, and one speech and language pathologist. Eight of these staff members worked in elementary
schools, and the remaining 12 worked in high schools. On average, staff members had more than 16 years of
experience in their profession and had been in their current jobs for an average of 10.5 years.
3|RESULTS
3.1 |Schools selected for case study expected to have positive climates
Two schools in this sample were identified with more positive climates, both in the higherSES district (District A).
At Elementary 1, a positive school climate was expected based on quantitative analyses and conversations with
district personnel members. Results overwhelmingly showed that this was true. One teacher explained:
I feel like we have a very positive school culture. I see the principal interact with teachers as well as students. I
see teachers interact with each other, and with students. I see the schoolwork of students displayed throughout the
school. I see the great lengths teachers go to to make our school a positive place for students.
These comments exemplify staff beliefs that the climate in their school was positive, and participants had
specific examples of what their colleagues do to create this climate.
Elementary 2, expected to have a moderatelypositive climate is also one of the district's Title I schools, with
high levels of socioeconomically disadvantaged students. A teacher from Elementary 2 further explained:
See we have a very unusual schoolpeople come here and they're like, there's just something about [this
school]. Because we are like a family. Most of us have been here forever. So, it feels like a family, and we do things
outside of school together, and we're just on each other's side. We're really supportive.
Some comments indicated a less positive climate. These reflected perceptions of the school's leadership,
suggested that not all staff members experienced supportive relationships, or implicated disciplinary procedures at
the school: There were several years of justI didn't want to come to work because I didn't feel supported, I didn't
feel appreciated, I felt like I was under attack.
3.2 |Schools selected for case study expected to have less positive climate
The two high schools in this study represented both the highand lowSES districts. Each of the high schools in this
study was originally expected to have a negative climate. In District A, at High School 1, this was not necessarily an
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accurate characterization. Interviews and observations suggested that many people were happy to be working at
High School 1. However, there were also indicators that not all staff members viewed things positively. In one case,
this reflected a fundamental disagreement with the mission of the school, and whether the school was really
meeting the needs of the diverse student body:
What happens if we said to students, Do what you're passionate about, and make sure it makes the world
better.Why aren't we saying that to them? That's school climate. We're not asking those big questions.
In District B, at High School 2, case study data much more closely reflected the sorting as a negativeclimate
environment. Individual conversations and meetings that were captured in observations revealed consistent evidence
that staff members were not experiencing a positive climate. This was clearly connected to two larger issues: a rapid
change of administrators in the preceding 12 months and significant perceived instability relating to other policies and
procedures at the school. However, there were indicators suggesting that the climate was beginning to improve.
3.3 |Crosscutting themes explaining staff views of climate
One emerging conclusion is that there are multiple themes that come together to create a positive or negative
climate, despite the level of SES in the district. Several of these themes help explain staff perceptions of climate and
factors that influence positive and negative experiences in schools. These themes also interlock with one another,
meaning that evidence from one theme often will implicate another. These themes were: (a) principals have critical
influences on climate; (b) administrator turnover always matters; (c) staff members make decisions that create
climate; (d) staff members view themselves in service of the students. Table 3presents a comprehensive listing of
case study evidence.
3.3.1 |Principals have critical influences on climate staff understand that climate
Perhaps the most overwhelming theme from this case study was the influence of the principal or leadership team in
schools. This conclusion is driven by what staff members actually think and feel; this is missing from research
literature about school climate. Even if this kind of conclusion is expected in some ways, it is not generally
characterized as input from staff members when discussing school climate. This was true in elementary and
secondary settings, regardless of whether climate was positive or negative, as succinctly expressed by one ele-
mentary teacher: The principal has a lot to do with school culture whether you like it or not.Other comments from
a high school teacher indicate the immediacy and potency of administrators:
A good example is climate has changed just in this year at our school because we had one principal at the
beginning of the year, and now, we have a different principal. So, with that change of leadership, that's changed the
climate of what we do.
Other staff members clearly connected their experiences in the school with the administration, and expressed
the importance of the principal actively leading an approach to improve school climate:
But when I go back to why I'm here, it's for that individual, one kid at a time, one teacher at a time. That's the best
we can do. And again, I think it would not, at all, even be a remote opportunity if we didn't have the right leadership.
3.3.2 |Administrator turnover creates instability and can leave staff feeling ignored
The importance of principals and their intentional efforts to engage staff members was further supported by
descriptions of changes in administration. Many participants also spoke directly about the impact of changing
administrators. This finding also represents a gap in the research literature about school climate. Without asking
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TABLE 3 Case study data: interviews and observations
Themes illustrating
school climate Positive climate schools Schools with less positive climate
Role of Principals Our administrator does set the tone for the environment and culture of
our school. She celebrates accomplishments, and encourages teachers
and staff, to celebrate each other. She is transparent at all times, and is
always student centered when making decisions. She leads our
positive culture and climate.
But when I go back to why I'm here, it's for that individual, one kid at a
time, one teacher at a time. That's the best we can do. And again, I
think it would not, at all, even be a remote opportunity if we didn't
have the right leadership.
Climate is definitely topdown. If your leader (principal) has a positive
attitude, that will be passed on. Our principal has programs that focus
on drawing attention to one anothers contributions, etc., as well as
positive reinforcement programs for students.
I think that a good staff will be a good staff regardless of administration.
People can be amazing teachers regardless of administration, but to
create an overall culture that is pervasive and is the way that a school
is, is the responsibility of a school administration.
Because it was about 8 years ago we had a principal here that really was
not effective and we really at that time worked together to voice our
concerns and that principal ended up leaving, and everybody stuck
together.
Like I said we had a great climate here until one principal came it's
amazing what one principal can do. They brought in and destroyed the
climate here.
Assistant principal came in two years ago. This was both a response to
enrollment numbers and requests from Principal to have position added.
Big positive influence for the staff, and for the principal. He handles the
trepidation around technology implementation really well, and seems to
have a good way of dealing with staff who are resistant to input or
change.
There's a strange disconnect between Principal and school I'm not sure
exactly what it is. Some of it is related to her assertion that staff know I'm
I don't' think we talk to students. I think we don't ask them about things.
I don't see a high degree of parent involvement. I see a lot of top
down stuff. I don't think everybody's at the table.
And so when I started sharing my visions, that also helped. Because with
the current administration, they want everything to be teacher led.
They want it to come from the teachers and then how we can
support you.
Climate changed with each new principal, some time periods were better
than others. One guy with a lot of energy this spilled over to staff,
and students felt more empowered Another guy was different, and
things were worse
Shifts administration when there's a good administration, there's a
good climate.
A good example is climate has changed just in this year at our school
because we had one principal at the beginning of the year, and now,
we have a different principal. So with that change of leadership,
that's changed the climate of what we do.
The principal has a lot to do with school culture whether you like it
or not.
(Continues)
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TABLE 3 (Continued)
Themes illustrating
school climate Positive climate schools Schools with less positive climate
going to be around, some of it seems related to a penchant to share
stories that maybe I wouldn't tell someone right away
But, um, we also got an assistant principal last year a man we haven't
had a lot of male leaders. And he's terrific. And he's been a game
changer as far as our principal, too. Like he could kind of see her
negativity, and he was bold enough to counteract that. So we really
like him
It has changed a little bit because we've had principals obviously change,
and the climate does obviously change when a new principal comes in.
We had some great principals, then we had one bad year that really
brought the team together but really caused problems with
administration. And then the last principal they brought in, I don't
know, 7 or 8 years ago and she's been wonderful. Climate's become
much more positive again like it used to be.
Principal also said that she thinks a new school is different for climate she's
opened a couple of new schools and started in existing schools. So when
you build/start a new school, the people there create the climate (and I
suspect that they sense this or know this on some level, that because it's
new, you get to establish how you want things to go). But when you enter
an existing school (as a teacher/staff member/principal) you are entering
an existing culture.
Principal goes back in after we leave to chat with a boy who's engrossed in a
book for a moment. She tells me that there is a group of boys who are
acting like a little gang and causing some significant headaches she's
had to suspend several of them. She's challenged them to get through this
week (right before Spring Break) and he's been working to do this. So he's
getting some kudos from her.
Administrator
Turnover
. And with that, policies have changed, or lack of policies. And I look at
things like tardy policies and detention and stuff like that. I think they
should be embedded and that no matter who changes at the top, we
should have certain policies that don't ever change. But because
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CAPP ET AL.
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Themes illustrating
school climate Positive climate schools Schools with less positive climate
we've had so muich change at the top, policies have changed. And
we've kind of ended up this year with like no tardy policy, no
detention
like I said we had a great climate here until one principal came it's
amazing what one principal can do. They brought in and destroyed
the climate here.
There is some discussion here one teacher notes that he has systems for
positive reinforcement (this is the Spanish teacher with the pesos). He
says: Why do we have all these programs that disappear? I've been
doing all these things, but they go away.He notes that this happens as
staff change over and as there are changes in leadership. He argues that
these programs can't be regimebasedbut should instead be
systematic.
It has changed a little bit because we've had principals obviously change,
and the climate does obviously change when a new principal comes
in. We had some great principals, then we had one bad year that
really brought the team together but really caused problems with
administration. And then the last principal they brought in, I don't
know, 7 or 8 years ago and she's been wonderful. Climate's become
much more positive again like it used to be.
The other problem with this school is that it has had way too many lead
administrators. [name], the predecessor was here the longest, he was
here 7 years. I've been teaching for 25 years in California and I've
had lead administrators last 2.75 years on average. So that's a big
factor
Staff view climate as
student issue
I know a lot of teachers are dedicated, but definitely here, we are very
dedicated to our students. And I see that in everybody that works
here. And student focus is our #1 goal, as it should be.
And I hear about the gold ribbon school great, what's next? Are you
going to do it again next year? What about that kid who's failing 5
classes who you have not addressed all year. I mean I've got emails
on a kid going back to October. Nothing gets done. We'll wait til the
end of the year and he can go to [continuation school]. So you're
going to ‐‐ his whole year?
(Continues)
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TABLE 3 (Continued)
Themes illustrating
school climate Positive climate schools Schools with less positive climate
Climate doesn't matter as much if you have a positive relationship with
kids then things are ok.
And I think, that's what I've seen more and more, that as teachers are
empowered to, and also encouraged to, say it's gonna change
culture will be affected the greatest if teachers individually took it on
themselves to smile. To say hi to the kids, to reach out to just little
things. To stand at the door. Maybe not every time, because you get
busy, you know, but welcome the kids from time to time. To take
note in what's going on with the kid in drama, or track, or something.
I think collectively individually, me, can't change it. But collectively
we all are doing those little it goes a long way.
And I hear about the gold ribbon school great, what's next? Are you
going to do it again next year? What about that kid who's failing 5
classes who you have not addressed all year. I mean I've got emails
on a kid going back to October. Nothing gets done. We'll wait until
the end of the year and he can go to [continuation school]. So you're
going to [] his whole year?
The students that's an interesting question I think it depends. I think
it really depends on their teacher. And we have some very, very
positive teachers and we have some that may have some challenges
in that area. And so I think that really depends.
She says that there are many teachers who are really supportive of her
efforts to get kids mainstreamed into their classes, and many who report
after the fact that they have enjoyed having these students and that
they are impressed with the personalities, smarts, and diligence of these
students. Her measure of climate, is likely directly related to how the
school community responds to/includes her students. She knows they
will not do the same activities but wants to them to be incorporated
into the community as much as possible.
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CAPP ET AL.
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Themes illustrating
school climate Positive climate schools Schools with less positive climate
Staff create climate I feel like we have a very positive school culture. I see the principal
interact with teachers as well as students. I see teachers interact with
each other, and with students. I see the great things that occur at the
Friday Morning Lineup each week. I see the school work of students
displayed throughout the school. I see the great lengths teachers go to
in order to make our school a positive place for students.
To me, school climate/culture has to do with the way we treat each other
staff and parents, as well as students. When you walk in the door at a
school, the culture should be immediately evident in the welcoming
smiles and happy attitudes of those you encounter. Parents and
teachers work together to help the students succeed.
Focus between teachers is on communication and being a team, instead
of an atmosphere where there is competition between teachers and
staff. Not so much physical safety maybe for the students, but
academic safety. We want them to take risks in their thinking Because
staff are believe in being part of a team, students also experience this
idea of being on a team.
Staff's got tremendous amount of responsibility for creating that climate.
The students that's an interesting question I think it depends. I think it
really depends on their teacher. And we have some very, very positive
teachers and we have some that may have some challenges in that
area. And so I think that really depends.
I teach students. The content is the content. I just think that from my
perspective climate also comes from the other stakeholder group, or
constituency
What I notice around the unstructured times at [high school], as
compared to my experiences at middle schools, student choice
seems to be a predominant value in the culture of [high school]. And
student choice to me means, ok, you can hang out with your friends
over here, and if you want to use language that's nonacademic
then we're going to walk the other way, we're going to ignore that
you've chosen to use that. But when you get in my classroom, some
teachers will address that, some teachers will not. So student choice
is a value that is expressed in our culture and our climate here at
[high school].
How do we communicate climate to kids from staff to kids. Classroom
management has got to be front and center for that. How do we
address the behaviors that are not acceptable in a classroom setting,
and at the same time, reinforce those behaviors that are? And again,
do so in a cordial way that allows kids to align themselves with the
goal of the purpose of the class.
And so for a lot of students, What brings them here is that activity
they're involved in, whether it's band, whether it's photography, or
its auto shop, it's a sport. Whatever that is that pulls in a lot of kids
and keeps them connected to something on campus. And then I think
from there, individual relationships that teachers build with their
students within the class. Because even if we have students were not
connected to a club or sport, if they feel like somebody cares, an
adult cares. Not even just am I academically supported But this
perception of, does this person in front of me even care about me. So
I think that once a student feels that this person cares about me, I
think that connects them to at least that one class for that one hour.
(Continues)
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TABLE 3 (Continued)
Themes illustrating
school climate Positive climate schools Schools with less positive climate
Yeah, I feel like I haven't talked about the students a lot. Because, in my
classroom, it's so enjoyable. And I try to provide this space for
students, because I'm an art. I try to provide a space that's enjoyable,
and that they can have lots of creative options and that they feel
heard, and also have kind of, a separation from stress.
When I'm feeling defensive and upset and um, I just can't give them my
best. And I think I was grouchy, so my temper was shorter and I had
less patience with them. So and that's not fair but it's the truth. Is
that they paid the price, too, for the bad school culture.
I used to tell my kids when I taught math if you and me against this math.
It's you and I together, We're going to figure this out. But many math
teachers will say, well I am the knower of math I am thinking her
knowledge and you will learn from us. It's me and math against you.
So those are two ways that teachers approaches that would tell you
if you're going to feel that it's their job to create a positive culture, Or
if it's someone else's job to do that.
One thing that's really cool is you stand by the door and greet them one
by one. Try to know their names as soon as you can. That makes a
big deal, they know that you know them. I think I had a study or
something, in one of my previous education classes, try to make 2
connections with a kid during the time you have them, each period.
One could be at the door, I know some teachers here shake their
hands as they come in. And talk to them as you're going around. So
that way they feel some kind of connection. Learn about them.
Disconnected from
District
Um, you know I just think a lot of times the district is out of touch and so
they come twice a year with their big group of people to check us out,
judge us, see how we're doing. You know, it's nice we get positive
comments. But really you can't know what's happening unless you're
here all the time.
District again I don't care, I hope they think we're great because I think
we're great, but sometimes they do sometimes they don't.
So we can either get that dictated to us, or we can say this is what we're
going to do. So it's kind of that idea. I get that the district can make
things harder. I mean legitimately I get from funding, back to cutting
tutor money so we can't so it really does affect the day to day in
some cases. I'm realizing that, it's not all but it's what I preach to
my AVID kids. I get you're frustrated witn your teacher so what are
you going to do? Vent, get it out, good, but when we vent everyday
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CAPP ET AL.
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Themes illustrating
school climate Positive climate schools Schools with less positive climate
for a semester and your grade is still a C or and F, what are you
doing? Because I guarantee you it's not all the teacher. And that's
kind of the thing that's like, what can you do collectively. So let's
problem solve.
I um, the district. I don't feel much from them.
People in this meeting are both taking responsibility and questioning what
administration/district will do. Comments from many of the teachers
indicate that they are clearly desiring to have a rigorous course that
provides a good experience for students. But clearly also there's an
acknowledgement that administration (local and district) may or will do
things that influence their experiences.
Teacher says that people are maybe jaded because there is a tendency to
get excited about new prospects and then the district pulls the rug out.
Thus, her question about where the district wants to go.
Note: Observation data in italics.
CAPP ET AL.
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staff about their experiences specifically related to school climate, we miss how leadership and changes in lea-
dership influence the school climate that staff experience. One elementary teacher unequivocally described the
power of a principal: Like I said, we had a great climate here until one principal cameit's amazing what one
principal can do. They brought in and destroyed the climate here.
In one school, data from observations showed that many administrator changes occurred during the past few
years, including assistant principals. Not only did these rapid changes in leadership generate turmoil among staff
members, but the uncertainty of the leadership moving forward was apparent, especially in meetings with staff
members. One staff member expressed his frustration at the negative influence of changing administrators on
school policies; he noted that he has had 9.5 principals in his tenure. These results help explain the power of
changes in leadership and the resulting rapid and pervasive influence on a school.
3.3.3 |Staff members make decisions that create climate
One question guiding this study concerned the creation of climate. There were clear indications that staff members
assume responsibility for creating climate, particularly for students. This was frequently an implicit message, fol-
lowed closely by beliefs that climate is a studentcentered experience. One teacher explained their view of creating
climate and embedded these efforts into various routines and interactions that happen every day:
How do we communicate climate to kidsfrom staff to kids? Classroom management has got to be front and
center for that. How do we address the behaviors that are not acceptable in a classroom setting, and at the same
time, reinforce those behaviors that are? And again, do so in a cordial way that allows kids to align themselves with
the goal of the purpose of the class.
Staff members were clearly reflecting on their actions and decisions that create climate in their schools with
students in mind, but did not describe efforts to work on the climate that impacts their own workplace and
professional experiences. While research extensively convers the importance of school climate for students, it does
not include the impact of climate for the staff working in those schools.
3.3.4 |Staff members view themselves, and climate, in service of the students
Many indicators from this case study suggest that staff members may consider school climate to be important for
students. Thus, it may be that they are not immediately considering the influence of the principal, the district, or other
colleagues in terms of creating a climate that influences them. This was surprising; staff members were expected to
prioritize their workplace and perhaps indicate that a positive staff climate might be required for a positive student
experience. One elementary teacher summed it up this way: I know a lot of teachers are dedicated, but definitely here,
we are very dedicated to our students. And I see that in everybody that works here. And student focus is our number
one goal, as it should be.One high school teacher expressed discontent at the climate created for students:
And I hear about the gold ribbon schoolgreat, what's next? Are you going to do it again next year? What
about that kid who's failing five classes who you have not addressed all year?
3.3.5 |School staff members consider climate to be disconnected from the district
Finally, one assumption in this study was that district influence would be an important element of school climate
perceptions, at least partially because districts typically provide resources, trainings, and staff. Further, districts in
this case study demonstrated awareness of positiveand negativeclimate schools. However, this was not the case,
and the district was conspicuously missing from case study data. Most participants indicated that the district was
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CAPP ET AL.
not a part of the school climate. One elementary teacher explained this absence of influence as cooccurring with a
lack of knowledge about the school:
I just think a lot of times the district is out of touch, and so they come twice a year with their big group of
people to check us out, judge us, see how we're doing. You know, it's nice, we get positive comments. But really you
can't know what's happening unless you're here all the time.
During observations, staff members spoke about changes in funding and personnel matters related to the
district. But these were often dismissed, or at least disconnected, from their conceptualization and experiences of
school climate. One teacher articulated the lack of connection this way: I don't care, I hope they think we're great
because I think we're great, but sometimes they do sometimes they don't.These comments from staff members
generate more questions about the role of the district. School climate literature focuses on individual schools, even
though districts are generally responsible for resource allocation and decision making. Why are these efforts not
seen by staff and understood as influences on climate?
4|DISCUSSION
This study set out to explore staff experiences related to school climate with a focus on SES and school contextual
factors that were expected to influence the quality of school climate. First, this study rooted previous quantitative
findings from across the state of California in the lived experiences of staff members working in districts and
schools. Second, a unique and innovative method of assessing the quality (e.g., positive or negative) of climate in
schools allowed the sampling for this study to be informed by external quantitative analyses and insider knowledge
in participating school districts. Finally, this study was designed to incorporate the influence of high or low SES on
staff perceptions of school climate.
4.1 |Explaining climate by focusing on staff member perspectives
One objective of this study was to investigate influences and factors that contribute to a positive or negative school
climate from the perspective of staff members. School climate has long been presented as a multidimensional
construct that has the capacity to be a protective influence for students, yet the experiences of staff members are
repeatedly missing from school climate research and frameworks. This remains surprising, as staff members are
clearly expected to create positive climate, regardless of their own experiences. Quantitative results from previous
studies in California suggested that the multiple dimensions of climate are important for staff members (Capp
et al., 2018); results from this case study illustrate the importance of how leadership and local context inform and
influence experiences of school climate.
4.1.1 |Importance of leadership and principals
One clear theme spanning positive and negative climate schools was the primacy of the principal's influence. When
participants were asked about where a school's climate comes from, the first response was nearly always the principal.
This finding clearly aligns with quantitative research that described the importance of the principal to positive academic
outcomes among students (Leithwood & Mascall, 2008;WallaceFoundation,2006) and positive work environments for
teachers (McCarley et al., 2016;Price,2012). Further, while research investigating climate for staff members has focused
on teachers (e.g., Collie et al., 2011;Grayson&Alvarez,2008; Malinen & Savolainen, 2016), our findings stress the
importance of including all staff members in schools and the reality that principal influence does not always create better
school climate.
CAPP ET AL.
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4.1.2 |Organizational intentionality: The principal's vision
In some of the case study schools, it was clear from multiple sources (e.g., teachers, nonteaching staff members, and
principals) that there was a concerted effort to create an environment where the school's mission was shared
and important. At Elementary 1, this was done through careful and diligent recognition of the hard work
demonstrated by staff members and a clear focus from the principal on being present, involved, and available to
both the staff and students. At High School 2, many conversations indicated that the principal was motivated
to create a shared mission that would benefit students and support staff members. Certain staff members were able
to recognize this goal and seemed to benefit from this knowledge. Other research has suggested that transfor-
mational leaders in schools are able to engage teachers in the mission of a school, and evidence supports the
association between transformational leaders and improved school climate (Engels et al., 2008; McCarley
et al., 2016). One possible pathway for this process is trust in the principal, and some evidence suggests that to lead
effectively and foster a vibrant school climate, trust between the staff and administration needs to be strong
(TschannenMoran & Gareis, 2015). Elementary 1 provides a clear example of a vibrant climate and a high level of
trust between the staff and administration.
At both high schools, some staff members were working to initiate change at the department level that mirrored the
principal's goals. An important area of future study is to examine pathways of leadership in a school and the potential for
successful shared leadership to positively influence climate. Other research has suggested that there is a burden on
school leaders to encourage teachers and staff members to share leadership, and there are likely leaders in a school who
havethedesireandexpertisetolead(Astoretal.,2009;Marks&Printy,2003). At High School 2, the principal was
already working to share leadership with the staff, and there were leaders who were emerging.
4.2 |Staff members organize around student climate rather than staff climate
One central focus for this study was exploring the source of climate for and by school professionals. School climate
definitions suggest that school professionals must take particular actions to create climate, even though these same
professionals must enter a school and experience that same climate. Participants in this case study overwhelmingly
indicated that the principal is the central player in creating climate. Despite the role of the principal, comments and
observations showed that staff members also create climate, and that they worked to create a school climate that
would foster student development and achievement. One conclusion is that often, or perhaps first, staff view
climate as something in service to students. But they also were able to articulate how the school climate influenced
their own work and experiences, suggesting that at some level, the distinction may rest in the focus that school staff
members have on their students. Researchers, school leaders, and policy makers must reflect on the fact that staff
members may be answering questions about climate from a studentfocused perspective when they assess climate.
4.3 |School organization and leadership far more important than SES and resources for
faculty in creating positive climate
One assumption guiding the structure of this study was that the SES of the school district and school community
would help account for the quality of climate in particular schools. Recent trends from administrative data ex-
amining districts and test scores also indicate increasing economic and ethnic segregation in schools
(Reardon, 2016) and among districts (Owens et al., 2016). Thus, one surprising result from this case study was that
SES did not factor into interviews and discussions about the school climate. The two elementary schools discussed
here both were relatively positiveclimate schools, and experienced increasing levels of socioeconomic dis-
advantage during the preceding years.
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CAPP ET AL.
Because there was only one participating school in District B (low SES), it is not possible to explain connections
between lower SES and more negative climate. There are possible partial explanations that can be acknowledged
here. The quantitative sorting in District B revealed positive and negative climate schools, including the lovefest
school mentioned earlier. At face value, this suggests that even in a lowerSES district, there are superlative
examples of positive and negative school climate.
This qualitative study is not generalizable but provided detailed and nuanced insight into how staff members
understand school climate in their local school and district contexts, and highlighted important areas of future
research and implications for practice and school climate theory.
5|IMPLICATIONS ANDFUTURESTUDY
One of the most compelling implications from this study is that efforts to improve school climate or implement SEL,
bullying, or other wholeschool interventions need to carefully consider staff member experiences of climate.
Wholeschool implementation is frequently called for in the literature, along with efforts to gain buyin from all staff
members in a school (Pitner et al., 2015; Pitner et al., 2017), and these results suggest that investigating staff
member perceptions of climate that are rooted in the local context of their school communities before any steps
toward generating buyin for a particular intervention. Regardless of the reasons for changing climate, findings from
this study strongly suggest that the quality of climate rests with the staff, and without staff reporting a positive
climate, how could there be a positive climate for students?
Findings presented here about principals are striking and help explicate how climate is shaped in schools. Their
obvious importance for climate suggests further study about how they understand school climate. Along with this, the
level of intentionality with which they target school climate is important. Some principals in this study were very
targeted in their interactions and decisions with respect to school climate. When the principalsinthisstudyactively
considered the kind of environment they wanted to create, there was generally evidence that there was some success.
PEER REVIEW
The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/jcop.22701
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How to cite this article: Capp, G. P., Avi Astor, R., & Moore, H. (2021). Positive school climate for school
staff? The roles of administrators, staff beliefs, and school organization in high and low resource school
districts. Journal of Community Psychology,123. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22701
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... Additionally, the findings of this study revealed that teacher victimization or bullying by school staff (other teachers and administrators) was significantly positively related to verbal victimization by parents and various forms of victimization by students: social victimization, verbal victimization, sexual harassment, physical victimization, personal property offenses, and cyber victimization. These findings suggest a complex interplay between different victimization experiences within the school environment, as evidenced by previous research [40,104,[109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122]. ...
... In other words, teachers who are victimized by colleagues are more likely to experience victimization from students and parents, which could further damage their life satisfaction. These findings underscore the importance of non-violent communication [124] and policies in educational environments, starting from school-staff interactions to create a supportive and compassionate school climate for the flourishing of teachers and students [10,44,45,111,113,121]. Thus, this study highlights the need for effective interventions and policies to prevent teacher victimization, which could include professional development for teachers and administrators on identifying and addressing bullying, creating supportive networks within schools, and fostering a school culture that values respect, compassion, and inclusivity, as outlined in previous research [113,125]. ...
... These findings underscore the importance of non-violent communication [124] and policies in educational environments, starting from school-staff interactions to create a supportive and compassionate school climate for the flourishing of teachers and students [10,44,45,111,113,121]. Thus, this study highlights the need for effective interventions and policies to prevent teacher victimization, which could include professional development for teachers and administrators on identifying and addressing bullying, creating supportive networks within schools, and fostering a school culture that values respect, compassion, and inclusivity, as outlined in previous research [113,125]. ...
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The links between different forms of teacher victimization and teachers’ life satisfaction are still under-researched. To highlight teacher victimization by various parties within the school environment and its associations with teachers’ life satisfaction, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, the Multidimensional Teacher Victimization Scale, and some additional measures were applied. The findings based on a Lithuanian sample (n = 1146) revealed that a significant portion of teachers have experienced victimization in various forms: 38.5% of teachers have been bullied by school staff, 33.9% have faced verbal victimization from students’ parents, and victimization by students affected 65.8% of teachers, with verbal and social victimization being the most common. An SEM analysis (χ2 = 355.787; Df = 33; CFI = 0.928; TLI = 0.902; NFI = 0.922; RMSEA = 0.092 [0.084–0.101]; SRMR = 0.0432) revealed that bullying by staff is not only detrimental in its own right but also relates positively to other forms of victimization, including verbal victimization by parents and multidimensional victimization by students, as teacher victimization by students and their parents mediated the relationship between teacher victimization by school staff and teacher life satisfaction. The findings suggest a complex problem within the school environment where different forms of victimization are interconnected and call for urgent attention and action from educational policymakers and school administrators to address and mitigate teacher victimization.
... In addition, effective communication within the academic field is crucial for the general public to effectively address various challenges (Capp et al., 2022). Effective management of skills and reliable communication can be achieved through strong collaboration between top and lower management. ...
... Regarding upward communication, it involves the transmission of information, reports on accomplishments, and suggestions from employees to managers (Musheke & Phiri, 2021). Communication is also encouraged among employees at the same administrative level, fostering cooperation between functions and facilitating the exchange of information required for decisionmaking (Capp et al., 2022). This evidence highlights the impact on the communication patterns within JORDAN secondary schools regarding the sharing of information. ...
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Objective: This study sought to reveal the role of administrative communications and their impact on the effectiveness of administrative decisions among school principals in Jordan. Design/ Methodology/ Approach: A descriptive and analytical approach was employed to examine the relationships between variables. The study included 125 secondary school principals from Jordan, who were randomly selected from three different cities. The researcher designed a questionnaire to gather the necessary data. Findings: The study revealed that the demographic variables of the individuals in the sample did not have any impact on the differences in perceptions of the effectiveness of administrative communications in secondary schools in Jordan. However, the study found that gender did play a role in causing variations in the responses. Furthermore, the implementation of these features in the information required by schools in Jordan has resulted in increased acceptance among workers. Ultimately, this has had a positive impact on the effectiveness of administrative decisions. Research Limitations/Implications: The study suggests that enhancing communication patterns among employees at the same administrative level, as well as between managers and employees, can improve the effectiveness of administrative decisions. This can be achieved by promoting greater interest in sharing information with specific characteristics.
... This capacity is crucial in responding to the dynamic and ever-evolving essence of the educational landscape. As shown by earlier studies, effective leadership behaviors not only affect the daily operations of educational institutions but also contribute to their sustained growth and development over time (Capp, Astor, and Moore 2022;Li and Liu 2022). Earlier studies also indicated that the actions and behaviors that educational administrators employ while communicating with teachers can bring about notable variations in their professional identity (Qin and Liu 2023; Zhu and Guo 2021). ...
Article
Due to the immense impact of teachers’ professional identity on their teaching effectiveness, multitudes of studies up have now examined this multifaceted construct and its determinants. However, due to excessive focus on the personal determinants of teacher identity, whether or not this construct can be affected by contextual factors has remained elusive. To narrow this lacuna and unravel the contextual determinants of teacher professional identity, the current study strived to divulge the role of two contextual factors, namely school climate and administrator leadership behavior, in shaping the professional identity of Chinese English as foreign language teachers. To this end, with the aid of the convenience sampling technique, 375 English as a foreign language teachers were invited to partake in the present research. The needed data were gleaned via three online self-scoring questionnaires and were analyzed via SPSS (v. 26) and AMOS (v. 29). Results obtained from correlation tests indicated a strong, linear relationship between school climate and teacher professional identity, as well as a moderate, linear association between leadership behavior and teacher professional identity. Furthermore, the findings of regression analyses identified that school climate and administrator leadership behavior are two important determinants of professional identity among Chinese English as a foreign language teachers. In fact, as the regression outcomes revealed, these two contextual variables serve a key role in constructing or reconstructing the professional identity of Chinese English as a foreign language teachers. The findings of this inquiry can deepen our comprehension of the influence of contextual factors on the formation of teachers’ professional identity.
... Existing evidence (13)(14)(15)(16) suggests that improvements in the climate of a school can disrupt the negative link between low SES and poor academic achievement in various contexts, rendering it a key factor in promoting equal educational opportunities, which should be understood as a duty of all school community members, not only students, in order to promote high socio-normative expectations in schools. A recent study conducted with Chilean students indicated that a positive classroom climate compensates for the negative effects of low SES on SIMCE scores, i.e., maths tests (17). ...
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There is evidence that promoting school physical activity (PSPA) benefits children and adolescents, but little is understood about how this promotion may relate to academic achievement and school climate across varying levels of socioeconomic status (SES). Hence, the study aimed to address this knowledge gap by examining two main objectives: (1) determining the association between PSPA and academic achievement and school climate according to schools’ SES and (2) exploring the potential mediating role of PSPA in the relationship between schools’ SES and academic achievement and school climate. This cross-sectional study at the school level focused on 4,990 schools (including public, subsidized, and private schools) that participated in the National Educational Study 2018 (Chile), which was applied to primary schoolchildren (4th grade, aged 8–10 years). Schools were divided into non-PSPA (n = 4,280) and PSPA (n = 710) during the year 2018. Changes in academic achievement from 2017 to 2018 and school climate were considered. PSPA was associated with improvements in maths (low-SES OR: 1.80, p < 0.001) and reading (middle-SES OR: 1.45, p = 0.029; low-SES OR: 1.47, p < 0.001). The indirect effect (IE) showed that PSPA partially mediated the relationship between SES and academic achievement in reading (IE = 1.017; SE = 0.12; 95%CI, −1.27, −0.77), maths (IE = –1.019; SE = 0.12; 95%CI, −1.25, −0.78), and school climate (IE = –0.46; SE = 0.52; 95%CI, −0.56, −0.35). In conclusion, PSPA was linked to positive changes in academic achievement, especially among low SES, and PSPA presented a potential mediating role in the relationship between SES of schools and academic achievement and school climate.
... Perry (1919) proposed the concept of school atmosphere as early as 1908, and then mentioned it again in his book in 1919. At present, the school climate has been studied from three independent but mutually exclusive perspectives (Capp et al., 2021). The first is the multiple measurement approach of organizational attributes, which refers to the school climate as school organizational climate (Jones and Fleming, 2021). ...
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Background Students are in their teenage years during middle school, which is a period of acceleration and transition for individual physical and mental development. Therefore, junior high school students are easily influenced by their internal and external environment, leading to academic burnout. The main activity venue for middle school students in school homework is the external environment that affects their academic performance. Psychological capital is the student’s own resource and the external environment that affects their academic performance. Aims This study aims to explore the interrelationship among school atmosphere, psychological capital, and academic burnout, and construct a theoretical model among them. This study provides practical and feasible methods and guidance suggestions for educational institutions and teachers, helps students improve their mental health level, enhances the positive perception level of the school atmosphere, and alleviates their academic burnout. Methods Building upon previous research on school climate, psychological capital, and academic burnout, this study employed the following research tools: The Perceived School Climate Questionnaire (PSC), the Positive Psychological Questionnaire (PPQ), and the High School Students’ Academic burnout Scale. A questionnaire survey was conducted on 1,267 students from three different regions of Chongqing, involving various types of junior high schools. Results The findings of this study demonstrate that both the external school climate and internal psychological capital exert an impact on academic burnout. A positive school climate can foster the development of psychological capital, subsequently enhancing academic performance. Additionally, psychological capital directly influences academic burnout. The higher the level of positivity is, the more pronounced the alleviating effect becomes. The school climate can directly affect academic burnout, and it can also indirectly affect academic burnout through the mediation of psychological capital, with psychological capital playing a partial mediating role. Conclusion To avoid academic burnout, schools should actively create a good school atmosphere and mobilize students’ learning enthusiasm; teachers should provide targeted psychological counseling to reduce students’ negative emotional perception; students should correct their learning attitude and recognize their own learning status.
... The changes in spectating plans led to fiscal challenges and need for new revenue streams to account for more virtual opportunities. The intertwining of these themes made it challenging for athletic directors to promote the physical, mental, and social health of student-athletes, their families, and the community (Bellibas & Liu, 2018;Capp et al., 2022;Reid, 2021). ...
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The purpose of this study is to explore the perceptions of athletic directors at high school sporting events during the COVID-19 pandemic. Four hundred twelve (412) high school athletic directors were surveyed and 112 responded. Participants responded to demographic items, and a qualitative, open-ended prompt to elicit detailed experiences, emotional responses, and perceptions of sporting events during the COVID-19 pandemic. Through a grounded theory approach, the following themes emerged: a strong desire for in-person attendance at sporting events, community responses that challenged health and safety of spectators and athletes, and the necessity for COVID-19 related changes such as digital ticketing virtual spectating opportunities. The study illuminates the necessity for flexibility and innovation during a crisis, in ways that are relevant to school leaders entrusted to foster a positive environment at athletic events. Some level of demand for virtual spectating experiences is likely to continue or increase in the future for post-pandemic sporting events. Further research can identify exemplary practices, and those exemplars can serve as a model for other schools and athletic directors.
... From an ecological perspective, improving the school climate focuses on monitoring and improving the environment to enhance student outcomes across the whole school population, as opposed to focusing on individual diagnosis and treatment (Kloos & Shah, 2009;Moos, 1974Moos, , 1976. Given that small fluctuations in school climate represent a substantial difference in students' experiences (Capp et al., 2022), the notion of leveraging school climate factors could be a sine qua non for improving the goals of system-wide and national policies. ...
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Research at the secondary school level provides compelling evidence to suggest that a positive school climate is related to improved health, wellbeing, and cognitive outcomes for students. In response to these findings, school systems around the world are mandating the collection of school climate data in schools. However, reviews of the literature indicate that there are relatively few instruments that provide evidence to support translation and criterion validity and assess the school climate from the perspectives of primary school students; and all of them were considered unsuitable or problematic for our purposes. To overcome this gap in the literature, this article describes the development and validation of a school climate survey designed to assess primary school students’ perceptions of school climate. Evidence to support translation validity is provided through data collected at various stages of the development process. Further, data collected from a sample of 1193 primary school students (years 3 to 6) were analysed to provide evidence to support convergent, discriminant concurrent, and predictive validity. The survey and evidence of its psychometric properties are significant for researchers, schools, and education systems seeking to assess primary school students’ perception of the school climate.
... As a group-level phenomenon reflecting the character and quality of school life, school climate depends on people's experiences of school life and related issues including norms, goals, values, relationships, teaching and learning practices, and organizational structures (Cohen et al., 2009). Capp et al. (2022) found in their study that school climate is highly affected by school principals; their decisions and vision. As an important organizational feature, school climate predicts student achievement (Karadağ et al., 2016), task and citizenship performance of teachers (Dutta & Sahney, 2022), and teacher well-being (Dreer, 2022). ...
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This study aimed to explore the relationship between school principals' learning-centered leadership (LCL) and teacher professional learning (TPL) and the mediating effect of school climate (SC) on this relationship. The sample consisted of 500 middle and secondary school teachers working at urban schools in a large province in the Mediterranean region of Türkiye. A causal relation model was employed. The results indicated that school principals' LCL affected TPL both directly and indirectly. LCL had a statistically significant and positive effect on SC. SC was detected to have a positive and significant effect on TPL. Furthermore, LCL had a positive and significant effect on TPL, and SC had a partial mediating effect on the relationship between LCL and TPL. The study recommends further research on a multilevel analysis of teacher individual variables and organizational variables to explore the linkage between LCL, TPL, and SC.
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Interest in trauma‐informed approaches in schools is high throughout the US, UK, Australia, Canada and other countries, but the empirical evidence on whole‐school responses to trauma is limited. This conceptual and theoretical review explores relevant literature; outlines existing conceptual models for trauma‐informed organisations, including schools; reviews current evidence for individual components of conceptual models relevant to schools; and considers implications for future research, practice and policy. Four common components were identified in the literature: (a) understanding trauma and making a universal commitment to address it; (b) emphasising physical, emotional and psychological safety for all school members; (c) taking a strengths‐based, whole‐person approach toward staff, students and families; and (d) creating and sustaining trusting, collaborative and empowering relationships among all school constituents. Most of these components have been studied as part of other literature and are not specific to trauma‐informed schools. Practitioners would benefit from shifting to an organisational model for trauma rather than the historical emphasis on interpersonal approaches, toward ensuring that all staff members are trauma‐aware and ‐responsive, and emphasising the creation of healthy, healing schools for all communities.
Chapter
While developing and promoting a shared vision is an important role for educational leaders, an increasing body of evidence demonstrates that leaders face a number of obstacles in promoting an equity-centered vision. These challenges include navigating varying perspectives on what equity means as well as leading in polarized contexts that question or oppose equity ideas and initiatives. In this chapter, the author draws upon scholarship and a decade of school and district leadership experiences to offer six questions for educational leaders to consider in developing or revising an equity vision.
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Improving school climate remains a priority for improving academic achievement and social emotional learning, and for reducing violence and promoting safe schools. This study examined staff member experiences of school climate with the goal of identifying the quality of climate (negative or positive) that staff experience and how certain characteristics influence their experiences. Using a statewide sample from the California Department of Education, this study employed Latent Profile Analysis to identify common perceptions of climate. Results indicate four profiles of climate, and that there are individual and contextual influences on the quality of climate likely experienced by staff members. Understanding this variation is critical for stakeholders seeking to implement changes in school climate, or the implementation of interventions targeting SEL or school safety.
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Abstract Objective: An extensive body of research shows that positive school climate is a protective factor for students, yet current conceptualizations of school climate largely overlook the perspectives of staff members. School staff members (e.g., teachers, administrators, social workers) are expected to take action to create a positive climate for students. This study explores the construction of staff-focused school climate dimensions and the association of school climate and student outcomes. Method: Data are from the 2013 California School Climate Survey; approximately 54,000 school staff members completed the survey. Teachers comprised the majority of the sample (n = 38,205), which also included more than 2,000 administrators; 2,600 counselors, school psychologists, nurses, and social workers; and 8,000 other staff members. We used exploratory factor analysis and reliability tests for data reduction and to evaluate subscales, and then used regression models to examine associations between school climate and student outcomes. Results: The EFA supported multiple subscales to measure school climate. Controlling for staff characteristics, negative perceptions of school climate predicted higher levels of student risk, and positive perceptions predicted greater student well-being. How the school responded to discipline was the strongest influence in the models. Conclusions: Results support a staff-focused model of school climate and indicate that staff members in California who experience more positive climate also reported experiencing less disruptive behavior from students, less student violence, and increased student well-being. School discipline and supportive relationships may be particularly important for staff members and their perceptions of climate. Before school stakeholders implement interventions targeting student risk behaviors or work to improve school climate and social–emotional learning, staff perceptions and experiences should be assessed.
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School climate is increasingly intertwined with efforts to create safe schools and improve social-emotional learning and academic outcomes. While current definitions of school climate implicate the decisions and actions of school staff members, the majority of school climate research focuses on the perspectives of students. This study presents an adapted model of school climate that focuses on the experiences of school staff members, and is one of the first empirical studies to explore a statewide data set of responses from staff members in California public schools. Results suggest that there are meaningful differences in the experiences of school climate for different staff members and that these differences should guide the assessments of school climate and changes to policies and procedures that may influence climate.
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Military-connected youths experience stressful life events, including deployments and multiple school transitions, that make them vulnerable to bullying. Social workers have highlighted the power of grassroots school community initiatives that address risk issues among youths while empowering the community (see http://www.thecommunityguide.org). However, researchers have focused on evidence-based programs implemented in a top-down, prescriptive manner. Often, when programs are implemented across entire cities, some schools may not have the need for such programs or the ability to implement them effectively. This study presents a grassroots process in which a military-connected school used a data-driven approach to assess its needs and devise a school- and communitywide antibullying initiative, Because Nice Matters (BNM). The results, drawn from local data on bullying rates from one military-connected high school, suggested a decrease in various forms of bullying during the course of BNM. In addition, results from a survey of parents and teachers showed that BNM had enhanced bullying awareness. Overall, the study findings indicate the value of grassroots efforts and a whole-school mind-set in antibullying efforts, in which parents, teachers, and other school stakeholders work together to address bullying among all students, both military and non-military.
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Educational researchers and practitioners assert that supportive school and classroom climates can positively influence the academic outcomes of students , thus potentially reducing academic achievement gaps between students and schools of different socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds. Nonetheless, scientific evidence establishing directional links and mechanisms between SES, school climate, and academic performance is inconclusive. This comprehensive review of studies dating back to the year 2000 examined whether a positive climate can successfully disrupt the associations between low SES and poor academic achievement. Positive climate was found to mitigate the negative contribution of weak SES background on academic achievement; however, most studies do not provide a basis for deducing a directional influence and causal relations. Additional research is encouraged to establish the nature of impact positive climate has on academic achievement and a multifaceted body of knowledge regarding the mul-tilevel climate dimensions related to academic achievement.
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The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which leadership styles predict school climate, in order to identify whether a relationship exists between principals’ perceived practices of instructional and distributed leadership and their perceptions of school climate (mutual respect and school delinquency), controlling for a net of principal and school characteristics. This research was conducted on a principal data-set from the 2013 Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), which was administered by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Several linear regression models with and without the country controlled dummy variables were conducted, respectively. Results indicated that principals’ perceived distributed and instructional leadership practices are significant predictors of staff mutual respect in the school. Nevertheless, such leadership styles did not appear as important factors for school delinquency and violence. School size and socio-economic status turned out to be the two most important factors predicting school safety. These results add nuance to the findings of previous studies that principals’ emphasis on instructional practice and sharing leadership can play a significant role in promoting the trust, collegiality and respect among staff. However, more than such leadership styles may be needed for creating a safe and orderly school environment.
Article
Although trends in the racial segregation of schools are well documented, less is known about trends in income segregation. We use multiple data sources to document trends in income segregation between schools and school districts. Between-district income segregation of families with children enrolled in public school increased by over 15% from 1990 to 2010. Within large districts, between-school segregation of students who are eligible and ineligible for free lunch increased by over 40% from 1991 to 2012. Consistent with research on neighborhood segregation, we find that rising income inequality contributed to the rise in income segregation between schools and districts during this period. The rise in income segregation between both schools and districts may have implications for inequality in students’ access to resources that bear on academic achievement.