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Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02301-6
Motivation ofUK graduate students ineducation: self-compassion
moderates pathway fromextrinsic motivation tointrinsic motivation
YasuhiroKotera1 · ElainaTaylor1 · DeanFido1 · DanWilliams2 · FreyaTsuda‑McCaie1
Accepted: 8 September 2021 / Published online: 22 September 2021
© The Author(s) 2021
Abstract
Academic motivation is recognised as a key factor for academic success and wellbeing. Highly motivated students actively
engage with academic activities and maintain good wellbeing. Despite the importance of motivation in education, its
relationship with engagement and wellbeing remains to be evaluated. Accordingly, this study explored the relationships
between motivation, engagement, self-criticism and self-compassion among UK education postgraduate students. Of 120
postgraduate students approached, 109 completed three self-report scales regarding those constructs. Correlation, regression
and moderation analyses were performed. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were positively associated with engagement,
whereas amotivation was negatively associated with it. Engagement positively predicted intrinsic motivation. Self-criticism
and self-compassion moderated the pathway from extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation: higher self-criticism weak-
ened the pathway, while higher self-compassion strengthened it. Findings suggest the importance of engagement in relation
to cultivating intrinsic motivation of education students. Moreover, enhancing self-compassion and reducing self-criticism
can help transfer extrinsic to intrinsic motivation.
Keywords Academic motivation· Intrinsic motivation· Academic· Engagement· Self-compassion· Self-criticism
Introduction
Poor mental health is well-documented in higher educa-
tion students (Castillo & Schwartz, 2013; Conley etal.,
2015; Hunt & Eisenberg, 2010; Sharp & Theiler, 2018).
Students experience high levels of anxiety, depression, and
stress across a wide range of disciplines and levels of stud-
ies (Larcombe etal., 2016), which leads to diverse negative
outcomes such as lower achievement and retention (Dekker
etal., 2020; Eisenberg etal., 2009). This trend has become
intensified more recently. The mental health of students has
been highlighted as a pressing concern due to the effects of
the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the associ-
ated impact this has had on the attainment and educational
requirements of students (Sahu, 2020). Poor mental health
in students needs to be addressed urgently.
Research indicates that students’ mental health is associ-
ated with academic engagement (Liébana-Presa etal., 2014;
Rogers etal., 2017; Suárez-Colorado etal., 2019; Turner
etal., 2017) that refers to the extent to which a student is
driven to make an effort in their studies (Newman & Schwa-
ger, 1992). Students with higher scores on measures of
mental wellbeing tended to have higher levels of academic
engagement (Datu & King, 2018; King etal., 2015). When
examining 338 Philippine university students, mental well-
being longitudinally predicted higher engagement and lower
disengagement, indicating potential for developing future
interventions aimed at improving engagement (King etal.,
2015). Although several studies have examined the relation-
ship between mental health and engagement internationally,
less research has been conducted with UK students, indicat-
ing a need for evaluation.
Students with greater wellbeing also evidence greater
academic motivation (Datu, 2018; Isen & Reeve, 2005;
Kotera, Green, & Sheffield, 2019a; Lewis etal., 2009). Datu
(2018) outlined that low-arousal positive emotions such as
feelings of harmony and peacefulness were related to more
helpful, autonomous types of learning. Academic motivation
(a cognitive and behavioural drive to meet academic goals;
* Yasuhiro Kotera
Y.Kotera@derby.ac.uk
1 College ofHealth, Psychology andSocial Care, University
ofDerby, Derby, UK
2 College ofArts, Humanities andEducation, University
ofDerby, Derby, UK
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10164 Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
Kovach, 2018) is associated with a range of academic meas-
ures of success, and can be understood within the context of
Self-Determination Theory (SDT).
Overview ofStudent Motivation Conceptualised
bySelf‑Determination Theory
The SDT conceptualises motivation as intrinsic (motivated
by satisfaction or pleasure), extrinsic (motivated by external
or instrumental factors) or amotivation (lack of motivation)
(Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2017). These concepts
are based on a self-determination continuum, wherein intrin-
sic motivation relates to more autonomous, volitional forms
of motivation. Intrinsically motivated individuals complete
tasks based on the satisfaction of the task itself, without
additional reward or associated consequence (Kotera etal.,
2021a, b; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsically motivated stu-
dents find academic activities meaningful, and actively
seek learning opportunities beyond mandatory learning and
assessments. Conversely, extrinsically motivated individuals
are prompted to complete tasks based on external factors,
and satisfaction comes from extrinsic consequences (i.e.,
receiving rewards or to avoid punishment), rather than the
task itself (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Therefore, extrinsically
motivated students may be prompted to complete tasks
based on upcoming deadlines or to avoid poor grades. It
is equally important to note that intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation are not in an either-or relationship: one
student can have both types of motivation high or low (Deci
& Flaste, 1996; Derfler-Rozin & Pitesa, 2021).
Deci and Ryan (2002) also outlined a third motivational
concept, in which individuals are neither extrinsically nor
intrinsically motivated—amotivated individuals. People
with this type of motivation cannot perceive the link between
their own behaviour and behavioural outcomes (Deci &
Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2017), and experience feelings
of lack of control likened to learned helplessness (Legault
etal., 2006). Amotivated students may have little interest,
place low value on learning activities and show minimal
engagement.
Relationship betweenMotivational Styles
andStudent‑Related Outcomes
In students, these three forms of motivation are differentially
associated with academic success. Students who are intrinsi-
cally motivated flourish across academic settings (Goldman
etal., 2017). Intrinsic motivation is associated with better
academic performance (Lepper etal., 2005), higher retention
rates (Vallerand, 1997) and greater wellbeing (Ryan & Deci,
2000; ten Cate etal., 2011). Conversely, extrinsic motiva-
tion is associated with poorer academic outcomes such as
lower learning effectiveness (Lepper etal., 2005; Zaccone
& Pedrini, 2019). Similarly amotivation also leads to poorer
education-related outcomes such as lower productivity and
wellbeing (Legault etal., 2006).
Previously, extrinsic motivation was seen to directly
contrast with intrinsic motivation, but more recent research
indicates that both forms of motivation should be seen as
complementary. Organismic Integration Theory (OIT), a
sub-theory of SDT, explains that extrinsic motivation can
support the development of intrinsic motivation (Gopalan
etal., 2017; Ryan & Deci, 2017). For example, individu-
als who are extrinsically motivated to attend mandatory
classes, may develop greater interest and intrinsic motiva-
tion as learning progresses. Helping extrinsically motivated
students to develop intrinsic motivation, has been identified
as an important area for educational research, highlighting
the complementary nature of motivation (Ommering & Dek-
ker, 2017).
These findings facilitated researchers and educators to
develop means to augment students’ intrinsic motivation.
Much research on fostering intrinsic motivation in students
has focussed on factors external to the student, such as learn-
ing environment or the role of teachers (Bolkan & Good-
boy, 2015; Guay etal., 2008; Niemiec & Ryan, 2009; Orsini
etal., 2015; Serin, 2018). In comparison, less research has
examined students’ internal factors or traits, such as self-
compassion, which may encourage intrinsic motivation
through greater internalisation of tasks, and better self-
regulation. A flexible, self-regulated approach to learning
is crucial (Neely etal., 2009) particularly for long-term
goals, such as completion of an undergraduate degree (Kar-
len etal., 2019). This may include understanding when to
pursue challenging tasks, or when to engage in more self-
compassionate learning strategies.
Self‑Compassion andMotivation inStudents
Self-compassion is defined as self-acceptance, achieved
through 1) treating oneself kindly during times of perceived
self-inadequacy, 2) recognition of common humanity and a
connection with others despite perceived isolation, and 3)
managing negative inward-facing thoughts such as self-pity
(Neff, 2003).
Previous research has indicated that self-compassion
is associated with greater motivation to learn (Neff etal.,
2005). For instance, students with higher self-compassion
more flexibly engage in working towards goals (Neely etal.,
2009), had less negative reactions to feedback (Adams &
Leary 2007; Neff etal., 2005) and show greater mastery
orientation (motivation through curiosity and self-devel-
opment) compared to individuals with lower self-compas-
sion (Neff etal., 2005). More specifically, individuals with
greater self-compassion are more likely to be intrinsically
motivated (Kotera & Ting, 2019). This may be because
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10165Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
self-compassionate individuals are less likely to be affected
by external markers of success (engaging less in external
performance evaluations) and instead, focus on maximis-
ing their potential, wellbeing, and being kind to the self in
instances of failure (Kotera, 2021; Neff etal., 2005).
Interventional studies have indicated that self-compas-
sion can be fostered in students (Dundas etal., 2017; Neff
etal., 2007; Shapiro etal., 2005) to improve motivational
outcomes: A two-week clinical psychologist-led interven-
tion, consisting of three 90-min sessions and daily audio-
guides, significantly increased self-compassion in univer-
sity students, with sustained high levels of self-compassion
at six-month follow-up (Dundas etal., 2017). Increases in
self-compassion were associated with greater motivation
to learn, greater personal growth self-efficacy and healthy
impulse control (Dundas etal., 2017). This study indicates
the potential for intrinsic motivation to be cultivated through
self-compassion interventions. However further research
examining the relationship of extrinsic and intrinsic motiva-
tion to self-compassion must be explored to provide insight
into the development of educational interventions promoting
engagement and motivational outcomes.
Self‑Compassion andWellbeing inStudents
Additionally, self-compassion is important to examine in
student populations because it is consistently associated with
student wellbeing (Dundas etal., 2017; Kotera etal., 2020a,
b; Kotera, Conway, & Van Gordon, 2019; Leary etal., 2007;
Neely etal., 2009). Students with greater self-compassion
may be able to more effectively manage negative emo-
tions (e.g., in the face of academic adversity) and engage in
self-soothing by deactivating neurological ‘defence threat
systems’ (Gilbert, 2010; Kelly etal., 2009). Self-compas-
sion was a strong positive correlate of and explained large
variance in wellbeing (Neely etal., 2009). Furthermore,
individuals with greater self-compassion had greater goal
re-engagement (flexibility to engage in meaningful, attain-
able goals) (Neely etal., 2009). Exploring the relationship
between self-compassion and engagement-focussing spe-
cifically on academic engagement, rather than general goal
engagement, can provide beneficial findings for academic
contexts.
Self-compassion can be better understood to be dis-
cussed with self-criticism; a construct commonly regarded
as a counterpart of self-compassion. According to Gilbert
(2014) self-criticism may activate the ‘threat system’. Self-
criticism consists of two forms; 1) inadequate-self, which
examines individuals’ perceptions of personal inadequacy
(such as being disappointed with themselves) and 2) hated-
self, examining the desire to hurt or punish the self (such as
stopping engaging in self-care). Previous studies have found
that both components of self-criticism are associated with
depression, anxiety and stress in social work, occupational
therapy and psychotherapy students (Kotera, Green, & Shef-
field, 2019a, 2019b): a highly relevant construct to student
mental health.
Examining Self‑Determination Theory inEducation
Students
The SDT has been supported in a range of educational con-
texts (Deci & Ryan, 2008) including school-level (Owen
etal., 2014; Taylor etal., 2014), further education (Goldman
etal., 2017), and higher education (Beachboard etal., 2011;
Jeno, 2015) students, with particular focus on healthcare
students (Orsini etal., 2015) and physical education students
(Standage etal., 2005; Vasconcellos etal., 2020).
Comparably, less research has focussed on education stu-
dents. Examining motivational style in education students is
important as research may inform how best to support their
learning to improve performance, retention and wellbeing
throughout their teacher training and future teaching careers.
For example, intrinsic motivation in teachers has been asso-
ciated with a greater sense of wellbeing and job satisfaction
(Pelletier etal., 2002). Supporting more helpful motiva-
tional patterns is particularly important due to high levels of
stress in student teachers (Caires etal., 2012; Gardner, 2010;
Gustems-Carnicer etal., 2019; Leung etal., 2000; Umbach
& Wawrzynski, 2005), and high early-career teacher attrition
(Borman & Dowling, 2008; Hwang etal., 2017). Improving
retention in teaching is vital, as attrition is partially responsi-
ble for a critical shortage of teachers in certain subject areas
(O’Doherty & Harford,2018). Additionally, motivational
style of teachers impacts student-related outcomes (Hein,
2012; Reeve, 2009). For instance, intrinsically motivated
teachers fostered greater interest in learning in their students
and endorsed adaptive classroom management styles, com-
pared to extrinsically motivated teachers (Reeve etal., 1999;
Berger & Girardet, 2020).
Summary
Taken together, exploring factors predicting intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation may help guide the development of
interventions in universities aimed at improving positive
outcomes such as student wellbeing, achievement, and reten-
tion. Few studies have clarified the relationship between
engagement and motivation in UK students. Furthermore,
modifiable factors such as self-compassion and its rela-
tionship to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation should also
be examined: how self-compassion and self-criticism may
strengthen or weaken the pathway from extrinsic to intrinsic
motivation, illustrated by OIT, can inform educational inter-
ventions. Finally, previous research has examined the impor-
tance of intrinsic motivation in academic settings, however
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10166 Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
less research specifically relates to education/teacher train-
ing students whose motivational style may not only impact
their own learning, but the future learning of their pupils.
Aims
Therefore, this study aimed to explore relationships among
motivation, engagement, self-criticism, and self-compassion
in UK education students. Three research questions were
considered:
RQ1. How is each type of motivation associated with
engagement, self-criticism and self-compassion?
RQ2. How is each type of motivation predicted by engage-
ment?
RQ3. Does self-criticism/compassion moderate the rela-
tionship between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic moti-
vation?
Methods
Participants
All participants were 18years of age or older, and studying
in an education programme at a UK university at the time
of the study; students taking an authorised break from study
were excluded on the basis that their current experiences
were likely to be different from their colleagues. Participants
were recruited via convenience sampling using a paper-
based anonymous survey distributed by programme tutors
(instead of the researchers) as a means of avoiding response
biases. Of the 120 part-time graduate students who were
introduced to the study, 109 (91%; 70 females, 39 males;
Age 27.39 ± 7.94years old, range 21–55years old; 104 Brit-
ish, 2 other Europeans and 1 Asian) completed three scales
regarding motivation, engagement and self-criticism/−com-
passion (see “Instrument” section below), satisfying the
required sample size calculated by power analysis (84: two
tails, p H1 = 0.30, α = 0.05, Power = 0.80, p H0 = 0; (Faul
etal., 2009)). Additionally, demographic questions were
asked: age, gender, nationality, teaching age, and weekly
self-study hours. Thirty-eight students (35%) were trained
to teach younger students (11–15years old), and 71 students
(65%) were trained to teach older students (16years and
older). On average, they studied 9.90h (SD = 6.98h) outside
of the classroom per week. For one student who reported
visual impairments, coloured paper was provided to aid
their participation. Paper data were digitised by a research
assistant, who we thank for their support with this research
study. Compared with the general population of UK edu-
cation students (78%; Higher Education Statistics Agency,
2018), our sample recruited slightly less females (64%). No
compensation was awarded for completing the survey. In line
with the study ethics (obtained from the University Research
Ethics Committee prior to data collection), explanations for
the withdrawal of 11 participants were not sought.
Instruments
Students’ academic motivation was measured using the
Academic Motivation Scale (AMS). The AMS meas-
ures seven types of motivation: amotivation, three types
of extrinsic motivation (external, introjected and identi-
fied regulation) and three types of intrinsic motivation
(knowing, accomplishing and experiencing stimulation).
AMS comprises 28 items, and each type of motivation is
assessed using four items on a seven-point Likert scale
(1=‘Does not correspond at all’ to 7 = ‘Corresponds
exactly’). There is no interpretive threshold. All seven
subscales have adequate to high reliability (α = .62–.91;
Vallerand etal., 1992). For the purposes of this study,
the three levels of extrinsic motivation subscales were
combined as ‘extrinsic motivation’, and so were ‘intrinsic
motivation’ (Vallerand etal., 1992).
Utrecht Work Engagement Scale for Students (UWES-
S) was used to measure students’ engagement (Schaufeli &
Bakker, 2004). Seventeen items in UWES-S are categorised
into three subscales: vigour (six items; e.g., ‘I can continue
studying for very long periods at a time’), dedication (five
items; e.g., ‘I am proud of my studies’) and absorption (six
items; e.g., ‘I am immersed in my studies.’). Vigour indi-
cates high levels of energy to make an effort in one’s aca-
demic work; dedication refers to deep involvement in one’s
academic work; and absorption means positive engrossment
with high concentration in one’s academic work (Schaufeli
etal., 2002). All items are responded to on a seven-point
Likert scale, 0 = ‘Never’ to 6 = ‘Always (everyday)’ with
no interpretive threshold. Reliability for each subscale was
adequate to high (α = .63–.81) (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).
Lastly, self-criticism and self-compassion were appraised
using the Forms of the Self-Criticising/Attacking & Self-
Reassuring Scale, a 22-item scale on a five-point Likert
scale, 0 = ‘Not at all like me’ to 4 = ‘Extremely like me’
(Gilbert etal., 2004). The 22 items were categorised into
three subscales: ‘inadequate-self’ and ‘hated-self’ compris-
ing self-criticism, and ‘reassured-self’ corresponding to self-
compassion. Inadequate-self refers to feelings of inadequacy
(e.g., ‘There is a part of me that puts me down.’), hated-self
to a desire to hurt or torture the self (e.g., ‘I have a sense of
disgust with myself.’), and reassured-self to compassion for
the self (e.g., ‘I can still feel lovable and acceptable.’). There
is no interpretive threshold. Reliability for each subscale was
high: α = .90 for inadequate-self, .86 for hated-self, and .86
for reassured-self (Gilbert etal., 2004).
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10167Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
Statistical Analyses
First the collected data were screened for outliers and
the assumptions of parametric tests. Second, correlations
between their motivation, engagement, self-criticism and
self-compassion were evaluated (RQ1). Third, multiple
regression analyses were performed to identify significant
predictors for each type of motivation (RQ2). Finally, mod-
eration analyses were done to assess whether self-criticism
and self-compassion would moderate the pathway from
extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation (RQ3).
Results
Analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS version 26.0
and Process Macro (Hayes, 2013). No outliers were iden-
tified. All variables demonstrated good internal reliability
(α = .76–.92; Table1).
Relationships amongMotivation, Engagement,
andSelf‑Criticism/‑Compassion (RQ1)
As dedication and amotivation were not normally distrib-
uted (Shapiro-Wilk’s test, p < .05), data were square-root-
transformed to satisfy the assumption of normality (Field,
2017). Pearson’s correlation was calculated (Table2).
Intrinsic motivation was positively associated with the
age of students, self-study time, extrinsic motivation, vig-
our, dedication, absorption, and negatively associated with
amotivation. Extrinsic motivation was positively associ-
ated with vigour, dedication, absorption and inadequate-
self. Lastly amotivation was positively associated with
inadequate-self and hated-self, and negatively associated
with intrinsic motivation, vigour, dedication, absorption
and reassured-self. The coefficients with engagement sub-
scales (vigour, dedication, and absorption) were the high-
est in intrinsic motivation of the three types of motivation.
Table 1 Descriptive statistics:
Motivation, engagement, self-
criticism, and self-compassion
in UK graduate students in
education (n = 109)
Scale Constructs (Range) M SD α
Academic Motivation Scale Intrinsic Motivation (4–28) 18.31 4.51 .92
Extrinsic Motivation (4–28) 20.66 4.13 .85
Amotivation (4–28) 6.18 3.31 .76
Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-Student Vigour (0–6) 4.11 1.07 .82
Dedication (0–6) 4.77 1.13 .87
Absorption (0–6) 3.49 1.40 .88
Forms of Self-criticising/Attacking & Self-
Reassuring Scale
Inadequate-Self (0–36) 20.30 8.76 .89
Hated-Self (0–32) 4.97 4.82 .84
Reassured-Self (0–20) 19.66 7.23 .91
Table 2 Correlations among motivation, engagement, self-criticism, and self-compassion in UK graduate students in education (n = 109)
Note. Age of Students (0 = 11–15years old, 1 = 16years old or older). * p < .05, ** p < .01
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1Gender (0 = M, 1 = F) –
2Age .06 –
3 Programme Level .18 −.01 –
4 Age of Students −.08 −.01 −.01 –
5 Self-Study Time .17 .19* .12 −.05 –
6 Intrinsic Motivation .13 .18 −.02 .20* .26** –
7 Extrinsic Motivation .05 −.03 .07 −.02 .13 .44** –
8 Amotivation −.07 .12 −.10 .03 .04 −.19* .04 –
9 Vigour .05 .05 .09 .21* .19* .45** .24* −.38** –
10 Dedication −.01 −.09 .08 .22* .20* .47** .28** −.32** .63** –
11 Absorption .15 .23* .10 .15 .38** .53** .19* −.20* .61** .52** –
12 Inadequate-Self .03 −.02 −.12 −.001 .08 .01 .20* .31** −.33** −.09 −.04 –
13 Hated-Self −.04 .09 −.13 .11 .07 .04 .07 .24* −.28** −.02 .05 .66** –
14 Reassured-Self −.09 −.09 .08 −.04 −.24* .02 .01 −.21* .28** .11 .01 −.66** −.64** –
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10168 Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
Predictors ofMotivation (RQ2)
Multiple regression analyses were conducted to explore the
relative contribution of vigour, dedication, and absorption
to each type of motivation (Table3). Gender and age were
entered to adjust for their effects (step one), and then vigour,
dedication, and absorption were entered (step two). Adjusted
coefficient of determination (Adj. R2) were reported to iden-
tify the degree of variance in the population. Multicollinear-
ity was of no concern (VIF < 10).
Engagement accounted for 30% (large effect size; Cohen,
1988) of the variance in intrinsic motivation, 6% (small
effect size; Cohen, 1988) in extrinsic motivation, and 13%
(medium effect size; Cohen, 1988) in amotivation. Dedica-
tion (p = .01, β = .27) and absorption (p = .009, β = .29) were
significant positive predictors for intrinsic motivation, and
vigour (p = .01, β = −.31) was a significant negative predic-
tor for amotivation. No predictor was identified for extrinsic
motivation.
Moderation ofSelf‑Criticism/Compassion
onExtrinsic Motivation‑Intrinsic Motivation (RQ3)
Lastly, to appraise whether self-criticism and self-com-
passion would moderate the relationship between extrinsic
motivation and intrinsic motivation, three sets of moderation
analyses were conducted, using the Model 1 in the Process
macro (Hayes, 2013). The predictor variables were centred
before regression analyses, to avoid multicollinearity issues.
Inadequate-Self
The interaction effects of extrinsic motivation and inade-
quate-self as predictors of intrinsic motivation were not sig-
nificant (p = .051), indicating that inadequate-self did not
moderate the pathway from extrinsic motivation to intrinsic
motivation (Fig.1).
Hated-Self
The interaction effects of extrinsic motivation and hated-
self as predictors of intrinsic motivation were significant
(p = .004), indicating that hated-self moderated the pathway
from extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation (Panel B in
Fig.2). Three simple regression equations were calculated
(Aiken & West, 1996) at different levels of hated-self: (i) one
standard deviation below the mean hated-self score, (ii) the
mean hated-self score, and (iii) one standard deviation above
the mean hated-self score. The equations demonstrated a
positive weakening effect of hated-self: as hated-self scores
increase, the positive relationship between extrinsic moti-
vation and intrinsic motivation becomes weaker (Fig.3).
Simple slopes analyses demonstrated that the relationship
between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation was
significant at low and mean levels of hated-self: (i) low
hated-self (b = .70, t = 5.98, p < .001) and (ii) mean hated-
self (b = .43, t = 4.19, p < .001). At a high level of hated-self,
it was not significant (b = .15, t = .94, p = .35). Johnson-Ney-
man significance region for hated-self was below 66.97%
(73 students).
Reassured-Self
The interaction effects of extrinsic motivation and reas-
sured-self as predictors of intrinsic motivation were sig-
nificant (p < .001), indicating that reassured-self moder-
ated the pathway from extrinsic motivation to intrinsic
motivation (Panel B in Fig.4). Three simple regression
equations (Aiken & West, 1991) demonstrated a positive
enhancing effect of reassured-self: as reassured-self scores
Table 3 Multiple regression:
Engagement to motivation
among education students
(n = 109)
β = standardised regression coefficient. *p < .05; **p < .01.
Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Amotivation
95% CI 95% CI 95% CI
β Lower Upper β Lower Upper β Lower Upper
Step 1
Gender (0 = M, 1 = F) .12 −.08 .36 .06 −.14 .25 −.08 −.35 .15
Age .17 <.001 .03 −.04 −.01 .01 .12 −.01 .02
Step 2
Gender (0 = M, 1 = F) .09 −.09 .28 .05 −.14 .24 −.08 −.32 .14
Age .13 <.001 .02 −.03 −.01 .01 .13 −.01 .02
Vigour .09 −.26 .61 .10 −.29 .61 −.31* −1.26 −.16
Dedication .27* .11 .94 .20 −.10 .76 .02 −.80 .25
Absorption .29** .10 .65 .03 −.25 .32 .04 −.28 .41
Adj. R2 Δ 30% 6% 13%
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10169Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
Fig. 1 Moderation of inade-
quate-self on the pathway from
extrinsic motivation to intrinsic
motivation: conceptual diagram
(panel A) and statistical dia-
gram (panel B)
Fig. 2 Moderation of hated-self
on the pathway from extrinsic
motivation to intrinsic motiva-
tion: conceptual diagram (panel
A) and statistical diagram
(panel B)
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10170 Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
increase, the positive relationship between extrinsic moti-
vation and intrinsic motivation becomes stronger (Fig.5).
Simple slopes analyses demonstrated that the relationship
between extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation
was significant at high and mean levels of reassured-self:
(i) high reassured-self (b = .80, t = 6.38, p < .001) and
(ii) mean reassured-self (b = .42, t = 4.23, p < .001). At a
low level of reassured-self, it was not significant (b = .04,
t = .25, p = .81). Johnson-Neyman significance region for
reassured-self was above 74.31% (81 students).
Fig. 3 Moderating effect of
hated-self on the pathway from
extrinsic motivation to intrinsic
motivation in education students
(n = 109)
Fig. 4 Moderation of reassured-
self on the pathway from
extrinsic motivation to intrinsic
motivation: conceptual diagram
(panel A) and statistical dia-
gram (panel B)
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10171Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
Discussion
This study explored relationships between motivation, engage-
ment, self-criticism, and self-compassion in UK higher educa-
tion students, and sought to delineate whether self-criticism and/
or -reassurance moderated the relationship between extrinsic
motivation and intrinsic motivation. After controlling for age
and gender, intrinsic motivation was predicted by engagement in
the form of dedication and absorption, and amotivation was pre-
dicted by engagement in the form of vigour. No manifestation of
engagement significantly predicted extrinsic motivation. Moreo-
ver, the relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
was moderated by hated-self and reassured-self scores, but not
variation in inadequate-self. Such moderations and regression
analyses are further discussed below.
This manuscript was centred around SDT, whereby motiva-
tion was conceptualised as spanning intrinsic (e.g., satisfaction,
pleasure), extrinsic (e.g., external, instrumental factors), or amo-
tivation (e.g., a lack of motivation and an inability to associate
their own behaviour with behavioural outcomes) manifestations
(Ryan & Deci, 2017). In line with the sub-theory, OIT (Gopalan
etal., 2017; Ryan & Deci, 2017), extrinsic and intrinsic motiva-
tion are considered complementary, with extrinsic motivation
thought to play a role in the development of intrinsic motiva-
tion. Given the importance of intrinsic motivation in educational
settings (Deci & Ryan, 2008), developing our understanding
of mechanisms by which to translate extrinsic motivation into
intrinsic motivation can benefit student wellbeing and attain-
ment. This study sought to establish whether the predictive
relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation could
be motivated by variation in self-compassion.
Moderation Analyses Via Self‑Compassion
As predicted, there was a strong and positive relationship
between self-reported extrinsic and intrinsic motivation at
baseline. This relationship was moderated by variation in scores
on hated-self and reassured-self, but not inadequate-self com-
ponents of self-compassion. Specifically, as hated-self scores
increased, the extrinsic/intrinsic motivation relationship became
weaker; conversely, as the reassured-self scores increased, the
extrinsic/intrinsic motivation relationship became stronger.
Self-compassion is conceptualised as self-acceptance, includ-
ing allowing kind self-treatment in times of perceived self-
inadequacy and managing adverse thoughts, such as self-pity
(Kotera etal., 2021a, b; Neff, 2003). In educational settings,
self-compassion manifests in greater motivation to learn (Neff
etal., 2005), greater meaning and enthusiasm in studies (Kotera,
2018), better focus on and understanding of what is required to
plan and overcome long-term challenges (Karlen etal., 2019),
and the ability to learn from and navigate feedback (Leary etal.,
2007; Neff etal., 2005). Thus Neely etal. (2009) argue self-com-
passion is vital to effective and successful education, because
it facilitates a flexible and self-regulated approach to learning.
Such findings support interventional studies, which indicate
the potential for self-compassion to be fostered in students to
improve motivational outcomes (Dundas etal., 2017; Neff etal.,
2007; Shapiro etal., 2005). For example, a targeted intervention
successfully increased self-compassion in university students,
which in turn was associated with greater motivation to learn
and perceived personal growth (intrinsic motivation) (Dundas
etal., 2017). As such, the development of educational inter-
ventions, which focus on self-compassion, may be important to
promote intrinsic motivation.
Fig. 5 Moderating effect of
reassured-self on the pathway
from extrinsic motivation to
intrinsic motivation in education
students (n = 109)
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10172 Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
Correlates ofMotivation
This research suggests that in addition to age and self-study
time, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were positively
associated with vigour, dedication, and absorption, which
were negatively correlated with amotivation. Of the three
types of motivation, intrinsic motivation was most strongly
associated with engagement. Intrinsic motivation in students
has been associated with greater academic performance
(e.g., Goldman etal., 2017; Lepper etal., 2005; Zaccone &
Pedrini, 2019), as well as higher retention rates (Vallerand,
1997), and better student outcomes relative to extrinsically
motivated students (Hein, 2012; Reeve, 2009). Increasing
academic engagement via fostering intrinsic motivation
also has wider implications for the benefit of student mental
health and wellbeing (Datu, 2018; King etal., 2015; Lié-
bana-Presa etal., 2014; Rogers etal., 2017; Turner etal.,
2017; Suárez-Colorado etal., 2019). Thus, helping extrinsi-
cally motivated students to develop intrinsic motivation is of
great importance, and enhancing students’ engagement may
be effective for that purpose (Ommering & Dekker, 2017;
Pelletier etal., 2002). At the same time, it is also important
that educators are aware of the motivation purity bias, where
extrinsic motivation is expressed, educators assume the stu-
dent’s intrinsic motivation is low (Derfler-Rozin & Pitesa,
2021). Educators’ understanding of motivation is essential
to gauge students’ motivation.
Application ofResults
Results of this investigation highlight the potential to
increase intrinsic motivation in students, by fostering self-
compassion. Fostering self-compassion may help students
modify their goal orientation practices from performance to
mastery orientated goals, thereby encouraging the transla-
tion of extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation. Perfor-
mance-orientated goals are motivated by social comparison
and a desire to demonstrate superiority on a task. Contrast-
ingly, mastery-orientated goals are motivated by a desire
to develop skills or understanding (Ames & Archer,1988;
Dweck, 1986). Mastery-oriented goals are associated with
intrinsic motivation (Cerasoli etal., 2014; Spinath & Stein-
mayr 2012), and self-compassion is associated with mas-
tery goal orientation (Babenko & Oswald 2019; Neff etal.,
2005). Interventions aimed at developing self-compassion
in conjunction with support for students in setting mastery-
orientated goals may support intrinsic motivation.
Furthermore, fostering self-compassion may support a
growth mindset, which is associated with intrinsic motiva-
tion (Dweck & Yeager 2019). A growth mindset is the under-
standing of intelligence as modifiable through effort rather
than a fixed attribute of an individual (Dweck & Yeager
2019). Growth mindset is associated with mastery orien-
tated goals, positive engagement with challenges, including
perceived failures, and intrinsic motivation (Ng, 2018). Self-
compassion, with its emphasis on self-kindness in reaction
to perceived failures, may help individuals positively engage
with such failures, which characterises a growth mindset.
Interventions fostering self-compassion combined with psy-
choeducation about and teaching approaches that incorpo-
rate growth mindset may support intrinsic motivation.
Encouraging self-compassion and intrinsic motivation
through feedback style may be important for postgraduate
education students nurturing a growth mindset (Dweck,
2008). The development of reflective practice, including fos-
tering self-evaluative and critically reflective teachers, is one
aim of teacher training and early-career mentoring (Harrison
etal., 2005). In encouraging self-reflective processes in stu-
dent teachers, it may be important for mentors and educators
to encourage compassionate feedback, thus preventing self-
reflection from being conflated with self-criticism—which
is associated with depression and poor wellbeing (Gilbert
& Woodyatt, 2017). Additionally, the form of feedback pro-
vided by university teachers may be important for foster-
ing intrinsic motivation. Providing elaborate (as opposed
to simple) feedback is associated with increased motivation
(Bangert-Drowns etal., 1991; Serge etal., 2013), while posi-
tive feedback strengthens motivation and learning (Hender-
long & Lepper, 2002). Taken together, educators should use
compassionate, elaborate and positive feedback to support
students’ self-compassion and intrinsic motivation.
Limitations
Results of this investigation are discussed in light of four
core limitations, each of which should be considered when
implementing observed results and conceptualising future
research. First, said results are correlational and as such one
cannot fully infer the effect of heightened self-compassion
on the development and maintenance of intrinsic motiva-
tion. However, the results observed here map well onto
both existing theory and previous peer-reviewed publica-
tions in the area, supporting their validity. Second, although
the recorded sample size exceeded a-priori power analyses
(n = 109), the sample, consisting of postgraduate education
students, is largely heterogeneous–coming from a limited
number of teaching modules at a single UK-based univer-
sity. However, SDT has been reported across multiple edu-
cational contexts (Owen etal., 2014; Taylor etal., 2014;
Goldman etal., 2017; Beachboard etal., 2011; Jeno, 2015),
and areas of study (Orsini etal., 2015; Standage etal., 2005;
Vasconcellos etal., 2020), while noting that development of
intrinsic motivation may differ by culture (Liu etal., 2020).
Indeed, the size of a person’s smile was associated with a
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10173Current Psychology (2023) 42:10163–10176
1 3
level of their intrinsic motivation in cross-cultural samples
(Cheng etal., 2020), however perception of facial expres-
sions also differs cross-culturally (Jack etal., 2012). More
diverse samples need to be evaluated. Third, self-report
measures were used, hence the response biases might have
been present (Kotera, Van Laethem, & Ohshima, 2020c).
Relatedly, a ceiling effect might have been present for reas-
sured-self (M = 19.66 of 20.00). Finally, this research was
undertaken during a novel time, the COVID-19 pandemic,
which has been associated with atypical variation in health
and behaviour (Harper etal., 2020; Kotera etal., 2021a,
b). As such, although this might represent a unique con-
text, similar observations have been reported historically,
suggesting validity in these results extending beyond this
current context.
Conclusion
Intrinsic motivation in academic settings is associated with
important attainment and wellbeing outcomes, includ-
ing engagement, academic success, retention, and mental
wellbeing. However, it remains unknown whether modifi-
able factors, such as self-compassion, might help to shift
one’s motivation style away from extrinsic to intrinsic moti-
vation. Intrinsic motivation predicted engagement in the
form of dedication and absorption after controlling for age
and gender, and of importance, the relationship between
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation was moderated by both
hated-self (negatively) and reassured-self scores (positively).
Results not only develop our understanding of the feasibil-
ity of developing and implementing interventions aimed at
improving self-compassion in educational settings, but in
doing so, suggest a potential benefit of such for increasing
intrinsic motivation, which in turn might yield additional
benefits in academic success and wellbeing.
Availability of Data and Material The datasets generated during and/or
analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding
author on reasonable request.
Code Availability Not applicable.
Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding
agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declarations
Conflicts of Interest/Competing Interests Authors report no conflict of
interest.
Ethics Approval Granted by the university research ethics committee,
stated in the methods section of the manuscript.
Consent to Participate All participants consented to participate in
advance.
Consent for Publication All participants consented for publication.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/.
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