No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Effects of COVID-19 on energy savings and emission reduction: a case study
Abstract
uring the COVID-19 pandemic, because of the downturn of the global economy, the energy sector asked for the lowest prices for its products. Consequently, investors may not be willing to invest for the renewable energy projects in the short term after the pandemic. Therefore, every possible effort should be done in the post-pandemic era not to lose the clean energy gains of the recent history. Iranian bakeries are among the most energy consuming bakeries in the world and produce 15 million t of bread annually. Three different scenarios are suggested in the present study to make it possible to save 45%, i.e., 105 MJ t−1 year−1, of energy and increase the cumulative degree of perfection of the traditional bread-making processes by approximately 37%. These suggestions may increase the renewability indicator of the traditional bread-making sector by about 70%. Such an improvement may be a major attempt …
... The consequence of mutations was development of new variants. Chemical and thermodynamic characterization of new virus variants has been reported in the literature Ö zilgen and Yilmaz, 2021;Yilmaz et al., 2020;Nadi and Ö zilgen, 2021;Ş imşek et al., 2021;Degueldre, 2021;Popovic, 2022aPopovic, , 2022bPopovic, , 2022cPopovic, , 2022dGale, 2022;Lucia, 2021Lucia, , 2020aLucia, , 2020bKaniadakis et al., 2020;Minceva, 2021a, 2020b;Istifli et al., 2022]. In that way, biothermodynamics has followed the reports on sequencing of nucleic acids and proteins of various variants. ...
... In that way, several dozen major variants of SARS-CoV-2 virus appeared, some of which caused pandemic waves. Chemical and thermodynamic characterization of more important known variants of SARS-CoV-2 has been made in the literature Ö zilgen and Yilmaz, 2021;Yilmaz et al., 2020;Nadi and Ö zilgen, 2021;Ş imşek et al., 2021;Degueldre, 2021;Popovic, 2022aPopovic, , 2022bPopovic, , 2022cPopovic, , 2022dGale, 2022;Lucia, 2021Lucia, , 2020aLucia, , 2020bKaniadakis et al., 2020;Minceva, 2021a, 2020b]. Thus, obviously, great efforts have been made by researchers in the field of biothermodynamics to reveal the thermodynamic background of SARS-CoV-2 particles, their life cycle, as well as interactions performed with various host tissues and other viruses. ...
SARS-CoV-2 resembles the ancient mythical creature Hydra. Just like with the Hydra, when one head is cut, it is followed by appearance of two more heads, suppression of one SARS-CoV-2 variant causes appearance of newer variants. Unlike Hydra that grows identical heads, newer SARS-CoV-2 variants are usually more infective, which can be observed as time evolution of the virus at hand, which occurs through acquisition of mutations during time. The appearance of new variants is followed by appearance of new COVID-19 pandemic waves. With the appearance of new pandemic waves and determining of sequences, in the scientific community and general public the question is always raised of whether the new variant will be more virulent and more pathogenic. The two variants characterized in this paper, BA.5.2 and BF.7, have caused a pandemic wave during the late 2022. This paper gives full chemical and thermodynamic characterization of the BA.5.2 and BF.7 variants of SARS-CoV-2. Having in mind that Gibbs energy of binding and biosynthesis represent the driving forces for the viral life cycle, based on the calculated thermodynamic properties we can conclude that the newer variants are more infective than earlier ones, but that their pathogenicity has not changed.
... The consequence of mutations was development of new variants. Chemical and thermodynamic characterization of new virus variants has been reported in the literature [Popovic and Popovic, 2022;Özilgen and Yilmaz, 2021;Yilmaz et al., 2020;Nadi and Özilgen, 2021;Şimşek et al., 2021;Degueldre, 2021;Popovic, 2022aPopovic, , 2022bPopovic, , 2022cPopovic, , 2022dGale, 2022;Lucia, 2021Lucia, , 2020aLucia, , 2020bKaniadakis et al., 2020;Minceva, 2021a, 2020b;Istifli et al., 2022]. In that way, biothermodynamics has followed the reports on sequencing of nucleic acids and proteins of various Disclaimer/Publisher's Note: The statements, opinions, and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). ...
... In that way, several dozen major variants of SARS-CoV-2 virus appeared, some of which caused pandemic waves. Chemical and thermodynamic characterization of more important known variants of SARS-CoV-2 has been made in the literature [Popovic and Popovic, 2022;Özilgen and Yilmaz, 2021;Yilmaz et al., 2020;Nadi and Özilgen, 2021;Şimşek et al., 2021;Degueldre, 2021;Popovic, 2022aPopovic, , 2022bPopovic, , 2022cPopovic, , 2022dGale, 2022;Lucia, 2021Lucia, , 2020aLucia, , 2020bKaniadakis et al., 2020;Minceva, 2021a, 2020b]. Thus, obviously, great efforts have been made by researchers in the field of biothermodynamics to reveal the thermodynamic background of SARS-CoV-2 particles, their life cycle, as well as interactions performed with various host tissues and other viruses. ...
SARS-CoV-2 resembles the ancient mythical creature Hydra. Just like with the Hydra, when one head is cut, it is followed by appearance of two more heads, suppression of one SARS-CoV-2 variant causes appearance of newer variants. Unlike Hydra that grows identical heads, newer SARS-CoV-2 variants are usually more infective, which can be observed as time evolution of the virus at hand, which occurs through acquisition of mutations during time. The appearance of new variants is followed by appearance of new COVID-19 pandemic waves. With the appearance of new pandemic waves and determining of sequences, in the scientific community and general public the question is always raised of whether the new variant will be more virulent and more pathogenic. The two variants characterized in this paper, BA.5.2 and BF.7, have caused a pandemic wave during the late 2022. This paper gives full chemical and thermodynamic characterization of the BA.5.2 and BF.7 variants of SARS-CoV-2. Having in mind that Gibbs energy of binding and biosynthesis represent the driving forces for the viral life cycle, based on the calculated thermodynamic properties we can conclude that the newer variants are more infective than earlier ones, but that their pathogenicity has not changed.
... Accounting that the majority of bakery workers in Iran are males, the equivalent energy of human labor was considered to be 1.96 MJ h À1 . 24 The flour energy equivalent includes the total energy of wheat production and the energy required to convert the wheat to flour, which according to the research of Nadi and Özilgen, 23 ...
... 33 These cultivars differ genetically compared with its counterparts in the rest countries and demand greater energy per kg of wheat cultivated. 33 The energy consumption for producing flour (from wheat to flour manufacture) in Golestan province has been 20.63 MJ kg À1 flour, 23 ...
Fifteen million tons of bread is annually produced in Iran of which the 80% of share in production belongs to traditional bakeries. The present study examines the aspects of the energetic, economic, and environmental impacts of production of Iranian breads (Barbari, Lavash, and Sangak). The results showed that energy demand of a typical baking process of Iranian breads is 22.93–26.08 MJ kg⁻¹. The annual energy utilization of these bakeries is 239.57 TJ, accompanied with 13,308 ton year⁻¹ of CO2 emissions. Sangak bread production had the highest energy efficiency, energy productivity, and the lowest rejected energy. In terms of economic aspects, the highest net income, profit to cost, and economic productivity, were related to Barbari bread production. Sangak bread production had the least environmental impacts. Lavash bread production, although it is the thinnest bread, had the highest energy consumption, was responsible for emitting the largest share of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) to the atmosphere and it had the lowest economic return. The flour was the most influential input on the energy efficiency, cost, and GHG emissions among the three examined types of bread production. Therefore, improving wheat cultivars and flour production process, may reduce the energy consumption and the GHG emissions in the bread industry.
... GJ t -1 of bread depending on the type and amount of ingredients used in bread and the energy source of the bread baking oven. [27] In the wheat bread industry, the share of wheat agriculture for bread production was less than the share of processing operations (which included flour preparation, dough preparation, bread baking, and packaging). [28] Comparison of the results of this study with other studies shows that among different conversion industries, drying operations are more energy-consuming compared to other food processing units. ...
... RI for cucumber production process was estimated to be 3.32, [25] for irrigated wheat was 0.65, for dryland wheat was 0.84, [30] and for tomato was estimated to be 0.38. [26] In the conversion industry, the RI for bread was −0.55, [27] for black tea was −1.35, for instant tea was −31.30, and for ice tea was −610668, [12] so it can be concluded that the process of producing fresh produce is somewhat renewable. While the processed product manufacturing process is strictly nonrenewable. ...
The main objective of the present study is to investigate energy consumption, exergy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from prune production in both the garden and plant sectors. Both energy and exergy analysis methods are used while some sustainability indicators such as the cumulative degree of perfection (CDP) and the renewability indicator (RI) as well environmental aspects are considered. The analysis is based on the actual operational data. The high energy consumption, exergy and GHG emissions are related to the post‐harvest and the factory operations. Natural gas is determined to be the most effective input to energy consumption, exergy and GHG emissions in the whole process of producing prunes. Based on the sustainability indicators used, the agricultural operation of the plum production process is partially renewable while the factory operation of the prune production process is highly non‐renewable. In cases where the production process of prunes includes the use of renewable energy and plum waste, CDP increases from 0.32 to 2.88 and RI from ‐2.16 to 0.65. The use of renewable sources in producing one ton of prune annually reduces GHG emissions by 362.55 tons and energy consumption by 7.45 TJ worldwide. The use of plum waste would also produce 402.8 TJ of energy per year. The present study investigates prunes production, showing how the high energy consumption, exergy, and greenhouse gas emissions relate to the post‐harvest and the factory operations. Natural gas is the most impactful input in the whole process of producing prunes. The use of biogas instead of natural gas in prune production reduces energy consumption to 0.01 of custom consumption.
... Soon after, Degueldre reported improved empirical formulas of the Hu-1 variant of SARS-CoV-2 [Degueldre, 2021;Ş imşek et al., 2021]. Thermodynamics has been applied to analyze SARS-CoV-2 infection process [Lucia et al., 2020a[Lucia et al., , 2021Ö zilgen and Yilmaz, 2021;Yilmaz et al., 2020;Head et al., 2022], epidemiology [Lucia, et al. 2020b;Kaniadakis et al., 2020] and social impact [Nadi and Ö zilgen, 2021]. ...
SARS-CoV-2 has during the last 3 years mutated several dozen times. Most mutations in the newly formed variants have been chemically and thermodynamically characterized. New variants have been declared as variants under monitoring. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control has suggested the hypothesis that the new BN.1, CH.1.1 and XBC variants could have properties similar to those of VOC. Thermodynamic properties of new variants have been reported in this manuscript for the first time. Gibbs energy of biosynthesis, as the driving force for viral multiplication, is less negative for the new variants than for the earlier variants. This indicates that the virus has evolved towards decrease in pathogenicity, which leads to less severe forms of COVID-19.
... Thermodynamics has been applied to study various aspects of SARS-CoV-2. This includes the empirical formula and energy content of SARS-CoV-2 particles [Şimşek et al., 2021;Degueldre, 2021;Popovic, 2022a], energy cost of infection for the host organism [Yilmaz et al., 2020;Özilgen and Yilmaz, 2021], interaction with host cells [Lucia et al., 2021[Lucia et al., , 2020aPopovic, 2022a], epidemiology [Lucia et al., 2020b;Kaniadakis et al., 2020], impact on society [Nadi and Özilgen, 2021]. The importance of thermodynamics for research on interactions between SARS-CoV-2 and the human organism, and its application in design of medicines has been discussed [Head et al., 2022]. ...
Pathogen-host interaction (virus-host, bacteria-host and fungi-host) is analyzed from the perspective of biothermodynamics. A mechanistic model of pathogen-host interactions, which was earlier applied to virus-host interactions, was applied for the first time to bacteria-host and fungi-host interactions. Through a mechanistic model suggested in this research, it is possible to explain the phenomenon of tropism of microorganisms to develop infections in certain tissues. Gibbs energy of biosynthesis represents the driving force for growth of bacteria inside host organisms. A growing bacterial colony represents a thermodynamic system, while the host organism is its surroundings. The permissiveness coefficient determines the possibility of growth of bacteria in an appropriate environment (tissue).
... But, the spreading of the disease does not depend only on virus infectivity, but also on the immunization of the population, therapy and application of epidemiological measures. Spreading and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 has been discussed from biothermodynamic perspective (Lucia et al., 2021(Lucia et al., , 2020a2022b;Kaniadakis et al., 2020;Nadi and Ö zilgen, 2021;Ö zilgen and Yilmaz, 2021;Yilmaz et al., 2020;Head et al., 2022). ...
The SARS-CoV-2 Hydra with many heads (variants) has been causing the COVID-19 pandemic for 3 years. The appearance of every new head (SARS-CoV-2 variant) causes a new pandemic wave. The last in the series is the XBB.1.5 “Kraken” variant. In the general public (social media) and in the scientific community (scientific journals), during the last several weeks since the variant has appeared, the question was raised of whether the infectivity of the new variant will be greater. This article attempts to provide the answer. Analysis of thermodynamic driving forces of binding and biosynthesis leads to the conclusion that infectivity of the XBB.1.5 variant could be increased to a certain extent. The pathogenicity of the XBB.1.5 variant seems to be unchanged compared to the other Omicron variants.
... Thermodynamics has been used to study various aspects of SARS-CoV-2. These include the binding of SARS-CoV-2 particles to host cells (Gale, 2022;Rombel-Bryzek et al., 2023;Garcia-Iriepa et al., 2020), immune response to SARS-CoV-2 (Ngo et al., 2021), energy content of SARS-CoV-2 particles (Ş imşek et al., 2021), energetic cost of infection for the host organism (Özilgen and Yilmaz, 2021;Yilmaz et al., 2020), changes in host cell metabolism (Lucia et al., 2021(Lucia et al., , 2020aHead et al., 2022), epidemiology of COVID-19 (Lucia et al., 2020b;Kaniadakis et al., 2020) and effects of COVID-19 on the society (Nadi and Ö zilgen, 2021). Change in thermodynamic properties of binding and biosynthesis during the time evolution of SARS-CoV-2 has been reported in (Popovic, 2022f). ...
RNA viruses exhibit a great tendency to mutate. Mutations occur in the parts of the genome that encode the spike glycoprotein and less often in the rest of the genome. This is why Gibbs energy of binding changes more than that of biosynthesis. Starting from 2019, the wild type that was labeled Hu-1 has during the last 3 years evolved to produce several dozen new variants, as a consequence of mutations. Mutations cause changes in empirical formulas of new virus strains, which lead to change in thermodynamic properties of biosynthesis and binding. These changes cause changes in the rate of reactions of binding of virus antigen to the host cell receptor and the rate of virus multiplication in the host cell. Changes in thermodynamic and kinetic parameters lead to changes in biological parameters of infectivity and pathogenicity. Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, SARS-CoV-2 has been evolving towards increase in infectivity and maintaining constant pathogenicity, or for some variants a slight decrease in pathogenicity. In the case of Omicron BQ.1, BQ.1.1, XBB and XBB.1 variants pathogenicity is identical as in the Omicron BA.2.75 variant. On the other hand, infectivity of the Omicron BQ.1, BQ.1.1, XBB and XBB.1 variants is greater than those of previous variants. This will most likely result in the phenomenon of asymmetric coinfection, that is circulation of several variants in the population, some being dominant.
... But, the spreading of the disease does not depend only on virus infectivity, but also on the immunization of the population, therapy and application of epidemiological measures. Spreading and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 has been discussed from biothermodynamic perspective [Lucia et al., 2021[Lucia et al., , 2020a[Lucia et al., , 2022bKaniadakis et al., 2020;Nadi and Özilgen, 2021;Özilgen and Yilmaz, 2021;Yilmaz et al., 2020;Head et al., 2022]. ...
The SARS-CoV-2 Hydra with many heads (variants) has been causing the COVID-19 pandemic for 3 years. The appearance of every new head (SARS-CoV-2 variant) causes a new pandemic wave. The last in the series is the XBB.1.5 "Kraken" variant. In the general public (social media) and in the scientific community (scientific journals), during the last several weeks since the variant has appeared, the question was raised of whether the infectivity of the new variant will be greater. This article attempts to provide the answer. Analysis of thermodynamic driving forces of binding and biosynthesis leads to the conclusion that infectivity of the XBB.1.5 variant could be increased to a certain extent. The pathogenicity of the XBB.1.5 variant seems to be unchanged compared to the other Omicron variants.
... In the last two years, the world has been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and its different mutations that caused many fatalities. Many studies have linked this disease with carbon emissions and global warming [1][2][3][4]. The transportation sector has contributed significantly to global warming. ...
Transportation emissions from fossil fuels and low efficiency engines significantly contribute to global warming. One way to mitigate this is to develop more efficient engines and use sustainable fuels. This paper presents a novel hybrid locomotive engine to replace the EMD 16-710G3 engine used for Canada’s rail transportation. It consists of a gas turbine instead of an internal combustion engine, solid oxide fuel cell with steam reformer and water gas shift reactor, and thermoelectric generator and absorption refrigeration system for energy recovery, and onboard hydrogen production using aluminum electrolysis cell and proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The used fuels are methanol, hydrogen, methane, ethanol, and dimethyl ether rather than diesel fuel. This integrated system is investigated thermodynamically to evaluate the energy performance. The system performance is increased from 40% to 48% and 50% of energy and exergetic efficiencies, while the total power is increased from 3383 kW to 7211 kW using a methane and hydrogen blended fuel. Also, the engine has an efficiency above 60% using a dimethyl ether and hydrogen blend. Using alternative fuels helps reduce CO2 emissions by 50% for the methane and hydrogen blend and more than 70% for the other blends, such as ethanol and dimethyl ether blended with hydrogen. The proposed engine can potentially be applied to improve the overall system performance and reduce the environmental impact.
Wheat flour, bread, and bakery products are an important source of macronutrients, mi-cronutrients, dietary fibers, and antioxidants. Considering that Iran's bread industry is the second highest bread-consuming industry in the world, this research is focused on the main operations of the bread production chain (wheat cultivation, milling, dough processing, and bread production). Investigating the sustainability and improvement strategies and farm-to-fork approach for the wheat-bread production chain was the aim of this work. Exergy analysis is a powerful tool in designing , optimizing, and evaluating the performance of energy systems to determine energy quality, compare different energy sources, and achieve maximum system performance. In this research, the cumulative degree of perfection, renewability index, and sustainability index of Iranian traditional loaves of bread (Sangak, Lavash, Barbari) and Baguette bread as a semi-industrial bread were estimated. Considering the functional unit of the weight of the produced bread, Baguette and Sangak breads had the highest and lowest sustainability, respectively. Considering the functional unit of energy of the produced bread, Baguette bread has the lowest exergy consumption per 100 cal of the embedded energy of bread. According to the obtained results, the bakery consumes the most exergy in the wheat-bread chain. Natural gas input is the most important indicator of unsustainability in bakeries. Meanwhile, in the entire wheat-bread chain, human labor and natural gas consumption were factors of unsustainability. By using renewable sources, the renewable index increased by 76-89%. Additionally, the use of renewable resources increased the sustainability index of bread production by 7.6 to 1.9 times.
The whole world is faced with the COVID-19 epidemic that causes major disruptions in global supply chains. The aim of study is to evaluate the effects of COVID-19 on energy efficient global supply chains (SCs) and to model the global supply chain resilience and energy management affected during the COVID-19 considering trade between Turkey and China, and Turkey and the EU. In this study, firstly using System Dynamics (SD) model, the behavior of countries against COVID-19 for a certain period of time is observed, subsequently the increase in complexity is analyzed with entropy measurement to determine whether the systems are resilient or not and to mark the differences arising from reporting in the first and second wave of the pandemic in the developed model. It is determined that the second wave reporting differences is less than first wave reporting differences except Turkey. From the learning effect perspective, it has been seen that the effect on the economy and foreign trade are less than first wave of pandemic even though the number of patients originating in the second wave are higher. It means that countries responded to the second wave of COVID-19 in a more resilient way. It is found that as a major finding of this study, perceived complexity of the system decreases in the second wave because of the resilience of supply chain considering learning effect and centralized decision making ensure increasing resilience and resilience measure in global supply chains. The study is highly helpful for governments, decision makers and managers to understand and manage the impacts of COVID-19 on global supply chains being resilient and energy efficient.
Lentil (Lens culinaris) is among the most consumed legume worldwide, especially in developing country. Lentil seeds provide an excellent source of iron and zinc content, and a high level of protein. Six treatments of composites flours were prepared by blending bread wheat flour (WF) with lentil flour (LF) in different proportion to evaluate the effect of blending on chemical, nutritional and technological characteristics. Our results revealed a significant increase (p<0.05) of nutritional quality parameters such as ash, proteins, fat and energy value. Moreover, total polyphenols, flavonoids and antiradical activity were significantly improved. While, total carbohydrates content was significantly decreased in all fortified flours ratios. In addition, a significant variation of iron and zinc content was observed between composites flour. Regarding physical and technological characteristics, a significant difference was observed between the six treatments. Clarity, whiteness index and gluten strength values decreased with the increase of lentil flour ratios. Furthermore, rheological proprieties of wheat-lentil composites flours dough show that supplementation of lentil flour has significantly decreased water absorption, development time and dough stability, and increased the degree of softening. Overall, wheat-lentil fortified flours until 20% of LF incorporation can provide an ideal ingredient to improve human nutritional quality and health status.
The global impacts of food production
Food is produced and processed by millions of farmers and intermediaries globally, with substantial associated environmental costs. Given the heterogeneity of producers, what is the best way to reduce food's environmental impacts? Poore and Nemecek consolidated data on the multiple environmental impacts of ∼38,000 farms producing 40 different agricultural goods around the world in a meta-analysis comparing various types of food production systems. The environmental cost of producing the same goods can be highly variable. However, this heterogeneity creates opportunities to target the small numbers of producers that have the most impact.
Science , this issue p. 987
The human addiction to fossil fuel and global warming leads to the search for alternative energy sources. The Brazilian government intends to increase its dependence on renewable energy sources, including hydropower, biomass, and wind. Many political and economic efforts have been directed to wind-energy, however, there is a lack of case-specific information regarding its performance for CO2 emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. The aim of this work is to assess the global warming potential (GWP) and the fossil energy embodied in an important wind-energy complex located at Piauí State, Brazil. Results show that evaluated wind-complex demands lower amount of fossil energy (0.0404 MJ) and has lower GWP (4.13 gCO2-eq.) per kWh of electricity generated when compared to landmark studies. Wind-electricity showed better performance than hydroelectricity (0.1516 MJ/kWh and 11.84 gCO2-eq./kWh), which supports wind-electricity as an important alternative towards an economy decarbonization.
Background: Bread making has a long history in Iran. Because of the inseparable relationship between Iranian people and bread, an increasingly wide variety of this healthy and nutritious food is prepared and consumed throughout the country. The present work aims at documenting and providing information about breads of Iranian cuisine.
Methods: The required information was obtained via a direct face-to-face questionnaire-based survey among housewives, domestic people, and Iranian bakers. The statistical society was selected by random sampling among people from the top eight most populous cities in the country.
Results: More than 30 types of ethnic and traditional bread of Iranian cuisine are introduced in two main categories: the first group includes breads that are consumed all around the country, and the second group consists of those that are prepared in special regions, or by ethnic groups.
Conclusion: The historical and cultural aspects of the Iranian foods showed that bread is the most common and popular food in the country.
The main aim of the present work is to study and evaluate energy consumption in bread baking. This was achieved by determining the energy consumed in each stage of bread baking processing to assess the most consumable stage of bread baking process. Magr baladi, Mawi and French bread baking were evaluated processes. Thermal, electrical and human energy sources were determined. The results indicated that the total specific energy consumed were 3038.11, 2831.85 and 4823.53 kJ kg-1 for magr baladi bread, mawi baladi bread and French bread, respectively. The specific electrical energy consumed were 42.21, 40.33 and 59.92 kJ kg-1 for magr baladi bread, mawi baladi bread and French bread, respectively. The specific human energy consumed were 5.35, 5.42 and 10.72 kJ kg-1 for magr baladi bread, mawi baladi bread and French bread, respectively. The specific thermal energy consumed were 2990.50, 2786.10 and 4752.89 kJ kg-1 for magr baladi bread, mawi baladi bread and French bread, respectively, which represent 98.43, 98.38 and 98.54% of the total energy consumed. The Total costs of different types of bread baking were 2.32, 1.76 and 4.80 LE kg-1 for Magr baladi, Mawi baladi and French bread, respectively.
"We have applied specific eco-exergy to data on fisheries landing and on aquaculture from FAO. Specific eco-exergy gives a weight to each species, depending on the genetic information content. The biomass for each species is multiplied by this factor and then the sum of all values divided by the total biomass. Therefore, this value is independent of the total catches and reflects the quality in terms of information content of what we are extracting from the whole oceans or producing by aquaculture. The objective was to analyze the trends of this indicator. In addition, we have detected possible change points in the gradient at unknown times using likelihood ratio test, with the null hypothesis of linear relationship. We intended to analyze these detected change points against well-known historical events in all defined FAO areas. The results show a continuous decline, since the 70's, for the world marine specific eco-exergy. On the contrary, the same analysis applied to aquaculture shows no decreasing trend."
Background and Aims
Following the Covid-19 proliferation beyond the borders of China at the beginning of 2020, containment measures have been taken by different countries around the globe. Citizens were forced to stay at home. The aim of this study is twofold. First, we will provide an analysis of food consumption in Italy during the emergency from a social stance. Secondly, we will consider the risks in relation to health of these food product choices.
Methods and Result
This analysis is based on IRi’s data on consumption trends (percentage increase in sales in value) during the first period of the spread of coronavirus, from 23rd of February through the 29th of March, 2020. The sample includes 10 769 stores. There was an increase in the consumption of pasta, flour, eggs, long-life milk and frozen foods, in comparison to a reduction of fresh food goods. The sales of snacks have dropped in relation to the production of homemade bread, pizza and cakes.
Conclusion
The increase in the consumption of some types of food is linked with their symbolic value and its tendency to carry on at home some external socialization habits. But be careful: these habits are not always healthy.
To address the global challenge of the climate change, more strict legislations worldwide on carbon emission reductions have put energy intensive industries under immense pressure to improve the energy efficiency. Due to the lack of technical support and financial incentives, a range of technical and economic barriers still exist for small-medium enterprises (SMEs). This paper first introduces a point energy technology, which is developed for SMEs to improve the insight of the energy usage in the manufacturing processes and installed in a local bakery. Statistical analysis of electricity consumption data over a seven-day period is conducted, including the identification of operational modes for individual processing units using an enhanced clustering method and the voltage unbalance conditions associated with these identified modes. Two technical strategies, namely electrical load allotment and voltage unbalance minimisation, are then proposed, which could attain more than 800 kwh energy saving during this period and the current unbalance could be reduced to less than 10%. In addition, the genetic algorithm is deployed to solve the job shop scheduling problem based upon the commercial electrical tariffs, and this reduces the electricity bill by £80 per day in the case study. Implementation of the recommendations based on the above analysis therefore may potentially yield significant financial and environmental benefits.
A conceptual network of chicken meat and egg producing and consuming businesses consisting of a chicken farm, a restaurant, a pet food manufacturing plant, a vegetable garden, an olive garden, a grain field and a manure gasifier was assessed in terms of cumulative degree of performance (CDP) and cumulative carbon dioxide emission (CCO2). Five different cases with different resource utilisation preferences were assessed. Case 1 was the base line, where manure was not gasified and chemical fertilisers were used in agriculture. In case 1, CDP and CCO2 were 0.66 and 7,500 kgCO2/year, respectively. As chemical fertilisers were replaced with microbial fertilisers and manure was gasified sustainability improved. In case 5, only microbial fertilisers were used in agriculture and the manure was gasified. The highest CDP, 1.05, and the lowest CCO2, 2,539 kgCO2/year, were obtained in case 5, therefore, it was regarded as the most sustainable case, among the alternatives assessed.
Greenhouse gas emissions of food production increased from 680 to 2.2 Gt/year between 1961 and 2011. Greenhouse gases are not emitted as a consequence of the field level agriculture or farm level husbandry only, the later stages of production such as processing, packaging and transportation make additional contributions to both energy utilization and the subsequent greenhouse gas emissions. Huge energy savings reported in the literature for individual production steps of food production usually correspond to a modest percentage in the total farm-to-fork production chain. Chemical fertilizers are usually the most energy intense inputs of these chains.
Energy utilization and the subsequent CO2 emissions are calculated based on the data adapted from the literature for the entire farm-to glass-production chain of ten beverages. The calculations are then repeated for the cases where chemical fertilizers are replaced with their microbial counterparts and the vehichles and the agricultural equipment are replaced with their zero-emission counterparts. These replacements are estimated to reduce energy utilization from 18,393 to 3,508 MJ/t and the emission from 493 to 43 kg CO2/t in powdered coffee drink production. If the same replacements are implemented globally and the same average reductions, e.g., 38.1 % as calculated in this study are achieved, 0.84 Gt/year of greenhouse gas emission may be prevented globally.
Cereal Grains In Flat Bread Productions. Cereal Milling and Flour Production for Flat Breads. Properties and Functions of Sourdough and Non-Cereal Ingredients in Flat Bread Production. Flat Breads Double-Layered Flat Breads. Quality of Flat Breads
The sustainable development goals (SDGs) are a set of global goals, targets, and indicators set by the member states of the United Nations and which are to be followed by governments, the private sector,
and the civil society for the next 15 years. Here, we present a framework in the form of a comprehensive step-wise procedure that will expand the tools of policy makers to develop policies for the improvement of the resource efficiency of the agri-food sector. Ultimately, these policies will contribute in achieving Goal 12 of the SDGs (ensure sustainable consumption and production patters) while having an indirect impact on Goal 2 (end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture), and on Goal 13 (take urgent action to combat climate change and its impact). We illustrate the use of the framework on assessing the exergetic performance of a milk concentration process. The framework can be used to apply exergy-based indicators for pinpointing the hotspots in food production chains where the irreversible consumption of natural resources is substantial, and for comparing the resource use efficiency of different system designs and configurations. Furthermore, we list a number of other exergy-based methodologies that are also of relevance in resource use efficiency assessment because they capture additional aspects (such as economic performance which exergy analysis alone cannot address) and with the potential of being integrated in this (or a different) framework. Finally, we discuss potential policy related implications.
The release of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) due to human activity is increasing global av-erage surface air temperatures, disrupting weather patterns, and acidifying the ocean (1). Left unchecked, the continued growth of GHG emissions could cause global average tem-peratures to increase by another 4°C or more by 2100 and by 1.5 to 2 times as much in many midcontinent and far northern locations (1). Although our understanding of the impacts of climate change is increasingly and disturbingly clear, there is still debate about the proper course for U.S. policy—a debate that is very much on display during the current presidential transition. But putting near-term poli-tics aside, the mounting economic and scientific evidence leave me confident that trends toward a clean-energy econ-omy that have emerged during my presidency will continue and that the economic opportunity for our country to har-ness that trend will only grow. This Policy Forum will focus on the four reasons I believe the trend toward clean energy is irreversible.
Sustainable consumption plays an important role in the mitigation of global warming and the conservation of energy. Promoting more environmentally responsible consumer behavior, especially through open communication between stakeholders, is one way to achieve low-carbon consumption. This study evaluates the potential for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through behavioral transformation of consumers in terms of their daily shopping habits. In this context, the behavioral transformative actions pertain to certain foods and daily necessities, and are analyzed from a life cycle assessment perspective. We developed multiple product-selection scenarios to evaluate GHG emissions related to the daily purchase of commodities. Based on the life cycle assessment, we estimated the GHG emissions that result from the production and distribution of these commodities, pertaining to both the current product selection and to a possibly improved selection. The results of our study show that because of seasonal consumption patterns and energy conversion, there is a substantial potential to reduce GHG emissions resulting from out-of-season produce cultivation. The GHG reduction potential is not high for each individual commodity because diverse commodities are needed on a daily basis. However, various actions in combination could have substantial potential for reducing emissions.
Alternative food preservation technologies include substitutes to heating methods that may have benefits that include reduction of energy consumption. High-pressure processing (HPP), membrane filtration (MF), pulsed electric fields (PEF), and ultraviolet radiation (UV) are examples of alternative preservation technologies of growing commercial interest. As unit operations these technologies operate in 4 modes of energy transfer: momentum, heat, electromagnetic, or photon transfer. The objectives of this review were: (1) to examine the fundamentals of energy requirements of 4 alternative food processing technologies such as HPP, MF, PEF, UV, and conventional high-temperature short-time (HTST) processing, (2) to establish a basis for comparison of energy consumption between or within technologies, and (3) to evaluate specific energy requirements for the 5 technologies to achieve required safety performance in apple juice. Three levels of energy evaluation for each technology including internal energy, applied energy, and consumed energy were reviewed. The comparison of the specific energy for the 5 technologies was based on information published in scientific papers where the inactivation of Escherichia coli in apple juice was explored. Based on the analysis of energy consumption of these technologies it was concluded that MF and UV have the potential to consume less specific energy than HTST, PEF, and HPP. Differences in energy consumption within each group of technologies were also observed and these could be attributed to differences in the systems. The differences in energy consumption within each group of technologies illustrate that there is potential of improvement in most technologies.
Continuous frying systems are very energy intensive. They also involve the interaction of many variables and complex heat and mass transfer processes. Better control of these processes can lead not only to improved product quality but also energy reduction. This paper presents a model that can simulate the dynamic behaviour of a continuous frying system in sufficient detail that enables the influence of controls on the important product attributes of moisture and oil content to be investigated. A conjugate 2-D transient model of the fryer was used to develop correlations for the oil and moisture content based on the important fryer control variables, namely supply oil temperature, potato mass throughput, fryer paddle velocity and crisp takeout velocity. The correlations were validated against data for an industrial continuous fryer system and used within the overall frying system model which was implemented in MATLAB. Proportional Integral (PI) controls implemented within the MATLAB/Simulink environment have shown that closer control of the important parameters can lead to 10% energy savings compared to the actual industrial frying system. The modelling approaches developed can also be used to investigate further improvements in the design and control of continuous frying systems.
There is an intimate connection between energy, the environment and sustainable development. A society seeking sustainable development ideally must utilize only energy resources which cause no environmental impact (e.g. which release no emissions to the environment). However, since all energy resources lead to some environmental impact, it is reasonable to suggest that some (not all) of the concerns regarding the limitations imposed on sustainable development by environmental emissions and their negative impacts can be in part overcome through increased energy efficiency. Clearly, a strong relation exists between energy efficiency and environmental impact since, for the same services or products, less resource utilization and pollution is normally associated with increased energy efficiency. Presented in this paper are (i) a comprehensive discussion of the future of energy use and the consequent environmental impacts in terms of acid precipitation, stratospheric ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect, (ii) some solutions to current environmental issues in terms of energy conservation and renewable energy technologies, (iii) some theoretical and practical limitations on increased energy efficiency, (iv) discussions of the relations between energy and sustainable development, and between the environment and sustainable development, and an (v) illustrative example. In this regard, a number of issues relating to energy, environment and sustainable development are examined from both current and future perspectives. In addition, some recommendations are drawn from the results we present for the use of energy scientists and engineers and policy makers, along with the anticipated effects.
This study compares the thermodynamic performance of three industrial bread production chains: one that generates food waste, one that avoids food waste generation, and one that reworks food waste to produce new bread. The chemical exergy flows were found to be much larger than the physical exergy consumed in all the industrial bread chains studied. The par-baked brown bun production chain had the best thermodynamic performance because of the highest rational exergetic efficiency (71.2%), the lowest specific exergy losses (5.4 MJ/kg brown bun), and the almost lowest cumulative exergy losses (4768 MJ/1000 kg of dough processed). However, recycling of bread waste is also exergetically efficient when the total fermented surplus is utilizable. Clearly, preventing material losses (i.e. utilizing raw materials maximally) improves the exergetic efficiency of industrial bread chains. In addition, most of the physical (non-material related) exergy losses occurred at the baking, cooling and freezing steps. Consequently, any additional improvement in industrial bread production should focus on the design of thermodynamically efficient baking and cooling processes, and on the use of technologies throughout the chain that consume the lowest possible physical exergy.
The thermodynamic inefficiencies associated with any energy conversion process are expressed by the exergy destruction and the exergy losses associated with the process. Combustion processes exhibit very high thermodynamic inefficiencies caused by chemical reaction, heat transfer, friction, and mixing. In this paper, we discuss how to estimate the thermodynamic inefficiencies resulting from each one of these sources. The thermodynamic evaluation can be conducted with the aid of either a conventional exergetic analysis or an advanced one. The latter allows estimation of the potential for improvement of the process being considered and demonstrates the interactions among the components of the system in which combustion takes place. The paper discusses how advanced exergy-based evaluations can be used to reduce the thermodynamic inefficiencies, costs, and environmental impacts associated with energy conversion systems including combustion processes.
Global warming is considered a problem caused by combined worldwide greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. Many greenhouse gases
occur naturally as a result of Earth’s geological, hydrological, and biological cycles. They include water vapor, carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ozone (O3). In addition, other photochemically important gases, such as carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NO
x
), and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), while they do not function as greenhouse gas, contribute indirectly
to the greenhouse effect (Anonymous, 1998; ICF, 2007)
Natural gas is used for steam and heat production in industrial processes, residential and commercial heating, and electric power generation. Because of its importance in the power mix, a life cycle assessment on electricity generation via a natural gas combined cycle system has been performed.
This book consists of the following chapters: The exergy concept and exergy losses; Calculation of exergy; Physical and chemical exergy of typical substances; Exergy analysis of typical thermal and chemical processes; Cumulative exergy consumption and cumulative degree of perfection; Reduction of external exergy losses; Exergy analysis of major thermal and chemical processes; Thermoeconomic applications of exergy; and Ecological applications of exergy.
Bread residues were converted into a suitable fermentation feed via a two-step starch hydrolysis using amylolytic enzymes. Wheat flour hydrolysis was also carried out at the same conditions for comparison. For the first stage, namely liquefaction, effects of temperature (50–85 °C) and substrate concentration (20% and 35%) were investigated. The 3-h liquefaction of the 20% bread suspension made 70% of initial dry matter soluble regardless of the temperature. The liquefaction of the 35% bread suspension had to be carried out by a fed-batch method due to the pasty behavior of the suspension. It resulted in a 65% dissolution of the suspended bread at 85 °C. Saccharification of the latter product led to a fermentation feedstock having a dextrose equivalent (DE) of more than 95 and almost 80% dissolution of the initial dry matter. The prepared feedstock was then cultivated using Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which resulted in an overall yield of 350 g ethanol per kg of initial bread dry matter. Staling of the bread for a week had no effect on liquefaction, saccharification and ethanol yield.
Global butter, concentrated milk, and milk powder products use approximately 15% of annual raw milk production. Similar to cheese and fluid milk, dairy processing of these products can be energy intensive. In this paper, we analyzed production and energy data compiled through extensive literature reviews on butter, concentrated milk, milk and whey powder processing across various countries and plants. Magnitudes of national final and primary specific energy consumption (SEC) exhibited large variations across dairy products; in addition, the final SEC of individual plants and products exhibited significant variations within a country and between countries. Furthermore, we quantified national energy intensity indicators (EIIs) accounting for dairy product mixes and technological advancement. The significant variations of SEC and EII values indicate a high degree of likelihood that there is significant potential for energy savings in the global dairy processing industry. Based upon the study samples, we estimate potential energy savings for dairy processing industry in selected countries, and estimates annual reduction of 9-14 million metric-ton carbon-equivalent1 could be achieved if measures are implemented to lower SEC values by 50-80% in half of global dairy plants. The paper calls for publication of more energy data from the dairy processing industry.
An integrated approach through coupling response surface method (RSM) and genetic algorithm (GA) was applied to optimize the spray dryer operational condition for production of fish oil microcapsules. The inlet drying air temperature, aspirator rate, and peristaltic pump rate were independent and encapsulation efficiency (EE) and exergy efficiency were dependent variables. RSM was applied to establish the relationship between the independent and dependent variables followed by integrating the developed models using three mathematical approaches and measure the fitness value of GA. Consequently, the optimal drying condition for microencapsulation of fish oil was: inlet drying air temperature = 177.23°C, aspirator rate = 63.93%, and peristaltic pump rate = 14.04% yielding exergy efficiency of 8.10% and EE of 79.14%. The results of confirmation experiments for selected drying condition proved the capability of utilized approach for determination of sustainable and qualified process in fish oil microencapsulation by spray drying.
In late 1990's some microalgae were found to be capable of producing lipids from carbon dioxide via photosynthesis with thirty times the efficiency of plants in terms of the amount of oil produced per unit area of the land allocated. This process raised hope in the fight against environmental problems caused by carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere.In the present paper, exergetic efficiency of the environment friendly algal biodiesel production process and renewability of the algae-biodiesel-carbon dioxide cycle are assessed. If any process is not feasible thermodynamically, it can never be used in the real world; however, thermodynamic feasibility does not imply the immediate use of the process either. If the limits offered in thermodynamic analysis cannot be attained immediately with the present technology, they may still be used to understand the area where new technology is needed. This paper points the direction for the development of new technology to decrease the carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere.The renewability indicator is found to be positive, showing that the algae-biodiesel-carbon dioxide cycle is indeed renewable. Any increase in the lipid content of the algae will improve the efficiency of the process. Genetic engineering techniques may be helpful to improve this efficiency drastically.
Fuel-cycle emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon oxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrocarbons (HC), methane (CH4), and particles are analysed from a life-cycle perspective for different biogas systems based on six different raw materials. The gas is produced in large- or farm-scale biogas plants, and is used in boilers for heat production, in turbines for co-generation of heat and electricity, or as a transportation fuel in light- and heavy-duty vehicles. The analyses refer mainly to Swedish conditions. The levels of fuel-cycle emissions vary greatly among the biogas systems studied, and are significantly affected by the properties of the raw material digested, the energy efficiency of the biogas production, and the status of the end-use technology. For example, fuel-cycle emission may vary by a factor of 3–4, and for certain gases by up to a factor of 11, between two biogas systems that provide an equivalent energy service. Extensive handling of raw materials, e.g. ley cropping or collection of waste-products such as municipal organic waste, is often a significant source of emissions. Emission from the production phase of the biogas exceeds the end-use emissions for several biogas systems and for specific emissions. Uncontrolled losses of methane, e.g. leakages from stored digestates or from biogas upgrading, increase the fuel-cycle emissions of methane considerably. Thus, it is necessary to clearly specify the biogas production system and end-use technology being studied in order to be able to produce reliable and accurate data on fuel-cycle emission.
Thesis (doctoral)--Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 1999. Includes bibliographical references (p. 151-161).
Estimation of energy requirements in small-scale bread making
- R Akinoso
- I A Ganiyu
Akinoso, R. and Ganiyu, I.A. (2011) 'Estimation of energy requirements in small-scale bread
making', LAUTECH J. Eng. Technol., Vol. 6, No. 2, pp.81-85.
Coal industry will never recover after coronavirus pandemic, say experts', Guardian
- J Ambrose
- J Watts
Ambrose, J. and Watts, J. (2020) 'Coal industry will never recover after coronavirus pandemic, say
experts', Guardian, 18 May [online] https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy/news/coalindustry-will-never-recover-after-coronavirus-pandemic-say-experts/ (accessed 25 November
2020).
Life cycle assessment (LCA) of food products and production systems
- K Andersson
- T Ohlsson
- P Olsson
Andersson, K., Ohlsson, T. and Olsson, P. (1994) 'Life cycle assessment (LCA) of food products
and production systems', Trends Food Sci. Technol., Vol. 5, No. 5, pp.134-138,
doi:org/10.1016/0924-2244(94)90118-X.
Exergy analysis: a tool to study the sustainability of food supply chains
- R K Apaiah
- A R Linnemann
- H J Van Der Kooi
Apaiah, R.K., Linnemann, A.R. and van der Kooi, H.J. (2006) 'Exergy analysis: a tool to study the
sustainability of food supply chains', Food Res. Int., Vol. 39, No. 1, pp.1-11,
doi:org/10.1016/j.foodres.2005.04.006.
Perspectives from CO+RE: How COVID-19 changed our food systems and food security paradigms
- S Bakalis
- V P Valdramidis
- D Argyropoulos
- L Ahrne
Bakalis, S., Valdramidis, V.P., Argyropoulos, D., Ahrne, L. et al. (2020) 'Perspectives from
CO+RE: How COVID-19 changed our food systems and food security paradigms', Curr. Res.
Food Sci., Vol. 3, pp.166-172, doi:org/10.1016/j.crfs.2020.05.003.
Energy use in bread baking
- G H Beech
Beech, G.H. (1980) 'Energy use in bread baking', J. Sci. Food Agric., Vol. 31, No. 3, pp.289-298,
doi:org/10.1002/jsfa.2740310314.
Exergetic evaluation of the renewability of a biofuel
- R Berthiaume
- C Bouchard
- M A Rosen
Berthiaume, R., Bouchard, C. and Rosen, M.A. (2001) 'Exergetic evaluation of the renewability of
a biofuel', Exergy Int. J., Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.256-268, doi:org/10.1016/S1164-0235(01)
00029-2.
World Energy Outlook 2020
- F Birol
Birol, F. (2020) World Energy Outlook 2020, IEA [online] https://www.iea.org/reports/worldenergy-outlook-2020 (accessed 25 November 2020).
COVID-19: Mexico's CFE Cancels Power Plant Tenders
- Bnamericas
Bnamericas (2020) COVID-19: Mexico's CFE Cancels Power Plant Tenders [online]
https://www.bnamericas.com/en/news/covid-19-mexicos-cfe-cancels-power-plant-tenders
(accessed 25 November 2020).
A review on the relation between the energy and exergy efficiency analysis and the technical characteristic of the renewable energy systems
- G Boroumandjazi
- R Saidur
- B Rismanchi
- S Mekhilef
BoroumandJazi, G., Saidur, R., Rismanchi, B. and Mekhilef, S. (2012) 'A review on the relation
between the energy and exergy efficiency analysis and the technical characteristic of the
renewable energy systems', Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev., Vol. 16, No. 5, pp.3131-3135,
doi:org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.02.057.
Energy Use in the Food Sector: A Data Survey, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
- A Carlsson-Kanyama
- M Faist
Carlsson-Kanyama, A. and Faist, M. (2000) Energy Use in the Food Sector: A Data Survey,
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Stockholm [online] https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/237432172_Energy_Use_in_the_Food_Sector_A_data_survey
(accessed 23 November 2020).
Energy, entropy and exergy concepts and their roles in thermal engineering
- I Dincer
- Y Çengel
Dincer, I. and Çengel, Y. (2001) 'Energy, entropy and exergy concepts and their roles in thermal
engineering', Entropy, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp.116-149, doi:org/10.3390/e3030116.
Revolution now: The Future Arrives for Five Clean Energy Technologies -2016 Update
- Doe
DOE (2016) Revolution now: The Future Arrives for Five Clean Energy Technologies -2016
Update;
Determination of consumption pattern and energy saving potential in flour industry', The 7th National Energy Congress
- A Dudabinezhad
- M Sayar
- H Bahrami
Dudabinezhad, A., Akbari Sayar, M. and Bahrami, H. (2009) 'Determination of consumption
pattern and energy saving potential in flour industry', The 7th National Energy Congress,
in Farsi.
Emission Factor Documentation for AP-42 Section 1.4 -Natural Gas Combustion, Technical Support Division, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
EPA (1997) Emission Factor Documentation for AP-42 Section 1.4 -Natural Gas Combustion,
Technical Support Division, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, US Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC.
The carbon footprint of bread
- N Espinoza-Orias
- H Stichnothe
- A Azapagic
Espinoza-Orias, N., Stichnothe, H. and Azapagic, A. (2011) 'The carbon footprint of bread', Int. J.
Life Cycle Assess, Vol. 16, pp.351-365, doi:org/10.1007/s11367-011-0271-0.
Comparison of input-output energy and global warming potential of rainfed wheat and barley farms in Aq Qala Area
- M T Feyzbakhsh
- P Alizadeh
- F Sheykh
Feyzbakhsh, M.T., Alizadeh, P. and Sheykh, F. (2018) 'Comparison of input-output energy and
global warming potential of rainfed wheat and barley farms in Aq Qala Area (Golestan
Province)', Iranian J. Energ., Vol. 21, No 2, pp.33-50, in Farsi.
Financial Tribune (2016) Industrial Bread Makes More Economic Sense [online]
https://financialtribune.com/articles/economy-business-and-markets/38073/industrial-breadmakes-more-economic-sense (accessed 12 April 2019).
Production of exergy from labour and energy resources
- K Fukuda
Fukuda, K. (2003) 'Production of exergy from labour and energy resources', Appl. Energ., Vol. 76,
No. 4, pp.435-448, doi:org/10.1016/S0306-2619(02)00175-7.
The short-run and long-run effects of Covid-19 on energy and the environment
- K T Gillingham
- C R Knittel
- J Li
- M Ovaere
- M Reguant
Gillingham, K.T., Knittel, C.R., Li, J., Ovaere, M. and Reguant, M. (2020) 'The short-run and
long-run effects of Covid-19 on energy and the environment', Joule, Vol. 4, No. 7,
pp.1337-1349, doi:org/10.1016/j.joule.2020.06.010.