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J. Raptor Res. 55(3):328–339
Ó2021 The Raptor Research Foundation, Inc.
USES OF VULTURES IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINES IN THE KRUGER
TO CANYONS BIOSPHERE REGION, SOUTH AFRICA
N. MBALI MASHELE
Centre for Functional Biodiversity, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01,
Scottsville, 3209, South Africa
and
Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region, Zandspruit Bush and Aero Estate, PO Box 408, Hoedspruit, 1380, South
Africa
LINDY J. THOMPSON
Centre for Functional Biodiversity, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01,
Scottsville, 3209, South Africa
and
Birds of Prey Programme, Endangered Wildlife Trust, 27 and 28 Austin Road, Glen Austin AH, Midrand, 1685,
South Africa
COLLEEN T. DOWNS
1
Centre for Functional Biodiversity, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X01,
Scottsville, 3209, South Africa
ABSTRACT.—Vultures provide crucial ecological, economic, and cultural benefits, yet many Old World
populations are declining. The illegal trade in vultures for traditional medicines (known as muthi in South
Africa) is widely regarded as an important threat to the conservation of African vultures, but there are
relatively few studies on the acquisition and trade in vultures for traditional medicine, which limits our
understanding (and the effective mitigation) of this threat. We assessed the use of vultures in traditional
medicine in the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region, South Africa, by conducting questionnaires with 51
traditional healers from the Kukula Traditional Health Practitioners Association in Bushbuckridge,
Mpumalanga Province. Traditional healers reported that vulture body parts were used alone, or in
combination with plants or minerals, for various purposes, primarily to give clairvoyant abilities, but also to
promote good dreams or increased intelligence, to treat illnesses, and to appease the ancestors. Vultures
were acquired (for use in traditional medicine) by poisoning and trapping in communal rangelands and
inside protected areas (the Kruger National Park, Manyeleti Game Reserve, Sabi Sands Game Reserve, and
Bushbuckridge Nature Reserve). Vultures reportedly varied in price from ZAR300 to ZAR1500
(approximately US$17 to US$85) for a whole bird. We estimate that this association of traditional health
practitioners uses 400–800 vultures a year. Our survey respondents expressed concern that acquiring vultures
through poisoning is unsustainable, because birds are killed en masse, and this may reduce the sustainability
of vulture populations for traditional use by future generations. Our respondents suggested the Greater
Honeyguide (Indicator indicator) and honey badger (Mellivora capensis) as alternatives for vultures in
traditional medicine. There is a need for better law enforcement in our study area to reduce the threat that
illegal killing for traditional medicine poses to the region’s vultures.
KEY WORDS:belief-based use;ethnomedicine; muthi; traditional healers;traditional medicine;vulture;wildlife trade.
1
Email address: Downs@ukzn.ac.za
328
USOS DE BUITRES EN MEDICINA TRADICIONAL EN LA REGI ´
ON DE BIOSFERA KRUGER A
CANYONS, SUD ´
AFRICA
RESUMEN.—Los buitres proporcionan beneficios ecolo´gicos, econo´micos y culturales cruciales; sin embargo,
muchas poblaciones del Viejo Mundo esta´n disminuyendo. El comercio ilegal de buitres para medicina
tradicional (conocida como muthi en Suda´ frica) es ampliamente considerado como una amenaza
importante para su conservacio´n en ´
Africa, si bien hay relativamente pocos estudios sobre la adquisicio´n y
comercio de buitres para este uso, lo que limita nuestro entendimiento y la mitigacio´n efectiva de esta
amenaza. Evaluamos el uso de buitres en medicina tradicional en la Regio´n de la Biosfera de Kruger a
Canyons, Suda´frica, realizando encuestas a 51 curanderos tradicionales de la Asociacio´n de Profesionales de
la Salud Tradicional de Kukula en Bushbuckridge, Provincia de Mpumalanga. Los curanderos tradicionales
informaron que las partes del cuerpo de los buitres fueron usadas solas o en combinacio´n con plantas o
minerales para varios propo´sitos, principalmente para dar habilidades clarividentes. Tambie´n fueron
utilizadas para promover buenos sue˜
nos, aumentar la inteligencia, tratar enfermedades y apaciguar a los
ancestros. Los buitres utilizados en medicina tradicional fueron obtenidos por envenenamiento o trampeo
en campos comunitarios y en el interior de a´reas protegidas (Parque Nacional Kruger, Reserva de Caza
Manyeleti, Reserva de Caza Sabi Sands y Reserva Natural Bushbuckridge). Seg´
un los informes, los buitres
variaban en precio desde ZAR300 hasta ZAR1500 (aproximadamente US$17 a US$85) para un ave completa.
Estimamos que esta asociacio´n de profesionales de la salud tradicional usa 400–800 buitres al a˜
no. Nuestros
encuestados expresaron preocupacio´n de que la adquisicio´ n de buitres a trave´ s del envenenamiento es
insostenible, debido a que las aves se matan en masa, y esto puede reducir la sostenibilidad de las poblaciones
de buitres para uso tradicional para las generaciones futuras. Nuestros encuestados sugirieron a Indicator
indicator yMellivora capensis como alternativas a los buitres en medicina tradicional. Se necesita una mejor
aplicacio´n de la ley en nuestra a´rea de estudio para reducir la amenaza que representa la matanza ilegal de
los buitres de la regio´n para su uso en medicina tradicional.
[Traduccio´n del equipo editorial]
INTRODUCTION
African vulture populations are currently under-
going severe declines; seven of the 11 vulture species
that occur in Africa are now classified as Endangered
or Critically Endangered (Ogada et al. 2016,
International Union for the Conservation of Nature
[IUCN] 2020). Reasons for the declines in African
vulture populations include poisoning, collisions
with and electrocutions on energy infrastructure,
persecution, harvesting for bushmeat and ethno-
medicinal practices, declining food supply, land-use
change, and disturbance at nest sites (Ogada et al.
2012, 2016, Botha et al. 2017).
In Africa, as elsewhere across the Old and New
World, there is widespread trade in animals and
plants for ethnomedicinal practices (Mainka and
Mills 1995, Sindiga et al. 1995, Marshall 1998, Alves
et al. 2007, Mahawar and Jaroli 2008, Alves and Alves
2011, Vallejo and Gonza´lez 2014). The World Health
Organization estimates that almost half of the
population in many industrialized countries, and
up to 80% of the population in African countries
regularly use some kind of traditional and compli-
mentary medicine (World Health Organization
2018). This knowledge or practice may rely on past
experience and observation handed down orally or
in writing from generation to generation (Dzoyem et
al. 2013). The World Health Organization defines
traditional medicine as ‘‘the sum total of the
knowledge, skill, and practices based on the theo-
ries, beliefs, and experiences indigenous to different
cultures, whether explicable or not, used in the
maintenance of health as well as in the prevention,
diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and
mental illness’’ (World Health Organization 2019).
Marshall (1998) uses a similar definition of tradi-
tional medicine as referring to the ‘‘treatment of
physiological, psychological, and other problems
with plant, animal or mineral material, according to
a traditional system of the region.’’ We acknowledge
that the term ‘‘traditional medicine’’ may be used
interchangeably (in different parts of Africa) with
terms such as muthi, fetish, wudu, juju, and belief-
based use. In southern Africa, traditional medicine is
also known as muthi.
The killing of vultures for traditional medicine
accounts for 29% of recorded vulture deaths in
Africa (Ogada et al. 2016). African vultures are killed
for use in traditional medicine by poisoning,
shooting, or trapping (Beilis and Esterhuizen 2005,
Mander et al. 2007, Ogada et al. 2012, McKean et al.
2013, Williams et al. 2014, Pfeiffer et al. 2015). The
SEPTEMBER 2021 329
USES OF VULTURES IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
poisoning of vultures for use in traditional medicine
is concerning for two reasons. First, vultures are
generally social feeders and many individuals from
various species may feed together, which can result
in hundreds of vultures being killed at one poisoned
bait (Ogada et al. 2012). Second, the chemicals used
to poison vultures are often agricultural pesticides,
which people may be exposed to when handling or
using dead vultures or vulture parts, and these
pesticides may have adverse (sometimes even lethal)
effects on human health (Van der Hoek et al. 1998,
Eddleston et al. 2008, Sankoh et al. 2016). For
example, 537 vultures were found dead after feeding
at three poisoned elephant carcasses in June 2019 in
Botswana (Botswana Government 2019). The threat
that poisoning poses to vultures is not unique to
Africa; vultures are killed by intentional and
unintentional poisoning in many countries across
the Old and New World (Mineau et al. 1999,
Fleischli et al. 2004, Parvanov et al. 2018, Plaza et
al. 2019).
The use of vultures in traditional medicine in West
Africa is well known (Weliange et al. 2015, Mullie´et
al. 2017, Boakye et al. 2019). In Nigeria, the
widespread sale of vultures for use in traditional
medicine is thought to have contributed to a local
decline in the Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus)
population (Adeola 1992, Sodeinde and Soewu
1999, Saidu and Buij 2013, Nosazeogie et al. 2018).
In Burkina Faso, human disturbance of Hooded
Vulture nests, most likely for belief-based use,
resulted in 20% of breeding attempts failing
(Dabone´ et al. 2019). A comprehensive study
conducted in 12 countries across West and Central
Africa found that offtake for the traditional medi-
cine trade is contributing significantly to vulture
declines (Buij et al. 2016).
Vultures also feature prominently in the tradition-
al medicine trade in southern Africa. In Namibia
and Zimbabwe, vulture brains are used for clairvoy-
ance (Hengari et al. 2004, Mdhlano et al. 2018),
although the prevalence of this use may be relatively
low and declining in certain areas (Craig et al. 2018).
The discovery of 65 dead vultures with only their
upper bills removed at a poisoned carcass of a
poached elephant in Zimbabwe suggests a link
between sentinel poisoning (killing vultures to
prevent their circling flight from alerting rangers
to poached carcasses) and killing vultures for their
body parts, which are then used in the traditional
medicine trade (Groom et al. 2013). In Lesotho,
11% of traditional medicine stalls in the Maseru
public market were selling Cape Vulture (Gyps
coprotheres) parts (Beilis and Esterhuizen 2005), and
in South Africa, 19% of traders at the Faraday Market
were selling vultures (Whiting et al. 2013). It is
estimated that 160 vultures are sold each year in
eastern South Africa, a level of illegal trade that is
unsustainable (McKean et al. 2013).
To our knowledge, there have been no studies on
the use of vultures in northeastern South Africa. We,
therefore, aimed to determine the level of use of
vultures in traditional medicine in South Africa’s
Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region, an area
known to be a vulture poisoning hotspot (Gore et
al. 2020). Furthermore, it is rare that researchers
have access to groups of traditional healers who are
willing to share their opinions and knowledge
(McKean et al. 2013). Therefore, we aimed to
capitalize on our working relationship with an
association of traditional healers, who were largely
willing to share their experience, knowledge, and
beliefs with us. We aimed to learn where vultures are
sourced, how much they cost, and which body parts
are used and for what purposes. We anticipated that
our survey results would inform conservation strat-
egies, and allow us to focus our environmental
awareness activities better in our study area.
METHODS
The study was conducted in the 2.5-million-ha
Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region in northeast-
ern South Africa. This Biosphere Region falls within
the Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces and
comprises core, buffer, and transition zones (Thom-
son and Uys 2013). The following vulture species
occur in our study area, in order of relative
abundance: the Critically Endangered White-backed
Vulture (Gyps africanus) and Hooded Vulture, the
Endangered Cape Vulture and Lappet-faced Vulture
(Torgos tracheliotos), and the Critically Endangered
White-headed Vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis; IUCN
2020). Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus) are
sometimes observed in the Kruger National Park,
but these are vagrants, and the species is considered
extirpated in southern Africa (Monadjem et al. 2004,
Hardakar 2017). The White-backed and Hooded
Vultures are the most numerous and gregarious
feeders in our study area (L. Thompson unpubl.
data), followed by the Cape Vulture, which occurs at
lower numbers. The Lappet-faced and White-head-
ed Vultures occur at lower numbers and are also not
considered gregarious feeders.
330 VOL. 55, NO.3
MASHELE ET AL.
The focal area for this study was in Mpumalanga
Province, under the Enhlanzeni District Municipal-
ity, Bushbuckridge Local Municipality. This munic-
ipality consists of 134 settlements and 34 wards
(South African National Roads Agency [SANRAL]
2020). The Bushbuckridge Local Municipality has a
total human population of 541,248, of which 99.5%
are of African ethnicity, with other ethnic groups
making up the remaining 0.5% (Statistics South
Africa 2011).
We conducted surveys with traditional healers
based in Bushbuckridge, all of whom were members
of the Kukula Traditional Health Practitioners
Association (KTHPA, also known as the Traditional
Health Practitioners of Bushbuckridge). The
KTHPA was formed in 2009 with the support of
UNESCO, Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region
Reserve Management Committee, Natural Justice
(Lawyers for Communities and the Environment)
and the Bushbuckridge traditional healers. The
KTHPA is a registered nonprofit organization
comprising over 400 healers (R. Sibuyi pers. comm.).
The association was formed to empower the
traditional healers in the region to overcome
challenges such as overharvesting on communal
lands by some healers and traders, difficulties
accessing biodiversity-rich state-owned lands for
harvesting, poor communication by researchers,
and bioprospecting with no benefits to the commu-
nities (Rutert and Cocchiaro 2013). The members of
the KTHPA believe that their traditional knowledge
comes from their ancestors, and it is essential that
this knowledge is preserved and passed down from
healers to apprentices (Rutert and Cocchiaro 2013).
Non-permitted acquisition and trade of vultures
are illegal in South Africa (Thompson and Black-
more 2020), and so these activities are generally
conducted in secret. Therefore, we regarded snow-
ball sampling as the best approach to survey
traditional healers. We gathered data using a
structured questionnaire, consisting of closed and
open-ended questions (Supplemental Material Ta-
ble S1), and our questionnaire was translated into
Xitsonga, which is the language commonly spoken
in the villages. NMM trained six Kruger to Canyons
Biosphere Region Environmental Monitors on how
to ask and record information during the interviews,
and then NMM and these six Environmental
Monitors conducted the questionnaires face-to-face
with the respondents, with each interview lasting
approximately 35 min. We report on the numbers
and/or percentages of traditional healers who
selected particular responses to our questions.
RESULTS
Demographics of Traditional Healers and Their
Clients. Seven of the traditional healers we ap-
proached chose not to take part in our survey. The
remaining 51 traditional healers comprised 36
women (71%) and 15 men (29%, Table 1). Most
of the traditional healers (59%) were 50–70 yr old,
many (49%) had no formal education, and the
majority (84%) classed themselves as unemployed.
Table 1. Demographics of traditional healers who took
part in the survey.
LOCATION AND
DEMOGRAPHY METRIC
NO.OF
RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE
(%)
Locality (village name)
Welvrediend 26 51
Mozambican national, now
in Welvrediend
510
Mozambican national, now
in Hluvukani
36
Hluvukani 10 20
Gottenburg 3 6
Share 4 8
Gender
Male 15 29
Female 36 71
Education
None 25 49
Some primary (Grade 1–6) 12 24
Primary 6 12
Some high school 5 10
High school (Matric/Grade 12) 2 4
Post school certificate 1 2
Age (yr)
70þ612
50–70 30 59
35–49 11 22
19–34 3 6
18 1 2
Race
African 51 100
Religion
Christian 8 16
Traditional 33 65
Traditional and Christian 10 20
Employment status
Full-time 1 2
Part-time 3 6
Not employed 42 84
Temporary 4 8
SEPTEMBER 2021 331
USES OF VULTURES IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
Most were South African nationals, but 16% were
Mozambican nationals (Table 1).
In response to our question about the people that
are treated with (or need) vulture muthi, 12 healers
provided information on the sex and age categories
of their clients. Eight healers said both men and
women use (or need) vulture muthi, three healers
said it is only women who they treat with (or who
need) vulture muthi, and one healer said it is only
men who are treated with (or need) vulture muthi.
Those who used vulture muthi the most fell into the
age categories of 18–34 yr (n¼8) or 35–49 yr (n¼8).
People in the 50–70-yr-old category used vulture
muthi slightly less (n¼6), and those older than 70 yr
used it even less (n¼5), followed by clients younger
than 18 years, who used it least (n¼4; the 12 healers
checked multiple age categories, for a total n¼31).
Only six healers responded about the race (African,
colored, white, Indian, other) of their clients who
used vulture muthi; five healers reported that their
clients were all African (black), and one healer
selected both African and Indian. Twelve healers
provided information about their clients’ religions,
selecting multiple categories (Christian, Muslim,
other, or unsure) as needed to encompass their
client base. Healers reported their clients as Chris-
tians (n¼8), followers of ‘‘other’’ religions (n¼6),
or Muslims (n¼2), or were unsure of their clients’
religions (n¼4). Lastly, 12 healers provided
information about the employment status of their
clients, again with some healers selecting multiple
categories. Most clients who used/needed vulture
muthi were either unemployed (n¼8) or employed
‘‘part-time’’ (n¼8), with fewer clients in the ‘‘full-
time/permanently employed’’ category (n¼6). Two
of the 12 healers said they did not know the
employment status of their clients.
Sources of Vultures for Traditional Medicine.
Although the majority (67%, n¼34) of the
traditional healers said they did not know where
vultures were sourced from, some suggested that
vultures were acquired from protected areas and
communal rangelands (Table 2). Respondents said
that vultures were thought to be very scarce in
communal rangelands, and so most vultures were
sourced directly from the Kruger National Park. One
respondent said that vultures were also sourced from
provincial and private protected areas adjacent to
communities, namely the Manyeleti Game Reserve,
Bushbuckridge Nature Reserve, and Sabi Sands
Private Game Reserve.
Prices of Vultures and Factors Influencing Prices.
In our study, traditional healers said that vulture
prices fluctuated regularly, for various reasons, with
prices decreasing with (1) more impoverished
traders, (2) more easily acquired vultures, (3)
vultures harvested closer to communal areas, (4)
older carcasses, (5) male vultures (although some
respondents said it was difficult to distinguish
between the sexes), and (6) lower demand. One
traditional healer said prices were usually negotiated
between the trader and the buyer because a hunter
would not want an illegally acquired vulture in his or
her possession for long. Amounts paid for individual
vultures varied from ZAR300 to ZAR1500 (approx-
imately US$17 to US$85; Table 3). Three traditional
healers said a Lappet-faced Vulture usually costs
approximately ZAR750 (US$43). Respondents said
it was less expensive to buy a whole vulture than to
pay the price per unit, as half of a Lappet-faced
Table 2. Respondents’ knowledge of the place where
most vultures are sourced for use in traditional medicines
in northeastern South Africa.
SOURCE
RESPONDENT
n%
Kruger National Park 8 16
Communal rangelands 5 10
Communal land and Kruger National Park 4 8
I don’t know 34 67
Table 3. Price ranges in South African Rands (ZAR) and US dollars (USD) for whole vultures of various species in the
Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region, South Africa. Exchange rate: 1 USD ¼17.60 ZAR (from xe.com on 21 March 2020).
SPECIES PRICE (ZAR) PRICE (USD)
Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus R300–R1000 $17.04–$56.80
White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus R300–R1000 $17.04–$56.80
Lappet-faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotos R300–R1500 $17.04–$85.21
Cape Vulture Gyps coprotheres R300–R1500 $17.04–$85.21
White-headed Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis R300–R1000 $17.04–$56.80
332 VOL. 55, NO.3
MASHELE ET AL.
vulture costs approximately ZAR500 (US$28) and
the price for an entire powdered Lappet-faced
Vulture brain ranged from ZAR150 to ZAR200
(approximately US$8.52 to US$11.36).
Vulture Body Parts Used in Traditional Medicines.
Traditional healers interviewed said that vultures
could be bought fresh or dried. Frequently, the
important body parts were removed from the bird
and used separately. The parts (or sometimes the
entire vulture) were dried, burned, and ground into
a fine powder. Traditional healers said they use the
whole vulture for traditional medicines, with some
individuals saying they have used the heart (n¼10),
brain (n¼9), head (n¼5), feet (n¼2), blood (n¼
1), and intestines (n¼1).
Vulture muthi was used for different purposes in
diverse ways (Fig. 1). Vulture muthi may be used on
its own, or it can be mixed with plants and/or other
animal parts. The vulture muthi may be consumed
(mixed with porridge), drunk, snorted, or smeared
into body cuts. Smearing powdered vulture into a
client’s body cuts reportedly provides protection
from witches, in the same way that a vulture can
escape danger by flying far away. To appease the
ancestors and to assist traditional healers’ appren-
tices to see hidden items, the powdered vulture is
mixed with river water, mud, and plant material, to
make a substance called libuhlu, which is drunk daily
by the healers and their apprentices.
One traditional healer said that vulture muthi does
not cure any illnesses, but it does cure curses.
Vulture muthi is used to communicate with the
ancestors, to appease ancestors, and to chase away
bad spirits. Vulture brain and heart are said to have
clairvoyant properties and can be used to promote
good dreams or to win the lottery (Fig. 1). To predict
the future, powdered vulture heart, blood (available
only from a fresh carcass), and brains are combined
with plant material and smeared into body cuts.
Libaso (a paste made of a mixture of herbs and/or
animal fats, which may include powdered vulture
parts) may be used to call upon the ancestors, chase
away bad spirits, or for increased intelligence.
Levels of Use of Vulture Carcasses and Challenges
in Obtaining More Vultures. Traditional healers in
our study said that the amount of time for a whole
vulture to be entirely used depended on the number
of customers and the size of the vulture (Table 4).
The levels of reported use varied considerably: most
Figure 1. Various uses of vulture body parts, according to the 51 traditional healers that we interviewed in South Africa.
Table 4. Duration over which a whole vulture is con-
sumed in the present study (n¼10 total respondents).
DURATION
RESPONDENTS
n%
,4 wk 1 10%
1–2 mo 2 20%
1–2 yr 4 40%
2–3 yr 1 10%
5–6 yr 2 20%
SEPTEMBER 2021 333
USES OF VULTURES IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
traditional healers who confirmed they use vultures
said they used one or two vultures a year, with the
exception of one who said he used eight to ten
vultures a year. However, a single Cape Vulture
might last for up to 6 yr because its effects in
traditional medicines are believed to be more potent
than those of the other vulture species (and so one
can use less of it).
Most traditional healers (71%, n¼36) said that
they ‘‘do not know’’ what the demand for vulture
muthi is. Eight percent of traditional healers said the
demand was ‘‘low,’’ 6% of them said it was
‘‘medium,’’ 6% said the demand was ‘‘high,’’ and
10% of them said the demand was ‘‘very high.’’ The
traditional healers who knew how to use vultures in
traditional medicines said that the demand for
vultures was high. In contrast, the traditional healers
who did not know how to use a vulture in their
traditional medicine reported that the demand for
vultures was low.
Traditional healers said that it was very difficult to
obtain vultures, and frequently there were long
waiting periods before traders sold them vultures
because of the challenges in acquiring the birds.
Respondents reported that there was an increase in
numbers of rangers in the Kruger National Park, and
some poachers are caught. When vultures were
harvested on communal lands, the harvester must
purchase a domestic animal to bait the trap.
Use of Poisoned Vultures. Ten traditional healers
said the vultures they used in traditional medicines
may have been poisoned. Four said they were made
aware of the health risks of wildlife poisoning by the
Endangered Wildlife Trust’s Birds of Prey Pro-
gramme, and another said she no longer uses
vulture muthi because of the potential health risks
(from poisoned birds) to her clients. Three tradi-
tional healers reported that it was difficult to
determine whether a vulture had been poisoned,
while two others said that ‘‘a poisoned vulture rots
very quickly.’’ Two respondents said that a poisoned
bird’s bill will have meat on it, and another said he
prefers to receive living vultures.
Alternatives to Vultures in Traditional Medicine.
The traditional healers we interviewed said some
alternatives could be used instead of vultures. Two
respondents said that for promoting good dreams, a
sandewan (a mythical four-legged, furry animal,
similar to a hyrax) could be used (Eberhart 2002).
The Greater Honeyguide (Indicator indicator) could
be used to appease ancestors and to sense problems
because it has a very loud cry, and the honey badger
(Mellivora capensis) could be used to predict the
future. For clairvoyance and good dreams, a bird
species called a phiri could be used instead of a
vulture. In Setswana, a phiri is a hyena, and there may
be some confusion here related to the fact that
hyenas are also scavengers, and may, therefore, be
used for similar purposes as vultures in traditional
medicine.
DISCUSSION
To our knowledge, this is the first study on the use
of vultures in traditional medicine in the Kruger to
Canyons Biosphere Region in northeastern South
Africa, an area which is both a vulture poisoning
hotspot and also critical for the conservation of a
variety of highly threatened vulture species (Gore et
al. 2020). Our surveys confirmed that in our study
area, vultures are used in traditional medicines for a
range of medicinal purposes, as shown in other
studies (Cunningham and Zondi 1991, Beilis and
Esterhuizen 2005, Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al.
2013). In our study area, vultures are sourced for
muthi from communal rangelands and protected
areas, including the Kruger National Park, Manyeleti
Game Reserve, Sabi Sands Game Reserve, and
Bushbuckridge Nature Reserve. One of the tradi-
tional healers said he preferred to receive living
vultures. This response, combined with a recent
report of a live White-backed Vulture with a rope
tied around its legs found in the Kruger National
Park (Endangered Wildlife Trust 2018), suggests
that there is some demand for (and trade in) live
vultures in our study area.
Demographics of Traditional Healers and their
Clients. We encountered more women than men in
the Kukula Traditional Health Practitioners Associ-
ation (the group from which we drew our survey
participants), most likely because more members are
women (Sibuye et al. 2012). This is consistent with
the results of Menze et al. (2018), who found that
most (81%) of the traditional healers in South
Africa’s Eastern Cape Province were also women.
Because we used snowball sampling, we did not try to
ensure our sample size was equally distributed
between the genders; instead, we interviewed each
person who was willing to participate in our survey.
Our study area has high unemployment levels and
relatively high poverty (Thomson and Uys 2013),
and we assume that this is one of the drivers of the
trade in vultures. Small-enterprise development
should be encouraged in the Kruger to Canyons
Biosphere Region to promote ecotourism and other
334 VOL. 55, NO.3
MASHELE ET AL.
environmentally sustainable alternative livelihoods.
Environmental education regarding the importance
of vultures should be implemented and emphasized
in the region, in which multiple stakeholders from
across various sectors and organizations promote the
sustainability of these ecologically and culturally vital
species.
Prices of Vultures and Factors Influencing Prices.
Vulture prices were dependent on several factors,
including the size of the bird, ease of acquisition,
where the vulture was harvested, the urgency of the
sale by the trader or poacher, and whether the bird
was dead or alive, with prices increasing with greater
effort and/or risk in obtaining the birds. We do not
speculate as to which species were easier to acquire,
as this would undoubtedly vary with aspects of the
trapping method. Notably, respondents did not say
that the species affected the price, which is
consistent with the results of McKean et al. (2013)
who found no preference for any vulture species
across eastern South Africa. Despite these other
variables though, overall, there was little difference
in price range across species, with the two largest
species (the Lappet-faced Vulture and the Cape
Vulture) reaching a slightly higher maximum price
than the other three, smaller vulture species. The
upper price limit that healers paid for whole vultures
in our study was slightly less than the cost of a Palm-
nut Vulture (Gypohierax angolensis, US$100) in Niger-
ia (Nikolaus 2011).
Levels of Use of Vulture Carcasses and Challenges
in Obtaining More Vultures. The majority of
traditional healers we interviewed indicated that
the demand for vultures was unknown, and we
speculate this (and the choice of seven traditional
healers to not participate in our survey) may reflect
their fear of discussing vulture use because non-
permitted killing and trade of vultures are illegal in
South Africa (Thompson and Blackmore 2020).
Noticeably, most of the Mozambican nationals we
approached were unwilling to participate in our
study, believing that their status as foreign nationals
made them more conspicuous to authorities.
Predicting levels of demand for traditional medi-
cine is thought to be difficult (Cunningham 1990),
because demand fluctuates with social and political
events. An example of this is the recent mass-killing of
Hooded Vultures on an unprecedented scale (over
2000 birds) in Guinea-Bissau, in response to high
demand prompted by political unrest in that country
(Vulture Conservation Foundation 2020). Neverthe-
less, levels of current use can be estimated. The rates
at which vultures are killed for traditional medicine
in our study area are similar to those reported for
Namibia (Hengari et al. 2004). There are over 400
healers in the Kukula Traditional Health Practition-
ers Association, from which we drew our survey
respondents. Of those that responded to our
question regarding the use of vultures, the largest
proportion of respondents indicated that they use
one or two vultures a year. A crude extrapolation
would, therefore, suggest that this group of tradi-
tional healers uses 400–800 vultures a year. This far
exceeds the 160 vultures that McKean et al. (2013)
estimated were sold each year in eastern South Africa.
Our findings indicate a level of illegal trade in vulture
body parts that is ecologically unsustainable.
Use of Poisoned Vultures. Traditional healers said
that vultures were relatively rare to see, and
therefore very difficult to find and trap, so poisoning
was used as a trapping method. Environmental
awareness activities by the Endangered Wildlife
Trust have informed traditional healers about the
health risks of using poisoned birds in traditional
medicines. So, most of the traditional healers were
aware of poisoning and looked for signs that vultures
had been poisoned, and one confirmed she no
longer used vultures for traditional medicines
because of the risk of poisoning her clients. This
demonstrated the importance of continued envi-
ronmental awareness campaigns, which link envi-
ronmental health with human health. Traditional
healers were also concerned that the poisoning of
large numbers of vultures is ecologically unsustain-
able, and this may place cultural customs at risk.
We encourage further study on the human health
risks of consuming traditional medicines made with
the body parts of poisoned vultures. The results from
any such study should be discussed at workshops
with traditional healers and community members
living alongside protected areas, to raise awareness
of the potential health risks of consuming poisoned
meat. If traditional healers are empowered with
knowledge about the detrimental effects of utilizing
poisoned vultures, this might cause a decrease in
wildlife poisoning, or even use of vultures in
traditional medicine, because traditional healers
would be less inclined to buy vultures.
Alternatives to Vultures in Traditional Medicine.
Sodeinde and Soewu (1999) highlighted the need
for more research on whether more common
species can be substituted for the more highly
threatened species that are used unsustainably in
traditional medicine. In response to our survey,
SEPTEMBER 2021 335
USES OF VULTURES IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
some traditional healers suggested alternatives to
vultures for use in traditional medicine. The
alternatives they suggested were the Greater Honey-
guide and the honey badger, which are both classed
as Least Concern on the Red List of Threatened
Species (IUCN 2020). The healers provided some
explanation for why these species may be good
alternatives to vultures. This contrasted with the
findings of studies in eastern South Africa, which
found no comparable alternative for the use of
vultures for improved clairvoyance (Cunningham
1990, McKean et al. 2013). Future research could
include (1) testing public attitudes to the use of
alternatives, and (2) modelling whether the use of
suggested alternatives could be sustainable.
Improving Law Enforcement. Environmental out-
reach activities in our study area should also focus on
improving awareness that the unpermitted killing
and possession of vultures in South Africa is a crime,
which may incur specific penalties, according to the
respective provincial ordinances, which generally
afford legal protection to all vulture species
(Thompson and Blackmore 2020). In Limpopo
Province, the six vulture species that occur in the
province are classified as ‘‘specially protected wild
animals,’’ under the Limpopo Environmental Man-
agement Act No. 7 of 2003 (LEMA, Limpopo
Province 2003). LEMA prohibits the unpermitted
capture, hunting, acquisition, possession, sale, and
purchase of specially protected wild animals, and
specifies that violation may result in a fine of up to
R250,000 (US$14,205) and/or up to 15 yr impris-
onment (Limpopo Province 2003). Similarly, in
Mpumalanga Province, all vultures are classified as
‘‘protected game’’ under the Mpumalanga Nature
Conservation Act No. 10 of 1998, which prohibits the
unpermitted capture, hunting, and poisoning of
wild animals; violations may result in a fine with an
unspecified maximum limit and/or imprisonment
for up to 5 yr (Mpumalanga Province 1998).
National and provincial conservation authorities,
governmental departments, and police should also
improve enforcement of the laws protecting vul-
tures. This could be done by recruiting informants
to notify police officers of planned or past poisoning
events and of dead or live vultures for sale, and by
increasing antipoaching activities at the reserves
highlighted by our survey respondents as the sources
of vultures for use in traditional medicine (Kruger
National Park, Manyeleti Game Reserve, Sabi Sands
Game Reserve, and Bushbuckridge Nature Reserve).
Conclusions. The continued use of vultures in
traditional medicine and the ongoing poisoning of
vultures in the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region
are unsustainable. The open, illegal trade in vulture
body parts for traditional medicine concerns not only
conservationists but also traditional healers, who are
aware of the socioeconomic and cultural services that
vultures provide to the community at large. South
Africa has an opportunity here to lead the way in
enforcing laws to protect vultures, just as it is leading
the way in many other aspects of nature conservation
(Balmford 2003, Deacon and Tutchings 2019).
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL (available online). Table
S1: Questionnaire used to survey traditional healers
in the present study.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted to the late Rodney Sibuyi (previous
Chairperson of the Kukula Traditional Health Practitioners
Association) for his enthusiasm for the sustainability of
vultures and other cultural resources, and for introducing
NMM to all the traditional healers surveyed. We gratefully
acknowledge the Kukula Traditional Health Practitioners
Association for granting NMM their time. NMM thanks
Marie´-Tinka Uys for her support and guidance. NMM also
thanks colleagues from the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere
Region, especially the Rhino Ambassadors and the Envi-
ronmental Monitors who assisted with data collection. We
are grateful to John Davies and Louise Swemmer for
helpful comments. This study was approved by the
Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Commit-
tee of the University of KwaZulu-Natal (protocol reference
number HSS/0495/017M). NMM is grateful to Green
Matter (ZA) for their financial support, and CTD thanks
the National Research Foundation (ZA) for funding. We
are most grateful to Beckie Garbett, two anonymous
reviewers, and the Editor, whose comments significantly
improved an earlier version of this report.
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Received 23 March 2020; accepted 12 August 2020
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