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Article
The Influence of Parental Perfectionism and Parenting Styles on
Child Perfectionism
Cláudia Carmo 1, * , Diana Oliveira 1, Marta Brás1and Luís Faísca 2
Citation: Carmo, C.; Oliveira, D.;
Brás, M.; Faísca, L. The Influence of
Parental Perfectionism and Parenting
Styles on Child Perfectionism.
Children 2021,8, 777. https://
doi.org/10.3390/children8090777
Academic Editor: Cristina Nunes
Received: 29 July 2021
Accepted: 31 August 2021
Published: 4 September 2021
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1
Psychology Research Centre (CIP), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas,
8005-139 Faro, Portugal;
dianafernandesoliveira@gmail.com (D.O.); mbras@ualg.pt (M.B.)
2Centre for Biomedical Research (CBMR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas,
8005-139 Faro, Portugal; lfaisca@ualg.pt
*Correspondence: cgcarmo@ualg.pt; Tel.: +351-289-800-900
Abstract:
Perfectionism is a significant transdiagnostic process related to the development and
maintenance of several psychological disorders. The main models of the development of perfec-
tionism focus on early childhood experiences and postulate that parental relation is an important
factor for understanding this construct in children. The purpose of this study was to examine the
relationship between child and parental perfectionism, seeking to evaluate the empirical support of
the Social Learning Model and the Social Expectations Model and children’s perception of parenting
styles. The present study included 119 children (51.2% girls, M
age
= 11.67 years) and their parents.
Data were collected through administration of several self-report measures. The results show a
relationship between the majority of the same parent and child perfectionism dimensions, thus
providing supportive evidence for the Social Learning Model. Concerning the analysis of the role
of gender in the transmission of perfectionism, observed fathers’ perfectionism only relates with
the sons’ perfectionism, and mothers’ perfectionism relates with daughters’ perfectionism. Our
findings allow for a deeper understanding of the role of the perception of an authoritarian parenting
style in the development of maladaptive perfectionism. Mother and fathers’ perceived parenting
styles contribute more to daughter than son perfectionism. The results contribute to expanding the
understanding of the role of parental factors in the development of perfectionism.
Keywords:
child perfectionism; parental perfectionism; adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism;
parenting styles
1. Introduction
Perfectionism is a complex, transdiagnostic, multidimensional personality construct
that encompasses both adaptive and maladaptive facets. One of the most popular and
commonly used multidimensional conceptualizations of perfectionism was proposed by
Hewitt and Flett [
1
], consisting in a tripartite model which includes both intrapersonal
and interpersonal dimensions: self-oriented perfectionism (SOP; demanding perfection of
oneself), socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP; perceiving others as demanding perfection
of oneself) and other-oriented perfectionism (OOP; demanding perfection of others).
The adverse consequences of perfectionism in the lives of youth (children and ado-
lescents) are now widely recognized, including the impact on mental health and general
well-being [2–5].
There is an increasing interest in studying perfectionism in children and adoles-
cents [
6
–
8
] given that its features can be observed prior to adulthood and perfectionistic
characteristics are considered to have roots in childhood.
In the literature on perfectionism, there is a variety of theoretical models aiming to
explain how perfectionism may develop and all models highlight that childhood and
adolescence are key periods for the development of this personality trait and that parents
Children 2021,8, 777. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8090777 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/children
Children 2021,8, 777 2 of 11
play a major role. Perfectionism develops over time and may be formed in the family of
origin of the child, often resulting from parent–child interactions.
The Social Expectations Model [
9
] proposes that perfectionism develops as a conse-
quence of contingent parental approval combined with parental expectations and criticism.
This means that parents teach their children that perfection and success are crucial to please
them and to obtain their love and affection, whereas failure is not acceptable. Children
whose parents have high performance expectations and criticize them when those expec-
tations are not met are more prone to developing perfectionism by internalizing these
expectations as well as the associated negative self-evaluation.
Another model is the Social Learning Model [
9
], which focuses on the children’s
tendency to model perfectionistic behaviors exhibited by their parents. This model sug-
gests that children develop perfectionistic traits by observing and imitating their parents’
perfectionism, which may occur due to the frequent exposure to parental perfectionistic
beliefs and behaviors or to the attempt to be as perfect as them.
The literature reveals supporting evidence for both the social expectations [
10
] and
social learning mechanisms of perfectionism development [
11
,
12
], with a few studies that
have simultaneously tested these two models, suggesting that different pathways may lead
to the development of different perfectionism dimensions [13,14].
Flett and colleagues [
9
] highlight that, in the study of the intergenerational trans-
mission of perfectionism, gender may influence the outcome, emerging two concurrent
hypotheses: the same-sex caregiver hypothesis and the primary-caregiver hypothesis. The
first suggests that children tend to acquire features from the same-sex parent, meaning that
sons will develop perfectionism through the interaction with their fathers, while daughters
develop perfectionism through the interaction with their mothers. The latter theorizes that
mothers are mainly responsible for the development of their children’s perfectionism, due
to the longer period of time they spend with their children. This means children are more
exposed to their mothers’ personality features and parenting styles than to their fathers’.
Both hypotheses have received some support from research [
11
,
14
–
17
], creating a lack of
consensus regarding the moderator effect of gender in the transmission of perfectionism.
In addition to parent perfectionism, research also suggests that there are other impor-
tant factors regarding how parents influence the development of perfectionism in their
children, namely, attachment styles [
18
], parental expectations [
19
], parental control [
20
]
and, especially, parenting styles [21].
Baumrind [
22
] defined three parenting styles that primary caregivers use to interact
with their children: authoritarian parenting, permissive parenting and authoritative par-
enting. Authoritarian parenting refers to parents that are rigorous, have excessively high
expectations on how their children should conform to all imposed rules, attempting to
shape, control and evaluate their children’s behaviors and attitudes. Permissive parents
are warm and sensitive, highly accepting, make few demands and allow their children
to regulate their own activities. Authoritative parents are affectionate and responsive to
their children’s needs but are also capable of establishing rules and guide their children’s
behaviors, finding a balance between affection and the rules establishment.
Several studies [
10
,
16
,
21
,
23
–
28
] support the idea that perfectionism develops more
easily in families with extremely critical parents and that an authoritarian parenting style
may lead children to adopt a perfectionist orientation during the course of their lives.
However, it is still not clear whether parenting styles are directly linked to the development
of adaptive or maladaptive perfectionism facets.
While there is evidence showing a positive association between authoritarian parent-
ing and maladaptive perfectionism [
25
,
29
,
30
], some studies reveal that this parenting style
predicts both perfectionism facets [21,31–33].
Although progress has been made regarding the empirical support for the role of
parents in the development of adolescents and children’s adaptive and maladaptive per-
fectionism, research is still relatively scarce and inclusive. This highlights the importance
Children 2021,8, 777 3 of 11
to continue to study the developmental trajectories of perfectionism, in order to better
understand the origins of this personality trait.
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between child and parental
perfectionism, seeking to evaluate the empirical support of the Social Learning Model and
the Social Expectations Model [
9
]. The contribution of children’s perception of parenting
styles on perfectionism development was also examined. We also sought to ascertain if the
effect of these parental variables is homogeneous or whether it depends on the gender of
both the parent and the child.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design
This is a quantitative study, with a cross-sectional and descriptive-correlational design.
2.2. Participants
Children from two public middle Portuguese schools were recruited for this study.
A total of 268 questionnaires were sent to their parents, but only 154 questionnaires were
returned, resulting in an overall response rate of 57.5%. After applying inclusion criteria
(complete questionnaires, with responses both from mother and father), a final sample
of 119 complete triads (mother, father, and child) was obtained. Children (58 boys and
61 girls) were aged between 10 and 14 years old (M= 11.67; SD = 1.18), 34 coming from the
5th grade, 44 from the 6th grade, 27 from the 7th grade and 14 from the 8th grade. Most
of the children (82.4%) indicated that they lived with both parents. Mothers were aged
between 29 to 55 years (M= 41.20; SD = 5.12) and fathers were aged between 31 to 68 years
(M= 43.92; SD = 6.65). Concerning educational level, both parents attained college (39%
and 27%, respectively, for mother and father), secondary school (28% and 25%, respectively)
or middle school (19% and 24%).
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Sociodemographic Information
Sociodemographic data were collected using a Sociodemographic Questionnaire (SDQ).
This instrument assesses participants’ personal, social, and demographic information.
2.3.2. Child Perfectionism
Child perfectionism was measured using the Child and Adolescent Perfectionism
Scale (CAPS [
34
]; Portuguese version [
35
]). The CAPS is a 22-item self-report questionnaire
that measures two aspects of perfectionism: Self-Oriented Perfectionism (SOP; 12 items)
and Socially Prescribed Perfectionism (SPP; 10 items). Children are asked to rate each
statement on a 5-point scale (1 = false—not at all true for me; 5 = very true for me). CAPS
total score ranges from 22 to 110, with higher scores indicating greater perfectionism.
The Portuguese version of CAPS shows adequate psychometric properties [
35
]: internal
consistency and temporal stability indexes for the SOP scale (Cronbach
´
s
α
= 0.83; test-retest
r= 0.69) and for the SPP (
α
= 0.85; r= 0.59) are good and quite similar to those obtained
with the original version [34].
2.3.3. Parent Perfectionism
Parent perfectionism was measured using the Hewitt and Flett’s Multidimensional
Perfectionism Scale (HMPS [
1
]; Portuguese version [
36
]). The HMPS is a 45-item self-report
scale that measures Self-Oriented Perfectionism (SOP; 15 items), Socially Prescribed Perfec-
tionism (SPP; 15 items) and Other Oriented Perfectionism (OOP; 15 items). Participants
respond to items on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). HMPS
scores range from 45 to 315, with higher scores indicating greater perfectionism. The HMPS
scales are internally consistent (SOP
α
= 0.89; SPP
α
= 0.86; OOP
α
= 0.79) and test–retest
reliabilities are good (SOP r= 0.88; SPP r= 0.75; OOP r= 0.85). The Portuguese version of
Children 2021,8, 777 4 of 11
HMPS also presents adequate psychometric properties, showing good internal consistency
(α= 0.89) and temporal stability (r= 0.85) for the total score.
2.3.4. Parenting Styles
Parenting styles were measured using the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ [
37
];
Portuguese version [
38
]). The PAQ is a 30-item instrument that measures three parenting
styles: authoritative (10 items), authoritarian (10 items) and permissive (10 items) parenting
styles, for both the mother and the father. Participants rate their level of agreement on a
5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). On each PAQ subscale, scores range
from 10 to 50, with higher scores indicating higher levels on each parental authority type.
The Portuguese version of PAQ was translated and adapted by Morgado and colleagues [
38
]
and has shown an adequate internal consistency (Authoritarian parenting style
α
= 0.77;
Authoritative parenting style α= 0.78; Permissive parenting style α= 0.66).
2.4. Data Collection
The study was approved by the Portuguese Ministry of Education and the Directors
of the Executive Boards of each selected school gave their authorization to collect data at
their schools. The research team has then reunited with school administrators to schedule
data collecting sessions, according to the availability of the teachers from the 5th to 8th grade.
Since participants were minors, previous written consent was obtained from parents.
All children also gave their assent to participate and completed the assessment protocol
collectively in the classroom (Sociodemographic Questionnaire, Child and Adolescent
Perfectionism Scale, and Parental Authority Questionnaire); whenever necessary, questions
were clarified individually, while participants filled out the forms. Each child then received
an envelope with an explaining note about the research and two HMPS questionnaires (one
for the mother and one for the father) to deliver to their parents. Children brought from
home the filled questionnaires in the closed envelope and handed them to their teachers,
who in turn returned them to the researchers.
2.5. Data Analysis
Data analysis was carried out using IBM SPSS (version 25.0). t-tests were used to
evaluate the significance of mean differences between groups and Cohen’s dto express the
magnitude of those differences. Correlational analysis was based on the Pearson correlation
coefficient r. Multiple regression models were used to evaluate the conjoint contribution of
parental variables to explain children perfectionist dimensions. Significance level was set
to 0.05; however, marginal significance (p< 0.1) was also reported.
3. Results
3.1. The Intergenerational Transmission of Perfectionism
The results obtained through children’s self-evaluation of perfectionism (Table 1) show
that gender differences were negligible, although girls demonstrated a slightly higher level
of SOP, an adaptive perfectionism dimension (Cohen’s d= 0.32, p= 0.086).
Table 1. Children perfectionism levels: differences according to gender.
CAPS Boy (n= 58) Girl (n= 61)
M(SD)M(SD) Cohen’s d t p
SOP (max. 60) 37.48 (7.80) 40.03 (8.23) −0.32 −1.73 0.086
SPP (max. 50) 30.86 (7.97) 30.07 (7.78) 0.10 0.55 0.582
Total (max. 110) 68.34 (14.00) 70.10 (13.92) −0.13 −0.68 0.495
Note. M= Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; t= Independent samples t-test; CAPS = Child and Adolescent
Perfectionism Scale; SOP = Self-Oriented Perfectionism; SPP = Socially Prescribed Perfectionism; Total = Total
perfectionism score assessed by CAPS.
Children 2021,8, 777 5 of 11
Parents’ self-reported levels of perfectionism (Table 2) were higher for fathers com-
pared to mothers in all dimensions; however, differences were small and non-significant
(Cohens’ d≤0.2, p> 0.1).
Table 2. Perfectionism dimensions according to parent gender.
HMPS Father
(n= 119)
Mother
(n= 119)
M(SD)M(SD) Cohen’s d t p
SOP (max. 105) 91.77 (15.47) 89.45 (16.66) 0.14 1.25 0.214
SPP (max. 105) 49.04 (11.75) 46.97 (11.43) 0.18 1.58 0.118
OOP (max. 105) 44.13 (7.48) 42.82 (8.54) 0.16 1.60 0.113
Total (max. 315) 199.70 (27.86) 194.53 (30.43) 0.18 1.59 0.115
Note. M= Mean; SD = Standard Deviation; t= Paired samples t-test (father and mother scores were paired);
HMPS = Hewitt and Flett’s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale; SOP = Self-Oriented Perfectionism; SPP = So-
cially Prescribed Perfectionism; OOP = Other Oriented Perfectionism; Total = Total perfectionism score assessed
by HMPS.
In order to verify possible associations between parents and children’s perfectionistic
tendencies, correlations were computed for the perfectionism scores, considering children’s
gender. The results show only some statistically significant correlation coefficients
(Table 3)
.
Mother SOP levels were related to daughters’ SOP (r= 0.39); no statistically significant
correlations were found between fathers’ SOP and children’s SOP. Fathers’ SOP was
positively correlated with their sons’ SPP (r= 0.31). Mothers’ SPP was positively correlated
with their daughters’ SPP (r= 0.33) and SOP (r= 0.25; here, the correlation is only marginally
significant, p= 0.054). Parents’ OOP scores did not correlate with children’s perfectionism
subscales. Significant correlations with total scores reflect the correlations already described
at subscale level.
Table 3.
Pearson correlation between parents’ perfectionism dimensions (HMPS) and children’s
perfectionism dimensions (CAPS), according to gender (boys: n= 58; girls: n= 61).
CAPS–SOP CAPS–SPP CAPS–Total
Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl
HMPS–SOP
Father 0.02 0.05 0.31 ** 0.09 0.19 0.08
Mother 0.04 0.39 *** 0.20 0.16 0.14 0.32 **
HMPS–SPP
Father 0.02 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.09 0.16
Mother 0.12 0.25 * 0.15 0.33 *** 0.15 0.33 ***
HMPS–OOP
Father −0.13 −0.06 −0.17 −0.18 −0.17 −0.13
Mother −0.03 0.19 0.12 −0.12 0.06 0.05
HMPS–Total
Father −0.04 0.05 0.15 0.02 0.02 0.03
Mother 0.06 0.36 *** 0.24 * 0.19 0.15 0.32 **
Note. HMPS = Hewitt and Flett’s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale; SOP = Self-Oriented Perfectionism;
SPP = Socially Prescribed Perfectionism; OOP = Other Oriented Perfectionism; Total = total perfectionism score
assessed by HMPS; CAPS = Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale; Total = Total perfectionism score assessed
by CAPS. * p< 0.1; ** p< 0.05; *** p< 0.01.
Overall, since correlations were higher when the progenitor and child have the same
gender, the results seem somehow to reflect the same-sex intergenerational transmission of
perfectionism. However, correlations have moderate to weak magnitude (0.25
≤
r
≤
0.39).
Given that parents’ SOP and SPP seem to contribute to the same perfectionism dimen-
sions in children, a multiple regression model was used to evaluate the joint contribution
of parents’ perfectionism dimensions to the development of child perfectionism traits
Children 2021,8, 777 6 of 11
(Table 4)
. Considering the coefficients of determination (R
2
) reported in Table 4, it can
observe that mothers’ total contribution is only significant on daughters’ SOP (R
2
= 0.158)
and SPP (R
2
= 0.130), while fathers’ total contribution is exclusively significant on sons’
SPP (R2= 0.163).
Table 4.
Total contribution of father and mother perfectionism dimensions (HMPS) in the develop-
ment of son and daughter perfectionism (CAPS) (boys: n= 58; girls: n= 61).
CAPS–SOP CAPS–SPP
Boy Girl Boy Girl
Father’s contribution R2= 0.019 R2= 0.015 R2= 0.163 ** R2= 0.080
HMPS–SOP β= 0.07 β= 0.05 β= 0.40 *** β= 0.13
HMPS–SPP β=−0.03 β= 0.08 β=−0.06 β= 0.14
HMPS–OOP β=−0.15 β=−0.09 β=−0.28 ** β=−0.25 *
Mother’s contribution R2= 0.015 R2= 0.158 ** R2= 0.050 R2= 0.130 **
HMPS–SOP β= 0.04 β= 0.35 ** β= 0.16 β= 0.10
HMPS–SPP β= 0.10 β= 0.07 β= 0.10 β= 0.29 *
HMPS–OOP β=−0.05 β= 0.02 β= 0.03 β=−0.18
Note.
β
= Standardized regression coefficient; R
2
= Coefficient of determination; SOP = Self-Oriented Perfectionism;
SPP = Socially Prescribed Perfectionism; OOP = Other Oriented Perfectionism. * p< 0.1; ** p< 0.05; *** p< 0.01.
A detailed analysis of the contribution of individual variables (
β
standardized re-
gression coefficients) indicates which parental perfectionism dimensions have a larger
contribution to the development of child perfectionism. Fathers’ SOP and OOP are the
perfectionism dimensions that most contribute to the development of sons’ SPP. Mothers’
SOP contributes to the development of daughters’ SOP, while mothers’ SPP contributes to
daughters’ SPP.
3.2. The Influence of Perceived Parenting Styles on the Development of Perfectionism
Correlations between perceived parenting styles and perfectionism dimensions, ac-
cording to child gender, were also explored (Table 5). The analysis of the results shows
that the evaluation of an authoritarian parenting style is positively associated with all
perfectionism dimensions, being particularly intense when it is done by daughters rather
than sons. The stronger association observed in girls, compared to boys, is more evident for
SOP. Concerning the association between perceived authoritative parenting and child per-
fectionism dimensions, correlations are non-significant (except for a marginally significant
positive correlation between the daughter SOP dimension and their perception of mothers
as having an authoritative parenting style, r= 0.25, p= 0.058). Perceived permissive parent-
ing style have significant correlations exclusively with the SPP dimension, independently
of the gender of the parent or of the child. In relation to CAPS Total, correlations reflect the
association pattern described above.
In order to estimate the contribution of parenting styles to the explanation of adaptive
and maladaptive perfectionism, multiple regression analysis was performed considering
parenting styles as predictive variables and both perfectionism dimensions as dependent
variables (Table 6).
Overall, the perceived parenting styles contribute more strongly to girls than boys
levels of perfectionism. Maladaptive forms of perfectionism (SPP) seem to be more de-
pendent on parenting styles; fathers’ parenting styles do not even significantly contribute
to the SOP levels of their sons. Mother variables propitiate a somehow greater influence
in perfectionism dimensions for both sexes. However, the contribution of each parenting
style to perfectionism is similar for mother and father: authoritarian style is the major
predictor of perfectionism, both for SOP and SPP. Finally, a more complex pattern of influ-
ence contributes to differences in girls’ SPP: while authoritarian and permissive parenting
styles (both from mother and father) seem to contribute positively to this dimension of
Children 2021,8, 777 7 of 11
perfectionism, authoritative parenting style reduces the presence of such a maladaptive
form of perfectionism among girls.
Table 5.
Pearson correlation between perceived parenting styles and child perfectionism, according
to child gender (boys: n= 58; girls: n= 61).
CAPS–SOP CAPS–SPP CAPS–Total
PAQ Subscales Boy Girl Boy Girl Boy Girl
Authoritarian
Father 0.24 * 0.51 **** 0.39 *** 0.44 **** 0.35 *** 0.55 ****
Mother 0.28 ** 0.47 **** 0.47 **** 0.52 **** 0.42 **** 0.57 ****
Authoritative
Father 0.20 0.17 0.13 −0.19 0.19 −0.01
Mother 0.16 0.25 * 0.16 −0.17 0.18 0.05
Permissive
Father 0.04 −0.13 0.31 ** 0.33 *** 0.20 0.26 **
Mother 0.04 0.15 0.38 *** 0.37 *** 0.24 * 0.29 **
Note. CAPS = Child and Adolescent Perfectionism Scale (Flett et al., 2000); SOP = Self-Oriented Perfectionism;
SPP = Socially Prescribed Perfectionism; CAPS total = Total perfectionism score assessed by CAPS; PAQ = Parental
Authority Questionnaire. * p< 0.1; ** p< 0.05; *** p< 0.01; **** p< 0.001.
Table 6.
Contribution of parenting styles to the development of child perfectionism (boys: n= 58;
girls: n= 61).
CAPS–SOP CAPS–SPP
PAQ Subscales Boys Girls Boys Girls
Paternal contribution R2= 0.082 R2= 0.258 **** R2= 0.165 ** R2= 0.300 ****
Authoritarian 0.26 0.48 **** 0.32 ** 0.40 ****
Authoritative 0.13 0.10 −0.04 −0.26 **
Permissive −0.13 0.00 0.15 0.24 **
Maternal contribution R2= 0.110 * R2= 0.234 **** R2= 0.236 *** R2= 0.405 ****
Authoritarian 0.41 ** 0.44 **** 0.42 ** 0.47 ****
Authoritative 0.03 0.16 −0.08 −0.33 ***
Permissive −0.23 −0.04 0.13 0.27 **
Note.
β
= Standardized regression coefficient; R
2
= Coefficient of determination; SOP = Self-Oriented Perfec-
tionism; SPP = Socially Prescribed Perfectionism; PAQ = Parental Authority Questionnaire. * p< 0.1; ** p< 0.05;
*** p< 0.01; **** p< 0.001.
4. Discussion
The literature on the intergenerational transmission of child perfectionism is still
inconclusive on the contribution of perfectionist dimensions and different parenting styles
in the development of perfectionism in daughters and sons. In order to contribute to
the understanding about the development of perfectionism during childhood, this cross-
sectional study proposed to analyze the association of parental perfectionism and perceived
parenting styles with the levels of child perfectionism.
Relatively to the levels of child perfectionism observed in the present sample, CAPS
total scores were somehow higher than those obtained in the CAPS adaptation study for the
Portuguese population [
35
], possibly due to the different characteristics of the samples of
each study. The sample presented in the Portuguese adaptation study [
35
] was constituted
by children aged from 11 to 18 years old (M= 15.8), while in the present study participants
were aged between 10 and 14 years (M= 11.74). No statistically significant differences
between genders for CAPS scores were found on both studies.
Parents’ self-evaluated perfectionism levels were coincident with the results of the
Portuguese adaptation of HMPS [
36
], where SOP has shown the highest values, followed
by SPP and OOP. As observed in this Portuguese adaptation study [
36
], no statistically
significant gender differences were found for the various perfectionism dimensions.
Children 2021,8, 777 8 of 11
The main purpose of this study was to explore the transmission of perfectionism from
parents to children, by analyzing the contribution of parental perfectionism and parenting
styles to the levels of perfectionism reported by their children.
According to Social Learning Model [9], children may imitate parents’ perfectionism
behaviors through a modeling process. The results of this study partially support the hy-
pothesis that child perfectionism develops through the imitation of parents’ perfectionistic
tendencies, since it was possible to observe that mothers’ SOP and SPP were significantly
related to girls’ SOP and SPP, respectively. This result is also supported by most of the
studies reported in the literature [
2
,
11
,
14
–
16
], suggesting that mothers that perceive others
as holding them to high standards and expectations are more likely to have children who
perceive others as being excessively demanding and holding unreasonable expectations.
The Social Expectations Model [
9
] emphasize that the intergenerational transmission
of perfectionism may occur from the impact parents’ OOP has on children’s SPP. The
present study refutes this idea: parents’ OPP did not related with children’s SPP. These
results are similar to results found by Vieth and Trull [
14
], who also did not observe a
relationship between these perfectionism dimensions.
The analysis of the association between parental and children’s perfectionism, accord-
ing to gender, allowed us to explore the intergenerational patterns of the transmission
of perfectionism.
A positive and significant relationship was observed between mothers’ perfectionism
(SOP and SPP) and the corresponding dimensions of daughters’ perfectionism. In turn,
this was not true for the association between mother and son perfectionism. However, the
fathers’ SOP and SPP dimensions do not correlate with the corresponding sons’ perfection-
ist dimensions. In the larger context of the Social Learning Model, these results seem to
support both the hypothesis of the same-sex caregiver and the hypothesis of the primary
caregiver, but only with respect to girls’ perfectionism. This exclusive positive relationship
between the specific perfectionism dimensions of mothers and their daughters calls into
question whether there is a double form of transmission from mother to daughter, offering
support to both the main caregiver hypothesis (mother) and the same-sex caregiver hypoth-
esis (female). The absence of a reliable association of the same perfectionism dimensions
between fathers and mothers and their sons suggests that social learning, whether through
same-sex caregiver modeling or through the primary caregiver modeling, may not be the
relevant mechanism of the intergenerational transmission of perfectionism for boys.
However, a significant moderate association was observed between fathers’ SOP and
sons’ SPP, suggesting that when fathers establish excessively high and unrealistic standards
for themselves, sons tend to perceive that the significant others have rigid and excessively
high expectations for themselves too. This pattern of influence seems to be specific to boys,
since mothers’ SOP only correlates with daughters’ SOP. Furthermore, regression analysis
detected an additional negative contribution of the fathers’ OPP dimension to the sons’
SPP, attenuating the role of parental expectations in this transmission mechanism. Further
studies are needed to clarify if whether this same-sex mechanism of intergenerational
transmission can be framed by the Social Learning Model and whether it is specific to
male children.
Overall, the results of the correlational and regression analysis suggest that daughters’
perfectionism seems to be exclusively related to mothers’ perfectionism, although the
modeling mechanism (same sex versus primary caregiver) could not be disentangled in
this study; concerning boys’ perfectionism, it only relates to the father (but this relationship
is exclusive between the fathers’ SOP and sons’ SPP dimensions).
These results are partially corroborated by the study of Cook and Kearney [
2
], where
mothers’ SPP was the only predictor of the development of children’s SOP and SPP, since
the authors did not specify the role of gender in their study.
Concerning the association between perceived parenting styles and child perfection-
ism, the results seem to point out that perception of an authoritarian parenting style
Children 2021,8, 777 9 of 11
is related to both perfectionism dimensions (SOP and SPP) in children, independently
of gender.
These findings corroborate results from other studies [
21
,
31
–
33
]. However, it is for the
maladaptive perfectionism dimension (SPP) that the values are more evident, especially
for boys. Indeed, while an authoritarian parenting style correlates moderately with both
girls’ perfectionism dimensions (r> 0.4), for boys, correlations with SPP are similar (r> 0.4)
but weaker for the SOP dimension (r< 0.3).
Kawamura et al. [
26
] assert that children that perceive their parents as being authori-
tarian, by internalizing parental criticism, may consequently develop harsh self-criticism.
Perfectionistic children focus excessively on evaluative concerns, which may lead them to
interpret any slight reprehension as a harsh critic directed to them. This relationship might
happen because perfectionistic children are constantly focused on their own mistakes and
more susceptible to remember situations in which their parents were critical about their
performance. Damian et al. [
10
] also verified that adolescents who perceived their parents
as having excessively high standards for themselves have increased their SPP levels. These
results seem to corroborate the hypothesis that perfectionism is related to controlling and
highly critical parenting styles, where parents are described as being demanding and
imposing extremely elevated standards of performance on their children [
25
,
26
]. This
association has also been reported in adulthood: a recent CBT Intervention study with
young adults [
30
] reported that a perceived negative parenting style is associated with
specific, maladaptive aspects of perfectionism.
Independently of child gender, perceived maternal parenting styles frequently reveal
a somehow higher correlation than perceived paternal parenting styles. These results are
consistent with the literature, in which the mother appears as the predominant figure, even
though both mother and fathers’ harshness is associated with daughters’ perfectionism [
16
].
Considering gender, it was observed that perceived parental authoritarian was related
to boy
´
s and girl
´
s perfectionism (SOP and SPP). These results are partially supported
by Flett and colleagues
´
s study [
24
], where male students’ SPP correlated positively with
both mother and fathers’ authoritarian parenting style; similar results were obtained in a
study by Hibbard and Walton [
25
], which suggested that an authoritarian parenting style
is positively associated to maladaptive perfectionism aspects.
Concerning the association between perceived authoritative parenting and child per-
fectionism dimensions, correlations are non-significant (except for a marginally significant
positive correlation between the daughter SOP dimension and their perception of mothers
as having an authoritative parenting style).
In turn, perceived permissive parenting style was related exclusively with the SPP
dimension, independently of the gender of the parent or of the child. Few studies have
examined the relationship between permissive parenting style and perfectionism, however,
their conclusions about this style is similar [25].
Regression analysis indicates that perceived parenting styles contribute more to daugh-
ter than son perfectionism. Maladaptive forms of perfectionism were particularly depen-
dent on parenting styles; fathers’ parenting styles do not even significantly contribute to
their the SOP levels reported by their sons. Mothers’ parenting styles propitiate a somehow
greater influence in perfectionism dimensions for both sexes. However, the contribution
of each parenting style to perfectionism is similar for mother and father: an authoritarian
style is the major predictor of perfectionism, both for SOP and SPP. Finally, a more complex
pattern of influence contributes to differences in girls’ SPP: while authoritarian and permis-
sive parenting styles (both from mother and father) seem to contribute positively to this
dimension of perfectionism, an authoritative parenting style seems to have a protective
role against the presence of such a maladaptive form of perfectionism among girls.
The results obtained in this investigation seem to confirm the findings of other studies
that have verified an association between parents and children’s perfectionism and the
contribution of an authoritarian parenting style on maladaptive perfectionism in children.
However, we cannot forget that the development of perfectionism involves other factors,
Children 2021,8, 777 10 of 11
such as sociocultural environment, peer and significant other (e.g., teachers, coaches)
interactions as well as factors inherent to the child (e.g., temperament).
Some limitations should be noted, particularly of a methodological nature, namely,
the use of a cross-sectional design and the use of self-evaluation and hetero-evaluation
measures, which may be contaminated with social desirability. Aware of the difficulties
inherent in a study of this nature, we suggest in the future the use of behavioral observations
and a longitudinal design, allowing for a more effective understanding of the etiology and
transmission of perfectionism from parent to child.
Finally, we also point out as a limitation the fact that the parental predictors of
perfectionism are not exhausted in those we analyzed in this study. Studying all the parental
variables hypothesized in the various explanatory models of perfectionism could help to
understand the etiology of this personality trait. However, the results of the present study
allowed us to reinforce the importance of the two parental factors in the understanding of
perfectionism. Despite the limitations pointed out, this study provided empirical evidence
for the relevance of fathers’ and mothers’ influence in promoting the positive and adaptive
aspects, as well as the negative and maladaptive aspects, of perfectionism.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, C.C. and L.F.; methodology, C.C. and L.F.; formal analysis,
L.F. and C.C.; investigation, C.C., M.B. and D.O.; resources, C.C., M.B. and D.O.; writing—original
draft preparation, C.C. and L.F.; writing—review and editing, C.C., L.F. and M.B.; funding acquisition,
C.C. and M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was partially funded by the FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
grant number UIDB/PSI/04345/2020.
Institutional Review Board Statement:
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the
Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the General Directorate of Education of the Portuguese
Ministry of Education, Reference No 0678900001_27/06/2019.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The database is available upon request to the first author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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