![Temperature contours of partially premixed flame: (a) free jet, (b) impinging jet at H/d = 6, and (c) impinging jet at H/d = 10 [20].](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kirttayoth-Yeranee/publication/354369058/figure/fig1/AS:1067901784170497@1631619034823/Temperature-contours-of-partially-premixed-flame-a-free-jet-b-impinging-jet-at-H-d_Q320.jpg)
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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 28 (2021) 101418
Available online 4 September 2021
2214-157X/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Effect of burner-to-plate distance on heat transfer rate in a
domestic stove using LPG
Makatar Wae-hayee
a
,
*
, Kirttayoth Yeranee
a
,
b
, Wasu Suksuwan
c
,
Chayut Nuntadusit
a
a
Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90110, Thailand
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Songkhla, 90000, Thailand
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Combustion
Flame
LPG
Burner
Heat transfer
ABSTRACT
LPG is increasingly used in households as it is a clean and environmentally friendly energy source.
In this work, we experimentally tested the type of LPG burner used in Thailand. This work in-
vestigates the effect of varying the burner-to-plate distance on heat transfer from the ame
produced by LPG combustion. The burner model KB-5 was tested to evaluate the heat transfer rate
(Q) via a measuring plate heated directly from the burner. Flowing water was used to cool the
measuring plate. Moreover, the inlet and outlet temperatures were measured. The burner-to-plate
distance (H/d) was studied, with varying the ow rate of LPG. The results showed that the highest
heat transfer rate was found at higher burner-to-plate distances when the LPG ow rate increased.
In addition, the highest heat transfer rate occurred when the ame impinged on the heated
surface. In this work, the total ame length should impinge at a surface approximately 70% of its
length to get optimal results. The results of this work can be applied to optimize other types of
domestic stoves. Furthermore, this promising result helps households and small businesses save
costs on LPG stove fuel.
1. Introduction
Liqueed Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a type of fuel commonly utilized in households, industry, and transportation due to its favorable
properties, as shown in Table 1. Its use has many advantages, as it is a safe, convenient, and clean fuel, which produces low soot and
emissions that are completely combusted in use [1–3]. Because of these benets, LPG consumption is high. In 2014, consumption was
around 86,700 tons per day in the USA and about 28,700 tons per day in Japan. Meanwhile, in India, over 85% of the total household
fuel consumption is accounted for by LPG [4].
In Thailand, LPG use in households amounts to approximately 185,000 tons per month, and industrial use around 57,000 tons per
month [6]. In general, LPG consumption is rapidly growing. Although renewable biomethane has been introduced into the market
instead of LPG, its energy output and ame temperature are lower than those of LPG [7], which need to be further improved.
Therefore, studying how to burn LPG most efciently is crucial.
The combustion of fuels is a chemical reaction involving a fast interaction between fuel and oxygen from a source known as an
oxidizer, resulting in the release of heat and light [5]. In heating, melting, or quenching a target surface with a ame, the most widely
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wmakatar@eng.psu.ac.th (M. Wae-hayee).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2021.101418
Received 25 December 2020; Received in revised form 9 August 2021; Accepted 2 September 2021
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 28 (2021) 101418
2
used method applied is ame impingement. Many operating conditions affect heat transfer, the most effective being fuel type, oxidizer,
and ame type [7]. Fresh air is frequently used as the oxidizer in the ame impingement process since it contains 23.1% of the mass of
oxygen. The mass ow rate of the oxidizer must be sufcient for the fuel being fed into the combustion process to burn the fuel
completely. The key to complete combustion is the equivalence ratio (φ), which is dened based on the actual air–fuel ratio divided by
the air–fuel ratio from combustion theory. Complete combustion occurs at or near the stoichiometric condition, where φ =1 generates
the highest ame temperature [5]. However, in several experiments, the equivalence ratio has been found to vary between 0.65 ≤φ ≤
1.83. For instance, the maximum heat ux was found at φ =0.85 due to ow turbulence directly to the Reynolds number [8].
Moreover, it has been found that enhancing the Reynolds number and equivalence ratio produces higher thermal efciency [9,10].
Therefore, to optimize heat transfer, all these parameters must be considered.
As a result of combustion, a ame, which is the initial breakdown of fuel molecules occurring in the air, is produced. Flames can be
categorized into two main types: premixed ame [3] and diffusion ame [5]. In the premixed ame, the fuel and the oxidizer are mixed
before burning. The ame is stable and blue for its entire length, indicating complete combustion. On the other hand, in the diffusion
ame, the ame and oxidizer are separated before burning. In a third case, known as a partially premixed ame, the two basic types of
ames are combined to avoid ame ashback when the fuel-air ratio exceeds the rich ammable limitation [11].
In industrial combustion, diffusion ame burners are mainly used for safety reasons [12]. However, researchers are more interested
in studying premixed ames [9,13], which could be found in various domestic and industrial heating appliances. Multiple ame jets of
the burners generate a high heat transfer rate with uniform heat ux over a large surface area. The thermal performance of the burner
depends on the efciency of combustion and heat transfer mechanisms.
Various conguration parameters have been studied to enhance the thermal performance. Kuntikana and Prabhu [10] have shown
that the inline arrangement of the multiport plate burner has better thermal efciency; however, the staggered one gave a more
uniform surface heat ux. Moreover, increased burner-to-plate distance (H) lowered the thermal efciency due to the higher ambient
air entrainment [14]. Moreover, among the swirl angles of the burner ports, the inner port swirl angle of 10◦showed superior heat
transfer and thermal efciency. Furthermore, the results revealed that at higher swirl angles, the ame spread more due to the higher
tangential velocity and extra surrounding air entrained into the jet after combustion that diluted the combustion products [15]. In
short, the thermal performance of the burner can be maximized due to the optimal impinging ames.
Many studies have reported the characteristics of ames, that is, structure and color, to consider the combustion performance
[14–17]. The maximum heat was observed to occur near the ame cone tip. Moreover, the reduction of the heat ux was found when a
cool central core ame and the unburnt cold mixture were in contact at the impinging point. The peak heat ux was also observed at
the stagnation point close to the ame reaction zone [16].
The characteristics of the partially premixed ame, including ow and heat transfer, have also been explored. Beygi-Khosroshahi
et al. [18] have used the Mach–Zehnder interferometry to compare heat transfer characteristics between premixed and partially
premixed ame jets. The results showed that partially premixed ame jet provided better heat transfer characteristics and higher ame
temperature than the premixed ame. Therefore, it was deduced that secondary air in the partially premixed ame pushes the fringe
pattern toward the impingement wall, increasing heat transfer. Zhen et al. [19] have reported that the partially premixed ame has
twelve ame patterns, with the W-shaped ame having a favorable structure for higher energy usage efciency. Since the ame is
attened, its cool core is minimized and the temperature is increased by ame interaction.
Recently, Raj et al. have intensively investigated a partially premixed ame from a single impinging jet using methane as the fuel
[20]. The ame temperatures from a free jet and an impinging jet were measured at various Reynolds numbers (Re) and burner-to-plate
distances (H). Fig. 1 shows the results of the partially premixed ame temperature contour of the free jet, the impinging jet at H/d =6
and H/d =10, studied by Ref. [20]. In free jets, the highest ame temperature was 20%–55% of the total ame length, as illustrated in
Fig. 1(a). However, in impinging jets, the highest temperature was found at the stagnation point at both burner-to-plate distances, as
shown in Fig. 1(b) and (c).
Many researchers have frequently investigated domestic cooking stoves, which usually provide a partially premixed ame [12], to
enhance heat transfer rates and performance. In particular, the combustion of natural gases, such as methane or propane (LPG), mixed
with ambient air in stoves has often been examined [3,11,21,23].
In households, restaurants, or small enterprises in Thailand, domestic stoves incorporating model KB-5 burners are often used for
cooking or heating [24,25], although many studies have found that swirl burners provide higher thermal efciency and lower CO
2
emissions [22,26,27]. Besides, although several types of domestic stoves have been developed, such as infrared burners or
stainless-steel turbo burners [28], they are not widely used due to their high cost and operation and duration of use limitations. Thus,
the traditional burner, KB-5, is still widely utilized in households and small enterprises [24,25,28].
The fuel used in the KB-5 burner is LPG, and the oxidizer is the surrounding air. Generally, the aming zone consists of two circular
mixer outlets known as the rst and second round outlets, although as many as four round outlets can be found in some types. In this
Table 1
LPG properties overview [5].
Stoichiometric ratio (air–fuel ratio) 15.5:1 by mass, 23.9:1 by volume
Low heating value (LHV) 28.06 MJ/L
Utilized phase Vapor
Flame propagation speed 0.5 m/s
Autoignition temperature 405–407 ◦C
M. Wae-hayee et al.
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 28 (2021) 101418
3
type of burner, the oxidizer is mixed automatically by capturing ambient air through the entrainment effect. The compressed LPG is
injected into the burner, dragging the surrounding air into the primary air inlet at its throat, at which the air volume can be adjusted
using the air control valve. The LPG and the air are mixed in the throat of the burner. The mixture discharges equally through each
nozzle of the round mixers. Subsequently, when the mixture is ignited, ambient air under the secondary air hole (secondary air) is
induced into the ame since it has a lower temperature, which produces a partially premixed ame.
The ame is used to heat a surface directly for cooking or heating with this burner or related products. Many factors are related to
the stove geometry, which govern the heat transfer rate, such as adjusting the direction and the number of the inner and outer ports
[24,25] or modifying the shape of the burner or the material from which it is cast [29]. However, the most crucial factor, which has
been widely investigated, is the burner-to-plate distance (H) [9,22,30], since the temperature is at its maximum when the core of the
ame touches the surface [20]. In the case of a small distance, the ame issued from the stove impinges quickly on the surface,
resulting in improper mixing with the ambient air and, in turn, a low heat transfer rate. In contrast, in the case of a great distance, the
ame cannot reach the surface, and the ame is over mixed with the surrounding air [7,31,34].
Nonetheless, most previous investigations have only focused on a single tube burner or a single impinging ame jet. Moreover, the
literature has little data in terms of actual usage. Therefore, this research aims to experimentally study the effect of the burner-to-plate
Fig. 1. Temperature contours of partially premixed ame: (a) free jet, (b) impinging jet at H/d =6, and (c) impinging jet at H/d =10 [20].
Fig. 2. Design of experimental apparatus.
M. Wae-hayee et al.
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 28 (2021) 101418
4
distance on heat transfer from the ame from LPG combustion. A household stove with a model KB-5 burner was used in the inves-
tigation. This work aims to optimize the parameters. The burner-to-plate distance (H) was varied, and the ow rate of LPG ( ˙
m
LPG
) was
regulated in a range of 1.5–5.5 g/min, which are the ow rates usually used in stoves in households and small enterprises. Moreover,
the length of ame that provided the highest temperature was determined. The results of this experiment can be applied to optimize
other types of domestic stoves, which will signicantly reduce costs by minimizing fuel use in LPG combustion systems.
2. Methodology
2.1. Experimental apparatus
The experimental design, which was applied to measure the heat transfer rate from the stove using LPG as the fuel supply, is
demonstrated in Fig. 2. The ow pressure of the LPG was controlled using a pressure regulator. Then, the LPG passed through a
calibrated rotameter to measure the gas ow rate ( ˙
m
LPG
). The LPG owed out from the burner’s head, and the gas was ignited to heat a
measuring plate.
The head for the model KB-5 burner consisted of two round mixer outlets, as shown in Fig. 2. The rst round mixer outlet had a
diameter of 6.2 cm and included 12 nozzles at an angle of 50◦horizontally, whereas the second round mixer outlet had a diameter 10.3
cm and included 36 nozzles at an angle of 50◦. Moreover, the direction of the nozzles (
α
) in the two outlets were opposed. All the
nozzles had the same inner diameter (d) of 1.0 mm, and they were arranged equidistantly around the mixer outlets.
From the abovementioned parameters, the Reynolds number at the burner exit can be evaluated from the following equation [15,
35]:
Re =
ρ
mixVmix dp
μ
mix
=
4˙mLPG(1+ (A/F))
π
dp
μ
mix
,(1)
where
ρ
mix is the mixture density (kg/m
3
), Vmix is the velocity (m/s), dp is the port diameter (m),
μ
mix is the dynamic viscosity of mixture
(kg/(m/s)), ˙
mLPG is the mass ow rate of the LPG (kg/s), and A/F is the air–fuel ratio. The values of A/F, dp, and
μ
mix are set as 0.239,
0.48 m, 8.29 kg/(m/s), while ˙
mLPG are varied at 1.5, 4.0, and 5.5 g/min, respectively [36].
The parameters are calculated only on the basis of the primary air entrainment since we assumed that the second stage of air
entrainment is minimal compared to the primary one. The quantication of the secondary entrainment is only possible with PIV
(Particle image velocimetry) and exhaust gas analysis [15].
The measuring plate was fabricated from two square metal molds, with the same area of 25.4 cm ×25.4 cm. The lower plate was 6
mm thick, and seven small 5 mm deep holes were drilled to insert Type T Thermocouple Probes. The positions are shown in Fig. 2.
Then, this plate was heated directly by the ame from the burner, and the thermocouple probes were used to measure the ame
temperature, recorded by a data logger. The measuring temperature recorded by the probes can be reasonably treated as the surface
temperature of the heated surface since the distance between the heated surface and the probes was very small (1 mm).
Meanwhile, the upper plate was 12.5 mm thick, and a spiral channel was stamped into it, in which water owed smoothly. The
lower and upper plates were tightly fastened together and insulated by wooden slats on the top and at the four sides. The inlet and
outlet water temperatures were also recorded using the data logger to measure the heat transfer rate.
2.2. Heat transfer measurement
In this study, the controlled inlet water temperature at 30 ◦C was pumped onto the top plate at a rate of 0.0417 kg/min. The water
owed around the spiral path while the burner directly heated the lower measuring plate. When the system stabilized, the data logger
was used to record the inlet and outlet water temperatures and the temperatures detected by each of the thermocouple probes.
As the system was fully insulated, heat losses at the top and the four sides were ignored. The heat loss by radiation was also ignored
for the lower surface since the ame temperature was undoubtedly higher than the temperature at the heated surface. Based on the
energy balance when the system reached a steady state, the heat transfer rate was then calculated using the equation:
˙
Q=˙mcp(ΔT) = ˙mcp(Tout −Tin ),(2)
where ˙
m is the mass ow rate of water (kg/s), cp is the isobaric heat capacity of the water (kJ/kg K), and Tin and Tout are the inlet and
outlet water temperatures, respectively.
In this study, ambient air was used as the oxidizer to create a partially premixed ame. Its ow rate was kept constant by xing the
space between the adjusting valve to the air inlet at 4.0 mm, while the burner-to-plate distance (H/d) and Reynolds number (Re) were
Table 2
Details of the experimental parameters.
Parameters Variable
Burner-to-plate distance H/d=5, 15, 25, 35, and 45
Reynolds number Re =100, 266, and 366 ( ˙
m
LPG
=1.5, 4.0, and 5.5 g/min)
M. Wae-hayee et al.
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 28 (2021) 101418
5
varied as shown in Table 2 to optimize the heat transfer. Finally, a digital camera was used to capture the ame behavior for analysis.
2.3. Uncertainty
Generally, research concerning a ame-impinging jet has focused on uncertainties in the Reynolds number, the equivalence ratio,
the Nusselt number, and the thermal efciency [13,15,18,20]. In this experiment, the uncertainty in the heat transfer rate (Q) was
evaluated using the method proposed by Moffat [37]. For all the parameters, the uncertainties were in a similar range to those
reported.
3. Results and discussion
The temperature distribution at the measuring plate for all cases was maximized at point no. 1, while for the second round mixer
outlet, the peak was found at point nos. 4, 5, or 6, depending on the gas ow rate. This was due to the effect the oblique angle of the
nozzles on ame behavior, which led to shifting the location of the stagnation point to the uphill side of the ame jet [7,14], as shown
in the simplied diagram in Fig. 3.
The ame behavior captured by the digital camera and the temperatures recorded at each thermocouple position in the measuring
plate are shown in Figs. 4–7 for the cases of H/d =5, 15, 25, and 45, respectively. In each gure, the dashed lines represent the lower
edge of the measuring plate, and the points numbered 1 to 7 indicate the positions at which the thermocouple probes were inserted.
At the lowest LPG ow rate (Re =100) and with narrow burner-to-plate distances (H/d =5 and H/d =15) as shown in Figs. 4(a)
and 5(a), respectively, the ame issued from the burner impinged on the measuring plate and immediately spread across it. At the same
ow rate, when the distance was larger (H/d =25 as shown in Fig. 6(a)), some ame envelopes reached the measuring plate but did not
continuously spread on the surface. However, the ame did not even touch the measuring plate at the widest distance (H/d =45 as
Fig. 7(a)). Hence, the lowest heat transfer rate (Re =100) was found in this case.
With higher LPG ow rates (Re =266 and Re =366), the ame behavior was as described above. Still, the ame area after
impinging on the plate (the wall jet region) was larger with the highest gas ow rate (Re =366), especially with the narrow burner-to-
plate distance. However, at Re =366, the narrowest distance (H/d =5), as shown in Fig. 4(c), produced a wall jet area smaller than that
in the case of H/d =15, as shown in Fig. 5(c), because, in the case of the narrowest distance (H/d =5), the LPG/air mixture exiting the
outlets did not mix properly with the ambient air before heating the measuring plate.
The ame behavior at a burner-to-plate distance of H/d =5 is shown in Fig. 4. At all LPG ow rates, the temperatures were highest
at point no. 1 and peaked again at point no. 6. The temperatures at all ow rates were comparable since there was less mixing with
ambient air before burning. However, when the burner-to-plate distance was increased to H/d =15, as depicted in Fig. 5, at Re =100,
the temperature was very high at point no. 4 since the ame impinged directly at this position. Fig. 5 shows that for both Re =266 and
Re =366, temperature peaks were found at point no. 5 because there was low mixing with the surrounding air before burning, which
was similar to the result found for H/d =5.
These results suggest that the heat transfer rate depends signicantly on the LPG ow rate and the burner-to-plate distance.
Furthermore, the lowest burner-to-plate distance does not always result in the highest temperature, as has been found in several
previous studies [9,20,30]. Therefore, to optimize the temperature, the LPG ow rate should be set at an appropriate burner-to-plate
distance when a stove is used to heat a at surface [20,38].
In the case of H/d =25, as in Fig. 6, at all LPG ow rates, temperature peaks were observed at point no. 1 and 5 since the ame
impinged directly at both these positions. It was also clear that at Re =100, the temperature gradually declined with increasing burner-
to-plate distance, although at point no. 5, the temperature showed a slight increase. For Re =266 and Re =366, between point nos. 1
Fig. 3. The effect of the oblique angle of the nozzles on ame behavior.
M. Wae-hayee et al.
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 28 (2021) 101418
6
and 4, the temperature was similar; however, between points no. 5 and 6, the temperature rose sharply. Further, at this H/d, the
temperatures recorded at Re =366 were dramatically higher than those for Re =266. In all cases, the temperature rapidly decreased
after point no. 6, conrming that the hottest region from the ame could be found at the end of the inner cone [12,20].
Since the results at H/d =35 and H/d =45 are almost identical, the data at H/d =45 are only selected and are shown in Fig. 7. The
temperature increased at all positions with increases in the LPG ow rate. The temperature also showed a notable peak between points
no. 5 and 6. However, the peak was lower when the burner-to-plate distance was widened at H/d =45. It is noticeable that overall, the
Fig. 4. Flame behavior and temperatures at the measuring plate for H/d =5.
Fig. 5. Flame behavior and temperatures at the measuring plate for H/d =15.
Fig. 6. Flame behavior and temperature at the measuring plate for H/d =25.
M. Wae-hayee et al.
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 28 (2021) 101418
7
temperatures gradually decrease, suggesting that the heat transfer rate was also low, especially at the largest distance (H/d =45).
The heat transfer rate calculated from Eq. (2) is shown in Fig. 8. Basically, at short burner-to-plate distances (H/d =15) and a low
LPG ow rate (Re =100), the heat transfer was high because there were less air entrainment and less ame expansion. In contrast,
signicant air entrainment into the ame occurred at large distances, causing a decline in the ame temperature and heat transfer on
the surface of the measuring plate. However, at Re =266, the highest heat transfer was found at H/d =25, while at Re =366, the
highest was observed at H/d =35. Both cases showed a sharp rise in heat transfer compared to that at H/d =15. The ame impinged
immediately on the surface at this position, and there was insufcient mixing with the oxidizer resulting in a low heat transfer rate.
Overall, the highest heat transfer rate shifted with an increasing LPG ow rate ( ˙
m
LPG
), a trend illustrated in Fig. 8. Moreover, the
highest heat transfer rate was observed when the core of the ame just reached the surface [20]. Although the normal ame jet
impingement provides a better heat transfer rate than the oblique ame due to the high heat transfer at stagnation point [14], the
secondary air in the partially premixed ame pushes the oblique ames toward the impingement wall, increasing the heat transfer
[18]. Since the ame is attened, the temperature was also increased by ame interaction [19]. Hence, in this work, to obtain the
highest heat transfer, the total ame length should impinge at the surface approximately 70% of its length [20]. Overall, in all cases,
after passing that position, the heat transfer rates decreased monotonically.
4. Conclusion
In this study, the effect of the burner-to-plate distance in a domestic LPG burner, model KB-5, on the heat transfer rate was
experimentally investigated in order to establish the highest heat transfer rate. The burner-to-plate distance (H/d) and Reynolds
number (Re) were varied, while ambient air was used as an oxidizer to create a partially premixed ame. The main results can be
briey summarized as follows:
1. The ame behavior showed temperature peaks at the two points, at which the nozzles caused the ame jet to impinge directly.
2. The highest heat transfer rate was found at Re =366 with the H/d between 25 and 35, while the optimum was at H/d =25 for Re =
266 and at H/d =15 for Re =266.
3. Based on observing the ame behavior, the highest heat transfer rate was found where the core of the ame just reached the
surface. In this work, to obtain the optimal results, the total ame length should reach the surface at approximately 70% of its
length.
By optimizing these parameters, LPG used in domestic stoves can be utilized more economically, allowing households and small
enterprises to reduce their fuel costs.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Makatar Wae-hayee: Conceptualization, Project administration, Methodology, Editing. Kirttayoth Yeranee: Writing – review &
editing, Formal analysis. Wasu Suksuwan: Investigation, Data curation. Chayut Nuntadusit: Writing – review & editing,
Supervision.
Fig. 7. Flame behavior and temperatures at the measuring plate for H/d =45.
M. Wae-hayee et al.
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 28 (2021) 101418
8
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
inuence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported nancially by the Energy Policy and Planning Ofce (EPPO, Ministry of Energy, Thailand, Grant No.
EE-PSU-59-02. We also thank Mr.Michael Guy Currie for proofreading the rst draft manuscript via the publication service of the
Research and Development Ofce (RDO), PSU. The nal version of this manuscript was proofread by Rasayely–the manuscript
proofreading service.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2021.101418.
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