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DEVELOPING SANDWICH PANELS WITH A MID-LAYER OF FUNGAL
MYCELIUM COMPOSITE FOR A TIMBER PANEL CONSTRUCTION SYS-
TEM
Dana Saez, Denis Grizmann
1
, Martin Trautz
1
, Anett Werner
2
ABSTRACT: The demand for bio-based materials in the construction industry has increased, leading to a more sustain-
able built environment. In this context, fungal mycelium composites could play a crucial role, but their use as a statically
effective material poses a challenge due to their comparatively low strength. This paper proposes the production of novel
sandwich elements with a mycelium-based core. The mycelium layer acts as an insulate and statically effective material
due to the continuous bonding of the stiff wood face sheets. The use of the sandwich panels in a wood frame construction
system creates a suitable application of mycelium-based materials as structural components in timber construction.
KEYWORDS:
Fungal
m
ycelium,
b
iocomposites,
sandwich panels,
timber
frame construction
system
1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution and large amounts of unusable
waste produced by the construction industry have greatly
spurred the investigation of alternative biodegradable ma-
terials [1]. In this context, fungal mycelium composites
have recently emerged as a suitable material that, like
mortar or concrete, can be formed into any shape before it
turns into a hard substance after denaturation [2]. Fungal
mycelium serves as the basis for numerous products, such
as packaging materials, panels for acoustic conditioning,
and leather-like materials [3].
In the construction industry, applications of fungal myce-
lium are still limited. Nevertheless, it has been used in
several experimental projects, including temporary build-
ings like the Hy-Fi Tower, MoMA's PS1, 2014 [4], and
the 'The Growing Pavilion,' DDW 2019 [5].
Our previous research presented our first material proper-
ties results on brick-like prototypes [6], [7]. Since the me-
chanical properties of the composite material are compa-
rably weak, it is necessary to optimize its structural be-
havior on the one hand and derive suitable applications for
the use of fungal-based materials in the building industry
on the other. Therefore, our recent work has focused on
the optimization processes of growing and handling fun-
gal mycelium to manufacture building components.
Moreover, our team conducted a series of experiments on
sandwich-like prototypes composed of two stiff face
sheets, spruce wood, and a mid-layer, fungal mycelium
composite.
The experimental work presented here provides one of the
first investigations into incorporating mycelium-based
sandwich panels into traditional timber panel construction
systems. Although this research is still in its initial stage,
it represents a great advantage to the after use of the ma-
terials on a second life cycle due to the mycelium-core
properties: natural binding and composting. The binding
capacity allows the absence of harmful additives to bond
the multilayer structural system and, the composting
makes the core 100% cradle-to-cradle. Furthermore, alt-
hough only ready-made wood chips were used within this
research, mycelium also allows the use of old wood and
leftovers of the carpentry industry. Consequently, due to
the difficulties of separating the bonded materials back
into their constituent parts, synthetic sandwich panels of-
fer poor end-of-life alternatives in contrast with the object
of study of this paper [8]. The aspects considered present
sandwich panels with a mycelium-based core as a con-
struction material as a potential ally for the circular econ-
omy.
2 MYCELIUM-BASED COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
2.1 THE MycoMatrix PROJECT
a b
c d
Figure 1: a) brick developed for the Limy-Brick project; b)
bonding wall; c) sandwich with mycelium core, and d) single
element for bonding wall developed for the MycoMatrix project
To date, many studies review the potential use of myce-
lium-based material in construction [9], [10], where most
of the projects focus on fundamental research of physical
and mechanical properties. Limy-Brick [Fig.1a], our pre-
vious research project, investigated the mechanical prop-
erties of the material and its potential application as
masonry. MycoMatrix, our ongoing research project, in-
vestigates not only the mechanical and physical properties
of the Material [7] but also its binding property, which al-
lows novel applications to traditional construction sys-
tems.
Figures 1a, b, and c display a collection of prototypes en-
hanced by the binding capacity of mycelium. A single el-
ement for bonding wall [Fig. 1d] is showed as part of the
bonding wall system in Figure 1b, where the assembly
principle is based on the further growth of mycelium. This
first series of specimens was based on the assembly be-
tween parts of the same material. The sandwich with my-
celium core specimen in Figure 1c aims to investigate the
binding capacity of the mycelium composite with a differ-
ent material: wood plates. We should highlight here
that Ganoderma Lucidum, a wood-growing fungus, di-
rectly influenced the use of wood as stiff face sheets.
Due to the success of the experiments but the radically
different nature of both of them, this research team de-
cided to conduct parallel investigations on both bonding
systems. The latter is described in this paper.
2.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The mycelium-based composites are a conglomerate con-
sisting of a mycelium meshwork and lignocellulosic sub-
strate. The latter also serves as a nutrient for the mycelium
that builds a structure of intertwined and partly bonded
mycelium threads.
In our case, the implemented substrate consists of wood
chips in two different geometries, coarse and fine, respec-
tively. The substrate is first sterilized by autoclaving or
irradiation with gamma rays to exclude other organisms
from growth. Then, it is inoculated with a preculture and
put in any formwork where it may "grow" under specific
climatic parameters (temperature about 25°C and humid-
ity of 80–90%). During the growing process, the myce-
lium transforms into a composite matrix material together
with the substrate and fills the predefined form over time.
The growing process is stopped by denaturation with heat
(ca. 80°C) and the body consisting of mycelial filaments
and substrate residues. There is moisture loss during the
denaturation process (up to 50% of weight, depending on
the geometry) and shrinkage, which could be critical for
manufacturing building components.
This research is not seeking to show an exhaustive study
on each step of the manufacturing process but to focus and
deploy the last two: growth and denaturation [Fig. 2].
Sandwich panels with mycelium-based core are manufac-
tured through the growing process under specific condi-
tions further developed on 3.3.
2.3 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF MYCE-
LIUM COMPOSITES
The structural behavior of fungal mycelium composites
depends on many influencing factors. The first factor is
the diversity of fungal mycelium covering a wide range of
fungi with structurally different mycelia. This diversity
leads fungal mycelium to varying reactions in combina-
tion with different substrates. For the presented work, we
used Ganoderma lucidum in combination with chipped
beech wood substrate. The second factor is the formwork
geometry/oxygenation ratio. The latter can directly influ-
ence the substrate's mixture, the filling density, and grow-
ing time.
a
b1
c
b2
Figure 3: mechanical testing of the mycelium compo-
site only: a) compression, b1)
&
b2)
bending, c) shear.
The influence of the latter two factors (filling density and
growing time) is shown exemplarily on the compression
strength of the mycelium composite material in figure 2.
2.4 COMPRESSION STRENGTH
Compression tests were conducted on cylindrical speci-
mens Z1 (d=4,6 cm; h=6,9 cm) and Z2 (d=7 cm; h=10,5
cm) under DIN-EN 826:2013 specifications. For each
test, the force-displacement curve was recorded, and sub-
sequently, the stress-strain curve was calculated from it.
When interpreting the data, it should be noted that a max-
imum of three test specimens was available for each test,
and the data are therefore only intended as a guide. The
material has a low modulus of elasticity, which is associ-
ated with high deformations under force. Consequently,
following DIN-EN 826:2013, the compressive strength is
Figure 2: top to bottom: 1) manufacturing process steps
(material selection, homogenization, sterilization, inoc-
ulation, growth, denaturation); 2) specificities on the
sandwich elements manufacturing; 3) testing of me-
chanical and physical properties; 4) evaluation.
given at an elongation of 10% of the specimen geometry.
Figure 3 and 4 indicates that the strength of the specimens
could be increased to 0.41 N/mm² by optimizing the bio-
processing parameters. Compared to the value before op-
timization, this corresponds to an increase of 150%. Nev-
ertheless, further strength optimization is possible through
higher pressing during the filling process or after cultiva-
tion. The latter should be investigated further.
Figure 4: compression strength of cylindrical specimens (Z1, d
= 4,5mm, h=7cm) in dependency of filling density and growing
time.
As it is foreseen to use the mycelium composite as a mid-
layer of sandwich elements, the diagram also shows the
range of compression strength of polystyrene foam, which
is widely used as mid-layer material in sandwich struc-
tures. The comparison shows that the strength values of
the mycelium composite are in a similar range to these
materials. Nevertheless, with further optimization of the
biotechnical and growing parameters, the material prop-
erties can be increased.
2.5 BENDING STRENGTH
First bending tests were carried out on rectangular speci-
mens through a three-point bending test according to DIN
EN 12089:2013 [Figure 3: b1, b2]. The test consisted of
two series of three samples with different filling densities
(0.5 g/cm² and 0.6 g/cm³). The dimension was selected
under DIN EN (24cm x 12cm x 6cm), and the cultivation
time took four weeks.
Figure 5:
force-displacement curves of bending tests with
specimens with filling density 0,5 g/cm³ (black), 0,6 g/cm³
(red)
Compared to the compression strength results, the materi-
al's bending strength also depends on the filling density.
As a result, the test specimens with higher density show a
higher stiffness and maximum measured force. All sam-
ples showed a brittle fracture behavior with failure due to
cracking at the bottom in the middle of the specimens, the
location with the most elevated bending stress. Depending
on the filling density, the results show a maximum Force
of 123 N in the mean for the lower density and a value of
173 N for the higher density, respectively. The resulting
calculated bending strengths of the specimens are thus
0,11 N/mm² and 0,16 N/mm². Compared to the results of
the compression tests, the samples for the bending tests
show lower standard deviations.
2.6 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
This research does not intend to elaborate on the physical
capabilities of the material. However, because of its sig-
nificant porosity, we could not ignore its thermal conduc-
tivity. The latter was determined by assessing the lambda
value according to DIN EN 12667. Here, a temperature-
dependent behavior with values of Lambda = 0.070
W/mK at room temperature (23°C) and Lambda = 0.062
W/mK at 40° C were measured. This range is typical for
insulation materials and slightly above the Lambda values
of wood-based insulation materials such as wood fiber in-
sulation boards.
3 SANDWICH PANELS
3.1 TRADITIONAL USE IN CONSTRUCTION
Sandwich panels are composed of two stiff face sheets
bonded by a lightweight core. We can find many typolo-
gies such as foam, honeycomb, web, or truss cores, where
foam cores are the most common application for construc-
tion in the form of light roof and wall panels. Their high
stiffness-to-weight ratio presents them as a versatile,
lightweight material with thermal and acoustic insulation
properties [11]. The layer-wise also allows specific engi-
neering of mechanical, thermal, and physical properties.
In the construction industry, sandwich panels have a long
tradition applied as building envelopes [12]. The market
also offers various stiff face sheets like metal, wood, or
fiber-reinforced concrete, where metal sandwich panels
are the most popular for industrial applications. Our re-
search focuses on developing wood stiff face sheets with
mycelium-based core since most of the companies offer a
wide variety of wood but single or scarce core material
solutions [13]. Among core materials, the use of high-den-
sity extruded polystyrene foam is highly extended due to
its lightweight, acoustic, and thermal insulation proper-
ties. Therefore, replacing oil-based core materials with
mycelium-based ones presents a chance to integrate wood
sandwich panels into the circular economy [1].
3.2 MYCELIUM-CORED SANDWICH PANELS
The core performs several critical functions. It must be
stiff enough in the orthogonal direction to the faces to
maintain the proper space between them. It must be strong
enough in shear to prevent the faces from sliding over
each other when the panel is bent. If this last criterion is
not met, the faces will act as two separate beams or panels,
and the sandwich effect will be lost properties [11]. The
mycelium-core bonds the substrate elements to one an-
other and grows into the wood surface, creating bonding
between these plates. In this way, sandwich elements with
a continuous bond can be produced. Within several test
series, we developed a process to make sandwich ele-
ments with a mid-layer of fungal mycelium composite
that does not require any other binding substance.
Preliminary work on sandwich structures with mycelium-
based core was undertaken by Jiang et al. [14], [15], [16]
investigating laminated face sheets of natural fiber textiles
as jute, hemp, cellulose; a mycelium-based core; and bio-
resin matrix. In contrast with our proposal, the developed
prototypes do not include stiff face sheets; their faces are
produced by laminating the textile sheets with natural
resin increasing their stiffness. The outer sheets are rein-
forced at the end of the manufacturing process. The latter
also differs since it includes thermal pressing and air dry-
ing to inactivate mycelium growth. Furthermore, the case
study, a sole of an outdoor sandal made as a sandwich,
does not seem to consider applying the material in con-
struction elements.
Another similar study conducted by Ziegler et al. [17] in-
vestigates the physical and mechanical properties of the
mycelium-based biodegradable bio-composite material
made using a single woven cotton mat and hemp pith. As
exposed by the authors, the application of the studied ma-
terial is considered for suitability in packaging only.
Finally, although this research team could not verify the
liability of the source, we should mention the "Tiny house
project" by the company Ecovative [18] [19]. The project
proposed the use of a mycelium-based composite as ex-
perimental insulation for a tiny wood house. The myce-
lium insulation grows in a sandwich-like formwork made
of pine tongue and groove boards, proving an air-tight
seal.
Non-conclusive information about wood sterilization with
hydrogen peroxide, growth-homogeneity ratio, and dena-
turation process was discovered after examining the "My-
celium tiny house" project. Due to these gaps and the in-
formal nature of the project report, our team considered
the necessity of taking our investigation further.
3.3 DEVELOPMENT
We conducted a series of small-scale tests on a prelimi-
nary stage to investigate if the mycelial core could serve
as a bond between two wood panels. For this purpose, dif-
ferent wood and wood-based panels were investigated,
namely spruce solid wood, chipboard, MDF, and poplar
plywood [Fig. 6]. The findings of this phase of the exper-
iment showed that growth is strongly dependent on the
choice of panel material. Similar to the experience of us-
ing plastic formwork, the sterility of the surfaces in con-
tact with the mycelium composite plays an essential role
during the growing process. Albeit all the panels were
sprayed with ethanol to sterilize the surfaces, contamina-
tion interrupted the cultivation process at an early stage.
Among the contaminating agents, we found other external
fungi that challenged the growth of Ganoderma Lucidum.
1a
1b
2a
2b
3a
3b
4a
4b
Figure 6: exploratory phase of sandwich elements. 1a, 1b:
spruce solid wood; 2a, 2b: chipboard; 3a, 3b: MDF; 4a, 4b:
poplar plywood.
In other test specimens, while the substrate material re-
quired autoclaving, disinfection with ethanol was suffi-
cient to sterilize the formworks. However, as shown in
Figure 6, this does not apply to surfaces of wood-based
panels with a high glue content. The manufactured test
specimens from chipboard, MDF, and Plywood led, in all
cases, to contamination and thereby a conclusion of the
mycelium growth. Since the chipboard and MDF speci-
mens (2a, 2b, 3a, and 3b) presented much more contami-
nation evidence than plywood, we could also conclude
that the contamination spots of 4b and 4c were caused by
contamination inside the incubator.
Furthermore, a sufficient supply of oxygen must be en-
sured. Due to the concealed surfaces by the panels of the
sandwich elements, oxygen could be consequently pro-
vided only by the short sides of the test specimens. Alt-
hough the oxygen supply did not represent an obstacle to
the manufacturing of small-scale tests, it required a com-
plex formwork design for the real-scale sandwich sample.
Figure 7 shows (in blue) the complex formwork develop-
ment for the sandwich elements manufacturing. Here is
essential to highlight that even though the specimen is on
scale 1:1, it was escalated in axis Y due to denaturation
requirements. The denaturation possibilities should also
consider the latter by optimal use of the standard-size
plates in the future.
The complex formwork ensured the growing process,
thanks to the sufficient perforation of the outer formwork
surfaces, which provided an adequate oxygen supply. In
this case, the oxygen supply follows the same logic of the
small-scale test specimens by delivering oxygen in the
short sides of the panels. Nevertheless, we assume a nat-
ural limit to the thickness of the mycelium core concern-
ing the middle point (X, Y, Z) of the sandwich sample.
Figure 7: formwork(blue) for sandwichpanel(black): a1), a2): perfo-
rated coated plywood;a3: coated plywood; b1, b2: perforated
styrofoam; b.3: styrodoam; c.1, c.2, c.3: Parafilm [20]
Figure 8 shows the final prototype of a sandwich element
with three-layer plywood spruce panels (2 cm thickness)
as stiff face sheets. The dimension of the panels is 32 x 30
cm with an 8 cm thick mycelium core between the wood
sheets. The arrangement of the wood sheets is projected
outside the mycelium core allowing vertical stacking of
the elements on the timber frame. The prototype demon-
strates the feasibility of producing sandwich panels with
mycelium core.
Figure 8: Foto documentation of a prototype of sandwich pan-
els with a fungal mycelium core. Scale 1:1 but reduced in the Y
axis
Further, we observed that the mycelium composite loses
a high amount of water during the denaturation process,
resulting in a significant shrinkage. Depending on the fill-
ing density and volume of the geometry, a 15% shrinkage
was observed compared to the prototype's dimension be-
fore denaturation. The latter could cause high stresses in
the contact surfaces between the mycelium-core and the
wooden plates since it has a low shrinkage ratio. These
stresses can destroy the bonding during the denaturation
process. This phenomenon was observed on the small-
scale samples described on point 3.3, where the contact
surface between mycelium-core and plate was identical.
Although no detachment of the sandwich parts was ob-
served in the prototype, shrinking must be considered in
the designing process.
4 TIMBER PANEL CONSTRUCTION
SYSTEM WITH FUNGAL MYCELIUM
SANDWICH PANELS
4.1 TRADITIONAL TIMBER FRAME CON-
STRUCTION SYSTEMS
Timber frame construction systems are a widely used con-
struction method for wall and ceiling elements. The ad-
vantages of low deadweight and a high degree of indus-
trial prefabrication make timber frame constructions his-
torically the leader among residential and commercial
buildings in the USA and Canada. Since the end of the
1970s, timber frame constructions have also found ap-
proval in Germany and Europe. It has mainly been estab-
lished for residential buildings by adapting to regional re-
quirements, where timber construction now has a market
share of around 15% [21]. The system consists of a frame
made of solid wooden profiles covered by stiff elements
such as wood or gypsum panels. As a result, the frame
takes over the vertical load transfer, while the panels pro-
vide the stiffening of the frame and thus creates a horizon-
tal load-bearing capacity. Pin-shaped fasteners like nails
or staples connect the sheets to the frame creating a con-
tinuous bond. The space between the panels is filled in
with thermal and acoustic insulating materials like min-
eral wool.
4.2 INTEGRATION
As an application of the sandwich panels, the authors pro-
pose a novel timber frame construction system. First,
comparable to conventional timber frame constructions,
the wood and mycelium-based sandwich elements can be
placed on a frame structure of solid wood profiles. Then,
as mentioned before, the components can be stacked ver-
tically between the frame-studs [Fig. 10.a] and finally
connected to them with pin-shaped fasteners [Fig. 9]. In
this case, the continuous static bond of the elements will
not only be given by the pin-shaped fasteners but, it can
also be assumed that the mycelium-based composite core
will impact the horizontal load-bearing capacity.
It is significant to note that the hydrophobic property of
Ganoderma Lucidum makes the selected fungi an excel-
lent choice for its use in construction since it does not re-
quire post-treatment to prevent humidification [7].
The width of each sandwich panel corresponds not only
to the distance between two frame-studs but also to the
manufacturing process. It is reasonable to suppose that us-
ing the whole width of conventional wood plates would
save time during construction. Nevertheless, this cannot
be considered regarding oxygen requirements in the man-
ufacturing process. In this regard, the size of the denatur-
ation facilities may be problematic. As shown in Figure 9,
a variation in the long size was contemplated, namely ½
Sandwich plate and 1/3 sandwich plate. The panels' even-
tual size reduction could also facilitate the manipulation
during prefabrication and reduce maintenance costs in
case of need of repair.
Figure 9: schematic illustration of timber frame construction
system with sandwich panels.
The boards used in the prototype for planking are less stiff
than the OSB boards used in traditional timber frame con-
struction systems. However, this material property repre-
sents a disadvantage; thus, further development of the stiff
face elements is necessary.
Figure 10: a) stacking of mycelium-based sandwich panels on
timber frame construction, b) mycelium-based sandwich panels
as wall, c) mycelium-based sandwich panels as ceiling.
The use of the sandwich panels is also conceivable in ceil-
ing construction systems [Fig. 10.c]. As a ceiling panel,
the mycelium core would transfer shear stresses. In this
case, the stress transfer through the mycelium core is fa-
vorable since it could replace a high wood section com-
pared to the use of solid plates, e.g., CLT.
The presented system offers a possibility to integrate the
manufactured sandwich elements into a load-bearing
structure. This concept opens up several novel possibili-
ties to be investigated further.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The presented work describes the development of sand-
wich elements with a fungal mycelium composite core
and proposes its use in a timber frame construction sys-
tem. Although further research on typical failure modes of
sandwich panels such as global buckling, wrinkling, local
instabilities, and face-core debonding is needed, the pro-
totype demonstrates its feasibility. Producing sandwich
panels with a continuous bond and geometry is relevant
for the described system. Due to the enduring bond of the
layered panels and the insulating properties of the myce-
lium material, the presented building system appears to be
a promising extension for timber construction. From a
technical point of view, the envisaged sandwich wall and
ceiling elements thus combine several favorable prop-
ertsies, which are: lightweight construction and energy
consumption, thermal insulation, especially with sides ex-
posed to different thermal loads, and acoustic insulation
due to the sound-absorbing effect of the core layer of my-
celial material.
Due to their layer-wise kinematic condition, sandwich
panels require complex theoretical and computational
structural models. This condition represents a huge chal-
lenge that should be considered for developing this re-
search in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research partners of the presented work are the insti-
tute of natural materials technology (int), TU Dresden,
and the Institute of Building Materials Research (ibac),
RWTH Aachen. Financing is provided by the German
Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF).
We would also like to thank our student assistants, espe-
cially Lea Scholz and Raman Suliman.
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