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Trilingualism and reading difficulty in a third (school) language: A case study of an at-risk child in French immersion
Abstract
This longitudinal study documents a trilingual child’s struggle with decoding and word recognition, the remedies sought to help him start reading in his second language (English) while he was in French immersion, and his performance after the intervention on tests of phonological awareness in L1 Romanian, L2 English, and L3 French. The study commenced at age 5;6, when the child, Alex, was in English kindergarten and diagnosed with a reading deficit. The initial diagnostic assessment uncovered his near-complete lack of phonological awareness, a key ingredient of emergent reading. An intervention using a multisensory approach to reading was used twice a week until the child was 7;9, at which point he was completing grade 2 in French immersion. Alex’s phonological processing abilities were assessed in all three languages immediately after remediation in order to determine: (i) whether his phonological processing skills improved in English, the language of the intervention; (ii) whether there were similar effects in the two non-remediation languages (Romanian and French); and, finally, (iii) whether children at-risk for reading difficulties are able to continue their education in an L3, such as French in an immersion context.
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Reading is vital to every aspect of modern life, exacerbated by reliance of the internet, email, and social media on the written medium. Developmental dyslexia (DD) characterizes a disorder in which the core deficit involves reading. Traditionally, DD is thought to be associated with a phonological impairment. However, recent evidence has begun to suggest that the reading impairment in some individuals is provoked by a visual processing deficit. In this paper, we present WISC-IV data from more than 300 Italian children with a diagnosis of DD to investigate the manifestation of phonological and visual subtypes. Our results indicate the existence of two clusters of children with DD. In one cluster, the deficit was more pronounced in the phonological component, while both clusters were impaired in visual processing. These data indicate that DD may be an umbrella term that encompasses different profiles. From a theoretical perspective, our results demonstrate that dyslexia cannot be explained in terms of an isolated phonological deficit alone; visual impairment plays a crucial role. Moreover, general rather than specific accounts of DD are discussed.
The 2013 Ontario French Second Language (FSL) Curriculum emphasizes inclusivity and bilingualism; however, many students are recommended to opt out of French Immersion (FI). The opting-out of students may support the strengthening of the program by establishing a reputation of success, but how does it affect the withdrawn child? Are FSL programs using best practices to support all learners equitably, or catering to the elite students as a result of misconceptions, lack of resources and professional training? To address these questions, an exploratory and focused literature review of Canadian publications, Ministry of Education documentations and global articles on the topic of bilingualism was conducted, focusing on the works of Genesee (2007) and Baker (2006) on natural language acquisition, Arnett and Mady (2017) on teachers’ and parents’ perspectives, and Gour (2015) and Wise (2012) who report on misconceptions regarding second language education. Emerging trends indicate that elitist practices and unequal access to FSL programs remain a prominent issue in Ontario classrooms. With the understanding that students with learning disabilities (LDs) can succeed in the FI program, removing these learners may in turn, be a disservice to their overall learning. Findings presented in this paper support the need to examine how learners’ abilities are being perceived by educational professionals to provide the necessary tools and supports for success, appropriate training to mitigate misconceptions, as well as retain a reputation for success in FSL programs through equitable means. Acknowledging such discrepancies between what serves as best teaching practice and making it possible in the classroom is necessary to reduce excuses of unpreparedness to meet students’ diverse needs and initiate reflection and training programs that prepare teachers to teach inclusively to all.
This narrative review discusses quantitative indices measuring differences between alphabetic languages that are related to the process of word recognition. The specific orthography that a child is acquiring has been identified as a central element influencing reading acquisition and dyslexia. However, the development of reliable metrics to measure differences between language scripts hasn’t received much attention so far. This paper therefore reviews metrics proposed in the literature for quantifying orthographic transparency, syllabic complexity, and morphological complexity of alphabetic languages. The review included searches of Web of Science, PubMed, PsychInfo, Google Scholar, and various online sources. Search terms pertained to orthographic transparency, morphological complexity, and syllabic complexity in relation to reading acquisition, and dyslexia. Although the predictive value of these metrics is promising, more research is needed to validate the value of the metrics discussed and to understand the ‘developmental footprint’ of orthographic transparency, morphological complexity, and syllabic complexity in the lexical organization and processing strategies.
In their pursuit to create the Romanian literary language and bring Romanian orthography closer to that of Latin, genuine philologists and noted connoisseurs of the history of the Romanian language, representatives of the cultural movement known under the name of Scoala Ardeleana (The Transylvanian School), tried to elaborate a system of spelling based on the etymological principle. The use of the Latin alphabet in writing was regarded as an imperious necessity to support the idea of the Latin origin of the Romanian language and of the Roman origin of the Romanian people - ideas which animated the scholars of the Transylvanian School. The Cyrillic alphabet had been in use for four hundred years. Not only did this make Romanian spelling difficult, but it also inadequately represented many of the sounds of the Romanian phonemic system and the Latin structure of the language. The efforts of the Transylvanian representatives of the Enlightenment met the approval of all men of letters; nevertheless, as the etymological principle in writing would have required good knowledge of Latin, the phonetic principle prevailed after a series of debates that lasted more than two centuries. After 1989, when the political regime changed in Romania, the Romanian Academy decided to revert the Romanian spelling regarding the use of (sic) and the present tense forms of the verb 'to be' to some former rules, cause of further debates which, in some respects, still continue. This paper reviews the development of the Romanian system of writing and the pros and cons of the latest changes in spelling.
Langrrage development and literacy are intimately related. In particular, the way in which the brain represents the sound-structure of spoken language-phonology-is critical for the future development of literary. The brain develops phonological 'representations' in response to spoken language exposure and learning to speak, and *re quality ofthese phonological representations determines literacy acquisition. Both perceptual and articulatory Processes are important in developing a child's phonological representations. In infancy and early childhood , the representation of phonology relies on prosodic or rhythmic features of language and on perceptual units like syllables. As an alphabet is acquired and visual codes become associated with these pre-existing phonological representations , the brain restructlres its language-based representations into so-called 'phonemic phonology'. However, individual differences in the acquisition of phonemic phonology depend on individual differences in the quality of the phonological representations that were acquired prior to literacy. A specific problem with phonology suggests that a child will have specific learning difficulties with respect to literacy, irrespective of IQ.
Recent years have seen the publication of a range of new theories suggesting that the basis of dyslexia might be sensory dysfunction. In this Opinion article, the evidence for and against several prominent sensory theories of dyslexia is closely scrutinized. Contrary to the causal claims being made, my analysis suggests that many proposed sensory deficits might result from the effects of reduced reading experience on the dyslexic brain. I therefore suggest that longitudinal studies of sensory processing, beginning in infancy, are required to successfully identify the neural basis of developmental dyslexia. Such studies could have a powerful impact on remediation.
Exceptional pupils enrolled in Canadian French immersion programs rarely have access to the same range of special education programs and services that are available to students in the regular English program. More often than not, students with special needs are encouraged to transfer to English programs to access necessary support services. This counselling-out process perpetuates the elitist status commonly attributed to French immersion programs. From a critical pedagogy perspective, this inquiry examines the lack of incentive on the part of multiple French immersion stakeholders to accommodate students with special needs. It further attempts to unveil the myths created by these stakeholders to better understand this discriminatory educational practice. The impact of federal and provincial funding models on access to special education programs and services is discussed, and the application of funding allocations by English-language district school boards is explored. The inquiry concludes with recommendations to promote more inclusionary practices.
Despite data supporting the benefits of early reading interventions, there has been little evaluation of the long-term educational impact of these interventions, with most follow-up studies lasting less than two years (Suggate, 2010). This study evaluated reading outcomes more than a decade after the completion of an 8-month reading intervention using a randomized design with second and third graders selected on the basis of poor word-level skills (Blachman et al., 2004). Fifty-eight (84%) of the original 69 participants took part in the study. The treatment group demonstrated a moderate to small effect size advantage on reading and spelling measures over the comparison group. There were statistically significant differences with moderate effect sizes between treatment and comparison groups on standardized measures of word recognition (i.e., Woodcock Basic Skills Cluster, d = 0.53; Woodcock Word Identification, d = 0.62), the primary, but not exclusive, focus of the intervention. Statistical tests on other reading and spelling measures did not reach thresholds for statistical significance. Patterns in the data related to other educational outcomes, such as high school completion, favored the treatment participants, although differences were not significant.
The relationship between first language (L1) typology, defined as the classification of languages according to their structural characteristics (e.g. phonological systems and writing systems), and the development of second (L2) and third (L3) language skills and literacy proficiency in multilingual children was investigated in this study. The sample included 90 children in Grade 4: tested once at the beginning of Grade 4 (T1) and again at the end of Grade 4 (T2). The children belonged to one of three language groups: English monolinguals, multilinguals who were literate in an alphabetic L1, and multilinguals who were literate in a logographic/syllabary L1. The study examined the extent to which the development of L2 and L3 literacy skills varied primarily as a function of orthographic similarities with the L1. Results revealed that multilingual children who were literate in an alphabetic L1 showed advantages in L2 and L3 reading comprehension. However, there were no differences on tasks that measured word reading and pseudoword reading. A more accurate picture of what facilitates L2 and L3 reading development is enhanced when differences in L2 and L3 proficiency were considered as well.
Phonological awareness is critical for learning to read in alphabetic languages like English. This report summarizes normal development of phonological awareness as it has been revealed through recent multidisciplinary and cross-cultural research. We argue that a consensus on the definition of phonological awareness has emerged, that research has identified a general sequence of phonological awareness development that is universal across languages, and that certain characteristics of spoken and written languages influence the rate of normal development and levels of phonological awareness that are normally achieved.
This study examined whether individual variance in letter-name knowledge and phonological processing assessed in English (L1) in kindergarten French immersion students predicts their French (L2) decoding and reading comprehension scores at the end of grade 1; whether L2 oral language factors also contribute significantly to predictions of variability in L2 reading outcomes beyond knowledge of the alphabet and phonological processing; and whether the Simple View of Reading — SVR — (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) applies cross-linguistically as well as intra-linguistically. We administered a comprehensive battery of predictor tests that have been correlated with L1 decoding and comprehension skills in English to English-speaking students in early total French immersion at the beginning and end of kindergarten. Tests of word and pseudo-word decoding and reading comprehension in French were given at the end of grade 1. The best kindergarten predictors of L2 decoding were knowledge of the alphabetic principle in English, phonological awareness in English, and knowledge of French at kindergarten entry. The same variables were significant predictors of French reading comprehension, with the added contribution of scores related to oral language skills in L1. The results provide support for the SVR intra-linguistically, but not cross-linguistically.
Theories concerning the development of phonological awareness place special emphasis on lexical and orthographic knowledge. Given the large degree of variability in preschool classrooms that house Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELL), this study controlled for classroom effects by removing classroom means and covariances based on 158 children from 40 classrooms. Path analyses of the child level covariance matrices tested the extent to which vocabulary and letter knowledge in each language predicted growth in English and Spanish phonological awareness of 130 preschool-age, Spanish-speaking ELLs. Results supported cross-linguistic effects of prior phonological awareness and Spanish vocabulary in the development of bilingual phonological awareness. Implications for theory, instruction, and research methods are discussed.
Alphabetic orthographies show more or less ambiguous relations between spelling and sound patterns. In transparent orthographies, like Italian, the pronunciation can be predicted from the spelling and vice versa. Opaque orthographies, like English, often display unpredictable spelling-sound correspondences. In this paper we present a computational analysis of word-initial bi-directional spelling-sound correspondences for Dutch, English, French, German, and Hungarian, stated in entropy values for various grain sizes. This allows us to position the five languages on the continuum from opaque to transparent orthographies, both in spelling-to-sound and sound-to-spelling directions. The analysis is based on metrics derived from information theory, and therefore independent of any specific theory of visual word recognition as well as of any specific theoretical approach of orthography.
In this study, we explored whether the contribution of working memory (WM) to children's (N = 471) 2nd language (L2) reading and language acquisition was best accounted for by processing efficiency at a phonological level and/or by executive processes independent of phonological processing. Elementary school children (Grades 1, 2, & 3) whose 1st language (L1) was Spanish were administered a battery of cognitive (short-term memory [STM], working memory [WM], rapid naming, and random letter and number generation), vocabulary, and reading measures in both Spanish and English. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that in addition to phonological processing, naming speed, and inattention, both WM and STM contributed significant variance to L2 reading and language acquisition. Regression modeling showed no significant cross-language effects when L1 measures were entered into the analysis. The results showed that both STM and WM contributed unique variance to L2 reading and language acquisition beyond the contribution of L1 phonological processing skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
English language predictors of English and French reading development were investigated in a group of 140 children who were enrolled in French immersion programs. Children were first tested in kindergarten, and their reading achievement was tested yearly in both English and French from Grades 1 to 3, with word-level and passage-level measures that assessed accuracy as well as fluency. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine which English variables predicted Grade 3 outcomes and growth rates in English and French, and to determine the set of predictors that accounted for the most variance in outcomes and growth rates in English and French reading. The variables that predicted English reading development were consistent with studies of monolingual English children, even though participants were concurrently learning to read in French. Our findings provide evidence that at least some of the skills that play a role in learning to read are general cognitive and linguistic skills that transfer across languages. Phonological awareness, letter-sound knowledge, rapid automatized naming, and grammatical ability in English were able to predict reading ability in French. In contrast, English receptive vocabulary was a language-specific predictor. These findings demonstrate that first-language measures can be useful in the early identification of children at risk for difficulty in learning to read in a second language. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
First-language (L1) and 2nd-language (L2) oral language skills and L2 word reading were used as predictors to test the simple view of reading as a model of 2nd-language reading comprehension. The simple view of reading states that reading comprehension is related to decoding and oral language comprehension skills. One hundred thirty-one Spanish-speaking English learners (ELs) were tested in 1st grade and many were followed into 2nd grade, including a full sample of 79. Structural equation modeling confirmed that a 5-factor measurement model had the best fit, suggesting that L1 and L2 phonological awareness should be viewed as separate but related constructs and that L1 and L2 oral language proficiency, measured by vocabulary and grammatical awareness, were separate constructs. The structural model indicated that for this group of ELs, who were educated in English, English oral language proficiency and word reading were the strongest predictors of English reading comprehension. Other models that deleted 1 of these crucial components resulted in significantly poorer fit. Therefore, the results support the validity of the simple view of reading as a model for the development of reading comprehension in young ELs. Implications for theory and practice, specifically assessment of ELs, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This prospective study examined early first-language (L1) predictors of later second-language (L2) reading (word decoding, comprehension) and spelling skills by conducting a series of multiple regressions. Measures of L1 word decoding, spelling, reading comprehension, phonological awareness, receptive vocabulary, and listening comprehension administered in the 1st through 5th grades were used as predictors of L2 reading (word decoding, comprehension) and spelling skills in high school. The best predictor of L2 decoding skill was a measure of L1 decoding, and the best predictors of L2 spelling were L1 spelling and L1 phonological awareness. The best predictor of L2 reading comprehension was a measure of L1 reading comprehension. When L2 word decoding skill replaced L1 word decoding as a predictor variable for L2 reading comprehension, results showed that L2 word decoding was an important predictor of L2 reading comprehension. The findings suggest that even several years after students learn to read and spell their L1, word decoding, spelling, and reading comprehension skills transfer from L1 to L2. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It has been shown that there is a strong relation between children's phonological skills and the progress that they make in reading. But there is some uncertainty whether this is a specific connection or whether it is just a byproduct of variations in general language ability. We report evidence from a longitudinal study showing that the relation between children's sensitivity to rhyme and alliteration and their success in reading is highly specific and cannot be accounted for in terms of general language ability. In this study measures were taken of a group of children's linguistic and metalinguistic skills when they were 3 and 4 years old. The linguistic measures were of the children's vocabulary, their receptive and expressive use of grammar, and their ability to imitate sentences. The metalinguistic measures were of their ability to detect rhyme and alliteration and of their awareness of syntax. Two to three years later, when the children were 6;7, we measured their progress in reading and spelling. The children's rhyme and alliteration scores were related to their reading two years later even after controls for differences in linguistic skills and also for differences in intelligence and in social background. The other metalinguistic task – syntax awareness – did not predict reading after these controls. Awareness of rhyme, we argue, makes a distinctive contribution to reading by helping children to form spelling categories.
A quantitative meta-analysis evaluating the effects of phonemic awareness (PA) instruction on learning to read and spell was conducted by the National Reading Panel. There were 52 studies published in peer-reviewed journals, and these contributed 96 cases comparing the outcomes of treatment and control groups. Analysis of effect sizes revealed that the impact of PA instruction on helping children acquire PA was large and statistically significant (d = 0.86). PA instruction exerted a moderate, statistically significant impact oil reading (d = 0.53) and spelling (d = 0.59). Not only word reading but also reading comprehension benefited. PA instruction impacted reading under all the conditions examined although effect sizes were larger under some conditions. PA instruction helped various types of children: normally developing readers as well as at-risk and disabled readers: preschoolers, kindergartners, and first graders: low socioeconomic status children as well as mid-high SES. PA instruction improved reading, but it did not improve spelling in disabled readers. PA instruction was more effective when it was taught with letters than without letters. when one or two PA skills were taught than Multiple PA skills, when children were taught in small groups than individually or in classrooms. and when instruction lasted between 5 and 18 hours rather than longer, Classroom teachers were effective in Leaching PA to their Students. Effect sizes were larger for Studies using more rigorous experimental designs, with rigor assessments drawn from Troia ( 1999), In Sum, PA instruction was found to make a statistically significant contribution to reading acquisition.
Reading performance of English children in Grades 1–4 was compared with reading performance of German-, Dutch-, Swedish-, French-, Spanish-, and Finnish-speaking children at the same grade levels. Three different tasks were used: numeral reading, number word reading, and pseudoword reading. The pseudowords shared the letter patterns for onsets and rimes with the number words. The results showed that with the exception of English, pseudowords in the remaining orthographies were read with a high level of accuracy (approaching 90%) by the end of Grade 1. In contrast to accuracy, reading fluency for pseudowords was affected not only by regularity but also by other orthographic differences. The results highlight the need for a revision of English-based characterizations of reading development.
This report reviews results of research on the outcomes of French immersion students with special educational needs related to low levels of general academic ability and low levels of first language ability (and possibly impairment), as well as those of students with difficulty or who are at risk for difficulty in learning to read. Studies of the effectiveness of interventions for such students are also reviewed and analyzed. The report ends with suggestions for future research and educational policy. Résumé : On trouvera dans le présent rapport les conclusions des recherches sur les résultats obtenus par les élèves d'immersion française ayant des besoins éducatifs spéciaux et des aptitudes restreintes dans leur première langue (voire une déficience), ainsi que les résultats des élèves ayant des difficultés à apprendre à lire ou bien à risque dans ce domaine. Des études sur l'efficacité des interventions auprès de ces types d'étudiants sont aussi examinées et analysées. Le rapport se termine par des suggestions de recherches et de politiques éducatives pour l'avenir.
Principles of Writing Systems Learning to Spell
One of the challenges for educators working in multilingual settings has been to identify the causes of reading difficulties
of language learners (LLs). It is difficult to distinguish between reading problems stemming from low levels of linguistic
proficiency versus more general reading/learning difficulties. There is now growing research evidence of cross-language transfer
in different literacy processes. Literacy components that reflect language-independent, metacognitive/metalinguistic processes
show similarities across the two languages of students. Some examples are phonological awareness, syntactic awareness, knowledge
of genres and meaning-making strategies. A possible way to use cross-language transfer as a diagnostic tool is proposed. If
children have had enough exposure to and possibly instruction in their first language (L1), we can assess their skills and
insights in L1. For LLs who have these skills and insights in their strong L1, we can expect transfer to their second language
(L2). If they do not have these skills and insights in their L2 yet, it indicates a delay due to limited language proficiency,
and not because of a disability. This way LLs who just need more L2 practice and exposure can be distinguished from those
LLs who truly have special needs.
The paper presents a study of syllabic structures and their variation in a large corpus of French radio interview speech. A further aim is to show how automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems can serve as a linguistic tool to consistently explore virtually unlimited speech corpora. Automatically selected subsets can be manually checked to accumulate knowledge on pronunciation variants. Our belief is that better formalised knowledge of pronunciation variant mechanisms can be obtained by analysing very large amounts of data, and will ultimately contribute to improve pronunciation modelling and ASR systems. This study is meant to be a step in this direction. The linguistic phenomena that we are particularly interested in, are sequential variants (i.e. variants with different numbers of phonemes) which may or not entail syllabic restructuring. These variants, frequent in spontaneous speech, are known to be particularly difficult for speech recognizers. To focus on sequential variants, a methodology has been set up using descriptions at the phonemic, syllabic and lexical levels.
Preserving a minority first language has been found to be very important for the overall personal and educational development of immigrant children. However, successful bilingual development involving a minority language is often challenging in situations where the majority language dominates communication not only provincially and nationally but also internationally. This dissertation investigates the conditions under which a first language (Romanian) can be acquired and maintained in an English-dominant setting as well as any impact that the L1 has on the L2 (English), to which the children are formally introduced upon entry to junior kindergarten.
Three children participated in this longitudinal study from the commencement of junior kindergarten (~ 4;0) until the start of grade 1 (~ 6;0). For the purposes of charting development (or possible attrition), language proficiency was assessed in Romanian and in English through separate measures of lexical (PPVT and Romanian-adapted PPVT), phonological (CTOPP and Romanian-adapted CTOPP), and syntactic and narrative (picture-story based instruments) abilities. In addition, the children’s communicative competence in the two languages was evaluated more holistically through audio recorded data of the children’s interactions in various naturalistic situations. Information about the children’s home language practices was also obtained through interviews conducted with their parents.
The data collected allowed for a unique, psycholinguistically rich, and culturally well-rounded account of the bilingual development of Romanian-Canadian children. The results demonstrated that the children continued to develop their minority language alongside the majority language. However, the lack of formal schooling in Romanian seemed to have impeded the growth of the children’s academic vocabulary and, possibly, narrative skills in Romanian. This could be rectified through formal minority language education. The findings also demonstrate that two years of schooling in English narrows and, in some respects, even erases the gap between the English-as-L2 children and their monolingual counterparts.
This study provides unique data on bilingual Romanian-Canadian children. The specially adapted vocabulary and phonological tests in Romanian make it possible to examine the development of the minority and majority languages side by side. Also, the longitudinal design allows for capturing change over multiple points in time within each of the two languages.
Responding to the needs of and/or including students with different need profiles has been an area of focus within Canadian French Second Language (FSL) education for many years. This study draws on quantitative data from two questionnaires (administered before and after Canadian teacher candidates in FSL education completed their practica) and on qualitative interview data from a volunteer sample of questionnaire participants. The purpose of the study was to explore how these participants viewed the best and worst FSL program options, among four choices, for students who had learning difficulties or who were English language learners, and to see the extent to which these views could be linked to their practicum experience. Though some participants did mention less common programs, most participants restricted their responses to the traditional FSL program dichotomy of core French and French immersion. We noted differences in the participants' views according to the program of their student teaching practicum and according to the learning need under consideration. Implications for FSL teacher education and FSL education are discussed. In particular, we recommend providing research information to teacher candidates at the Bachelor of Education level in order to encourage teacher candidates to consider evidence as they move toward greater inclusion in FSL; given that these future teachers will need to support varying student needs in their career, this information should be included in their preparation.
Introduction: Simple Ideas about Reading Comprehension. A Framework for Comprehension. Higher-Level Factors in Comprehension. The Linguistic-Conceptual Machinery for Comprehension. Word Identification, Decoding, and Phonological Awareness .Comprehension Instruction. Conclusion: A More General View of Comprehension Development
Currently, heritage language teaching to school-aged students is carried out both within public schools (e.g., in foreign language classes and bilingual/dual language programs) and in community-supported out-of-school programs. In all of these settings, the teaching of heritage languages is marginalized with respect to funding provisions, number of languages involved, and number of students who participate. For example, only a handful of languages are taught in foreign language classes or in bilingual/dual language programs. Within the mainstream classroom, students' knowledge of additional languages has typically been viewed as either irrelevant or as an impediment to the learning of English and overall academic achievement. Many students continue to be actively discouraged from using or maintaining their home languages. Not surprisingly, there is massive attrition of students' heritage language competence over the course of schooling. This paper articulates some directions for challenging the squandering of personal, community, and national linguistic and intellectual resources within the main stream classroom.
Three bodies of research that have developed in relative isolation center on each of three kinds of phonological processing: phonological awareness, awareness of the sound structure of language; phonological recoding in lexical access, recoding written symbols into a sound-based representational system to get from the written word to its lexical referent; and phonetic recoding in working memory, recoding written symbols into a sound-based representational system to maintain them efficiently in working memory. In this review we integrate these bodies of research and address the interdependent issues of the nature of phonological abilities and their causal roles in the acquisition of reading skills. Phonological ability seems to be general across tasks that purport to measure the three kinds of phonological processing, and this generality apparently is independent of general cognitive ability. However, the generality of phonological ability is not complete, and there is an empirical basis for distinguishing phonological awareness and phonetic recoding in working memory. Our review supports a causal role for phonological awareness in learning to read, and suggests the possibility of similar causal roles for phonological recoding in lexical access and phonetic recoding in working memory. Most researchers have neglected the probable causal role of learning to read in the development of phonological skills. It is no longer enough to ask whether phonological skills play a causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. The question now is which aspects of phonological processing (e.g., awareness, recoding in lexical access, recoding in working memory) are causally related to which aspects of reading (e.g., word recognition, word analysis, sentence comprehension), at which point in their codevelopment, and what are the directions of these causal relations?
This review examines the effectiveness of educational technology applications in improving the reading achievement of struggling readers in elementary schools. The review applies consistent inclusion standards to focus on studies that met high methodological standards. A total of 20 studies based on about 7,000 students in grades 1–6 were included in the final analysis. Findings indicate that educational technology applications produced a positive but small effect on the reading skills of struggling readers (ES = .14) in comparison with “business as usual” methods. Among four types of educational technology applications, small-group integrated applications such as Read, Write & Type and the Lindamood Phoneme Sequence Program produced the largest effect sizes (ES = .32). These are tutorial educational technology applications that use small-group interaction tightly integrated with reading curriculum. Supplementary models, such as Jostens and Lexia, had a larger number of studies (N = 12) and a more modest effect size (ES = .18). Comprehensive models, such as READ 180 and ReadAbout (ES = .04) and Fast ForWord (ES = .06), did not produce meaningful positive effect sizes. However, the results of these two categories of programs should be interpreted with extreme caution due to the small number of studies involved. More studies are required to validate the effectiveness of all technology applications. Policy implications are discussed.
本综述研究考查小学教育技术应用程序,在提高有阅读困难学生的阅读成绩方面的有效性。本综述研究使用一致的纳入考查标准,聚焦在达到高标准方法的研究项目。被纳入作最终研究分析的相关研究共20项,其研究对象都是小一至小六年级的学生,人数约7000名。调查结果显示,教育技术程序应用与其他”一切如常”的教学方法相比较下,在有阅读困难学生的阅读技巧方面,能产生一个积极但小规模的效应(效应值=.14)。在四种类型的教育技术应用程序中,以小组综合性的应用程序(例如「读、写与键入」和「Lindamood 音素序列教程」)所产生之效应为最大(效应值=.32)。这些都是使用小组式互动与阅读课程紧密综合起来的辅导教育技术应用程序。补充性的教育技术应用程序(例如Jostens和Lexia)有较多相关的研究(N = 12)和产生较小的效应(效应值=.18)。广泛性的教育技术应用程序,例如「阅读180」和「阅读有关」(效应值=.04)以及「快速拼读」(效应值=.06),并没有产生有意义的正面效应。然而,读者应十分谨慎去理解这两个类别的教育技术应用程序所得出的研究结果,因为这些结果只涉及少数量的研究项目。如要验证所有教育技术应用程序之有效性,则需考查更多的相关研究项目。本文结论部分讨论这综述研究结果对政策的启示。
Esta evaluación examina la eficacia de aplicaciones tecnológicas educativas para mejorar la lectura de estudiantes con dificultades en escuelas primarias. La evaluación emplea estándares consistentes de inclusión para enfocarse en estudios que satisficieron estándares metodológicos altos. Un total de 20 estudios basados en aproximadamente 7,000 estudiantes de primer a sexto grado fueron incluidos en el análisis final. Los resultados indican que las aplicaciones tecnológicas educativas produjeron un efecto positivo aunque pequeño en las habilidades lectoras de estudiantes con dificultades (ES = .14) comparado con los métodos de siempre. Entre cuatro tipos de aplicaciones tecnológicas educativas, aplicaciones integradas de grupos pequeños como los de Read, Wrtie & Type y el Lindamood Phoneme Sequence Program produjeron los efectos más notables (ES = .32). Estas son aplicaciones tecnológicas educacionales de tutoría que usan la interacción en grupos pequeños estrechamente integradas con el currículo de lectura. Había un mayor número de estudios (N = 12) de modelos suplementarios, como el de Jostens and Lexia, que mostraron un efecto más modesto (ES = .18). Modelos amplios, como READ 180 y ReadAbout (ES = .04) y Fast ForWord (ES = .06), no produjeron efectos positivos de importancia. Sin embargo, los resultados de estas dos categorías de programas deben ser interpretados con mucha precaución debido al número muy reducido de estudios involucrados. Se necesitan más estudios para convalidar la eficacia de todas las aplicaciones tecnológicas. Se discuten las implicaciones para las normas.
تفحص هذه المراجعة فعالية تطبيقات التقنية التعليمية في تحسين إنجاز القراءة لدى القراء الضعفاء في المدارس الابتدائية. وتطبق هذه المراجعة معايير متضمنة متطابقة للتركيز على الدراسات التي حظت بمعايير منهجية عالية. وقد تم انضمام 20 دراسة مبنية على ما تقارب 7،000 طالباً في الصفوف الأول إلى السادس في التحليل النهائي. تشير النتائج إلى أن التطبيقات التقنية التعليمية أنتجت تأثيراً إيجابياً إنما صغيراً على مهارات القراءة لدى القراء الضعفاء (حجم التأثير = .14) بالمقارنة مع مناهج ((بقاء الأمور على حالها)). ومن بين الأنواع الأربعة من التطبيقات التقنية التعليمية، فإن التطبيقات المندمجة في مجموعات صغيرة مثل برنامج القراءة والكتابة والضرب على الآلة الكاتبة وبرنامج لندامود لتسلسل الصوتيات قد أنتجت أكبر أحجام التأثير (= .32). وتستخدم التطبيقات التقنية التعليمية هذه تفاعلات في مجموعات صغيرة مندمجة اندماجاً مُحكَماً مع منهاج القراءة بينما تمتعت النماذج التكميلية مثل جونستن وليكزيا بعدد أكبر من الدراسات (عدد = 12) وكان حجم تأثيرها أكثر تواضعاً (= .18). غير أن النماذج الشمولية مثل قراءة 180 وريد أبوت (حجم تأثيرهما = .04) وفاست فورورد (حجم تأثيره = .06) لم تنتج أحجام تأثير إيجابية ذات المعنى. بيد أن نتائج هذين الصنفين من النماذج ينبغي أن يتم تفسيرها مع حذر شديد بسبب عدد دراساتها الضئيل. ومن ثم فأنه يتطلب إتمام أكبر عدد من الدراسات لإثبات فعالية كل التطبيقات التقنية. ونناقش دلالة السياسة.
Aвтopы пpeдлaгaют oбзop эффeктивнocти paзличныx кoмпьютepизиpoвaнныx мeтoдoв oбyчeния чтeнию, пpeднaзнaчeнныx для paбoты c yчeникaми нaчaльнoй шкoлы, кoтopыe иcпытывaют тpyднocти в чтeнии. Meтoды и пpoгpaммы включaлиcь в oбзop пo eдиным cтpoгим кpитepиям, и вce oни cooтвeтcтвyют выcoким мeтoдичecким cтaндapтaм. B oбщeй cлoжнocти oцeнивaютcя 20 иccлeдoвaний, ocнoвaнныx нa пpoвepкe пpиблизитeльнo 7000 yчaщиxcя c пepвoгo пo шecтoй клacc. Peзyльтaты cвидeтeльcтвyют o тoм, чтo – пo cpaвнeнию дeтьми из кoнтpoльнoй гpyппы, кoтopыx oбyчaли oбычным oбpaзoм, – “ocoбыe пoдxoды” oкaзывaют пoзитивнoe, нo нecyщecтвeннoe влияниe нa нaвыки дeтeй, иcпытывaющиx пpoблeмы c чтeниeм (ES =.14). Cpeди чeтыpex типoв пpoгpaмм c пpимeнeниeм кoмпьютepныx тexнoлoгий нaибoлee эффeктивными (ES =.32) oкaзaлиcь тe, гдe дeти тpeниpyютcя в мaлыx гpyппax в тoчнoм cooтвeтcтвии c yчeбным плaнoм пo чтeнию: Read, Write & Type (Пpoчти, зaпиши и нaпeчaтaй) и Lindamood Phoneme Sequence Program (Фoнeмaтичecкaя пpoгpaммa Пaтpишии Линдaмyд). Бoльшee чиcлo иccлeдoвaний (N = 12) были пocвящeны вcпoмoгaтeльным yчeбным мoдeлям, тaким кaк, нaпpимep, Jostens и Lexia. Иx эффeктивнocть oкaзaлacь cкpoмнee (ES =.18). Кoмплeкcныe мoдeли дaли eщe мeньший пoлoжитeльный эффeкт: READ 180 и ReadAbout (ES =.04) и Fast ForWord (ES =.06), нo вocпpинимaть эти peзyльтaты cлeдyeт кpaйнe ocтopoжнo, тaк кaк иccлeдoвaний пo ним мaлo. Для yтoчнeния эффeктивнocти вcex тexнoлoгий нeoбxoдимo пpoвecти дoпoлнитeльныe иccлeдoвaния. B кoнцe oбзopa oбcyждaeтcя знaчeниe пoлyчeнныx дaнныx для oбpaзoвaтeльнoй пoлитики.
Cette revue de question s'intéresse aux applications de technologie pédagogique qui visent à améliorer la lecture des enfants en difficulté en lecture à l’école élémentaire. Cette revue exige des normes de haut niveau méthodologique pour l'inclusion des travaux dans le corpus. Nous avons inclus finalement dans l'analyse un total de 20 études comportant environ 7000 élèves du CP à la 6e. Les résultats montrent que les applications de technologie pédagogique ont un effet positif mais petit sur les compétences en lecture des mauvais lecteurs (ES = .14) en comparaison avec les méthodes tout venant. Parmi les quatre types d'applications de technologie pédagogique, les applications avec petits groupes intégrés, comme celle de Read, Write & Type et le Programme de séquence phonémique de Lindamood, produit les effets les plus massifs (ES = .32). Il s'agit d'applications de technologie pédagogique recourant à une interaction en petit groupe étroitement liée au programme de lecture. Des modèles supplémentaires, comme celui de Jostens et Lexia, comptent un grand nombre d’études (N = 12) et un effet de taille plus modeste (ES = .18). Les modèles compréhensifs, comme READ 180 et ReadAbout (ES = .04) et Fast ForWord (ES = .06), ne produisent pas d'effet ayant une taille significative. Toutefois, il faut interpréter les résultats de ces deux catégories de programme avec une très grande précaution compte tenu du petit nombre d’études concernées. Il est nécessaire de disposer de davantage d’études pour valider l'efficacité de toutes les applications technologiques. La discussion porte sur les implications politiques.
In three large samples (N = 1248) of children learning to read German we investigated the correlations between rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological awareness (PA), phonological decoding (nonword reading fluency), and orthographic processing (word reading fluency and spelling). In a series of hierarchical regression analyses, RAN explained more variance in word and nonword reading fluency than PA, whereas PA explained more variance in spelling than RAN. This pattern was confirmed when PA response times were assessed instead of response accuracy. Two further regression models challenge the view that the RAN-literacy association is mediated by orthographic processing. First, RAN accounts for unique variance in word reading fluency even when differences in orthographic spelling were introduced before RAN. Second, RAN accounts for hardly any variance in word reading fluency when introduced after nonword reading fluency.
The development of spelling skills was investigated at four points over the first 3 years of schooling in 153 British children. In order to uncover the developmental relationship between spelling and reading ability and to identify the component skills of spelling, children were assessed with a large battery of tests, including reading, phoneme awareness, letter-sound and letter-name knowledge, memory, and verbal and nonverbal IQ. Spelling productions were assessed both for phonological plausibility and for conventional accuracy. A path analysis revealed that phoneme segmentation and letter-sound knowledge were the precursor skills of early phonological spelling ability; in turn phonological spelling combined with reading to promote conventional spelling skill. Although initial phonological spelling ability predicted later reading, early reading ability did not influence later phonological spelling ability. These results indicate that skilled spelling requires a foundation in phonological transcoding ability which in turn enables the formation of orthographic representations. Our data also suggest that the increasingly complex and specific orthographic patterns demonstrated in children's spelling are learned through experience and instruction in both reading and spelling.
This book provides the first systematic descriptive analysis of the phonological system of Romanian, one of the less studied Romance languages, from the perspective of recent phonological theory. The author offers an account of some of the major phonological processes of modern standard Romanian, set in the framework of Optimality Theory and Correspondence Theory.The book begins with an overview of Romanian phonology - segment inventory, phonotactics, inflectional and derivational morphology. The main part of the study focuses on processes involving vocalic segments: glide-vowel and diphthong-vowel alternations, vowel harmony, palatalization. The major issues addressed include feature theory, syllable structure, metrical structure and stress, the interaction between phonology and morphology. Acoustic phonetic data is used as supporting evidence for the phonological patterning of diphthongs and glide-vowel sequences. Interesting complexities of the system are pointed out and discussed, as they pose certain challenges to the theoretical model.The book contains an abundance of systematically organized data, which makes it a solid reference for students and scholars of general and Romance phonology, and a strong basis for further study.
We examined the growth of spelling skills in a large sample of Norwegian children (N = 228) over the first 3 years in school. The roles of phoneme awareness, letter knowledge, rapid automatized naming (RAN), visual–verbal paired-associate learning, and verbal short-term memory as predictors of later spelling skills were examined. Phoneme awareness and letter knowledge together with nonalphanumeric RAN and verbal short-term memory were independent longitudinal predictors of both word and nonword spelling. In addition growth mixture modeling suggested that individual variations in the growth of word spelling were best characterized as variations around a single trajectory, whereas growth in nonword spelling was better characterized as variations around two distinct trajectories. The results are related to current theories about the cognitive and linguistic foundations of spelling.
purpose was to examine three closely related questions by testing children, at several points through their first year in school, on different phonemic knowledge tasks and tests of reading skill
can evidence be brought to bear on the contribution of phonemic knowledge to reading in relation to the contribution of reading to phonemic knowledge
can we model some components of phonemic knowledge by reference to performance on different phonemic tasks
are children who are taught by a direct code method more dependent on phonemic knowledge than are children taught by indirect code methods and commercial based readers (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Comments on the discussion of the relationships between segmental analysis and alphabetic literacy by J. Morais et al (see record
1988-35331-001), arguing that recognition and appreciation of rhyming in children is a prereading phonological awareness that depends on strings longer than the phoneme and that this awareness is useful in developing reading and spelling skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The construct validity of English and Spanish phonological awareness (PA) tasks was examined with a sample of 812 kindergarten children from 71 transitional bilingual education program classrooms located in 3 different types of geographic regions in California and Texas. Tasks of PA, including blending nonwords, segmenting words, and phoneme elision, were measured in Spanish and in English and analyzed via multilevel confirmatory factor analysis at the task level. Results showed that the PA tasks defined a unitary construct at both the student and classroom levels in each language. English and Spanish PA factors were related to each other (.93 and .83 at the student and classroom levels, respectively) as well as to word reading, both within languages (correlations estimated between .74 and .93) and across languages (correlations estimated between .47 and .79). Although the PA constructs were statistically separable in each language, the high correlation between Spanish and English PA indicates considerable overlap in these abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three studies are reported that examine the development of phonological awareness in monolingual and bilingual children between kindergarten and Grade 2. In the first study, monolingual and bilingual children performed equally well on a complex task requiring phoneme substitution. The second study replicated these results and demonstrated a significant role for the language of literacy instruction. The third study extended the research by including two groups of bilingual children and a range of phonological awareness and reading tasks. Spanish-English bilinguals performed better than English-speaking monolinguals on a phoneme segmentation task, but Chinese-English bilinguals performed worse. Other measures of phonological awareness did not differ among the three groups. The results are discussed in terms of a limit on the effect that bilingualism exerts on metalinguistic development.
Development of English- and Spanish-reading skills was explored in a sample of 251 Spanish-speaking English-language learners from kindergarten through Grade 2. Word identification and reading comprehension developed at a normal rate based on monolingual norms for Spanish- and English-speaking children, but English oral language lagged significantly behind. Four categories of predictor variables were obtained in Spanish in kindergarten and in English in first grade: print knowledge, expressive language (as measured by vocabulary and sentence repetition tasks), phonological awareness, and rapid automatic naming (RAN). Longitudinal regression analyses indicated a modest amount of cross-language transfer from Spanish to English. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that developing English-language skills (particularly phonological awareness and RAN) mediated the contribution of Spanish-language variables to later reading. Further analyses revealed stronger within- than cross-language associations of expressive language with later reading, suggesting that some variables function cross-linguistically, and others within a particular language. Results suggest that some of the cognitive factors underlying reading disabilities in monolingual children (e.g., phonological awareness and RAN) may be important to an understanding of reading difficulties in bilingual children.
Four groups of children in first grade were compared on early literacy tasks. Children in three of the groups were bilingual, each group representing a different combina-tion of language and writing system, and children in the fourth group were monolin-gual speakers of English. All the bilingual children used both languages daily and were learning to read in both languages. The children solved decoding and phonolog-ical awareness tasks, and the bilinguals completed all tasks in both languages. Initial differences between the groups in factors that contribute to early literacy were con-trolled in an analysis of covariance, and the results showed a general increment in reading ability for all the bilingual children but a larger advantage for children learn-ing two alphabetic systems. Similarly, bilinguals transferred literacy skills across languages only when both languages were written in the same system. Therefore, the extent of the bilingual facilitation for early reading depends on the relation between the two languages and writing systems. Learning to read is indisputably the premier academic achievement of early schooling. It prepares children for their educational futures and is the key to the possibilities that their futures hold for them. Thus, if knowing two languages at the time that literacy is introduced, or learning to read in a language that is not the child's dominant one, or acquiring literacy simultaneously in two languages af-fects the outcome of literacy instruction, then it would be important to know that. These possibilities affect a sizable portion of the world's children: A significant number are bilingual at the time they begin reading, many are instructed in a lan-guage they do not speak at home, and some number of those are expected to ac-quire this skill in two languages.
In this study we examined the benefits of computer programs designed to supplement regular reading instruction in an urban public school system. The programs provide systematic exercises for mastering word-attack strategies. Our findings indicate that first graders who participated in the programs made significant reading gains over the school year. Their post-test scores were slightly (but not significantly) greater than the post-test scores of control children who received regular reading instruction without the programs. When analyses were restricted to low-performing children eligible for Title I services, significantly higher post-test scores were obtained by the treatment group compared to the control group. At post-test Title I children in the treatment group performed at levels similar to non-Title I students.
Much research that contributes to understanding how bilingual children become literate cannot isolate the contribution of bilingualism itself to the discussion of literacy acquisition for these children. This paper identifies three areas of research relevant to examining literacy acquisition in bilinguals, explains the contribution of each, and associates each with a skill required by monolingual children in becoming literate. A review of the literature explores differences between bilingual and monolingual children in the development of literacy acquisition skills. The relation between bilingualism and the development of each of the three skills is different, sometimes indicating an advantage and sometimes a disadvantage for bilingual children. Bilingualism clearly affects children’s development of literacy, but its effect is neither simple nor unitary.