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13
13
Soil Organic Carbon
Restoration in India
Programs, Policies,
and Thrust Areas
Ram Swaroop Meena, SandeepKumar, Seema
Sheoran, Manoj Kumar Jhariya, Rajan Bhatt,
Gulab Singh Yadav, Kodigal A.Gopinath,
Cherukumalli Srinivasa Rao, and Rattan Lal
Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
CONTENTS
Abbreviations .....................................................................................................................................1
13.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 2
13.2 Soil Organic Carbon in Agriculture ........................................................................................ 3
13.3 Need for Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in the Soils of India ............................................4
13.4 India’s Progress at the International Level .............................................................................. 5
13.5 The Need to Reform the Government Policies in Indian Agriculture for Soil Organic
Carbon Restoration ................................................................................................................... 5
13.6 Interventions as a Carbon Offsetting Option/Strategies for Soil Carbon Sequestration
and Reducing the Footprint.......................................................................................................7
13.6.1 Reduce Food Wastage .................................................................................................7
13.6.2 Industrial Waste as a Carbon Input Source for Cultivated Soils .................................7
13.6.3 Soil Microbial-Based Carbon Sequestration ..............................................................8
13.7 In-Field Burning of Crop Residues in India ...........................................................................9
13.7.1 Biochar as an Option for Crop Residue Management ................................................ 9
13.7.2 Government Efforts to Promote In-Situ Management of Crop Residue ....................9
13.8 Policies for Promotion of Conservation Agriculture............................................................. 10
13.8.1 Government Interventions for Conservation Agriculture and Needful Action Plans 11
13.8.2 Technological Interventions in the Cropping System ............................................... 11
13.8.3 Policies for Promotion of Crop Diversication ........................................................ 12
13.8.4 Fallow Periods and Their Management Plans ..........................................................12
13.8.5 Potential to Promote Pulses in the Rice-Based System ............................................ 13
13.9 Carbon Status of Dryland Agriculture in India ..................................................................... 14
13.9.1 Management of Degraded Lands .............................................................................. 14
13.9.2 Government Action Plans for Dryland Agriculture .................................................. 14
13.9.3 Policies for Promoting Trees/Shrubs Plantation for Soil Carbon Restoration .......... 15
13.10 Research Evidence on Carbon Dynamics in Agroforestry Models ....................................15
13.10.1 Agroforestry Policies in India ................................................................................. 16
13.11 Promotion of Composting/Vermicomposting at the Block Level ....................................... 17
13.12 Policies for Setting up Composting Plants at Large Scale .................................................. 17
13.13 Policies to Expand the Area under Organic Farming .......................................................... 18
13.14 Private Organizations for Investment in Soil Carbon Restoration ...................................... 19
13.15 Recommended Policy Agenda for Soil Carbon Restoration ...............................................19
13.16 Considerations for Policies Framework on Soil Carbon Restoration .................................20
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................... 21
References ........................................................................................................................................ 22
DOI: 10.1201/9781003102762-13
10.1201/9 781003102762-13
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2 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
Keywords: carbon sequestration, carbon stocks, climate, Indian agriculture, land-use systems, pro-
grams, policies
ABBREVIATIONS
AMF: arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
BMPs: best management practices
BNF: biological nitrogen xation
C: carbon
CA: conservation agriculture
CO2: carbon-dioxide
DAC&F W: Department of Agriculture Cooperation & Farmer’s Welfare
GHGs: greenhouse gases
GOI: government of India
ICAR: Indian Council of Agricultural Research
IIPR: Indian Institute of Pulses Research
Mg: Mega grams
MGNREGA: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
Mt: metric tons
NAPCC: National Action Plan on Climate Change
NARS: National Agricultural Research System
NFP: National Forest Policy
NFSM: National Food Security Mission
NMEEE: National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efciency
NMSA: National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
NPMCR: National Policy for Management of Crop Residue
NPOF: National Project on Organic Farming
NPOP: National Programme for Organic Production
OVCDN ERS: Organic Value Chain Development in North Eastern Region Scheme
PAU: Punjab Agricultural University
Pg: peta grams
P KV Y: Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana
PMK S Y: Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana
REDD: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
RKVY: Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
SDM: Sustainable Development Mechanism
SHMS: Soil Health Management Scheme
SOC: soil organic carbon
SOM: soil organic matter
TRFA: Targeting Rice–Fallow Areas
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
13.1 INTRODUCTION
India, with 328.7 million hectares (M ha) of the geographical area, is inhabited by 17.6% of the
global population (1.37 billion out of 7.77 billion in 2020). Further, as far as land uses are concerned,
it is estimated to have 162 M ha of arable land (~12% of the world) of which 57.0 M ha (~21% of the
world) is irrigated, 68.5 M ha is forest and woodland (1.6% of the world), 11.05 M ha is permanent
pasture (0.3% of the world), and 8 M ha is permanent cropland (6.0% of the world) (Lal 2004;
Ramachandra and Shwetmala 2012). Generally, faulty management practices accelerate the produc-
tion and emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, which are further responsible for
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3Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
abrupt changes in our climate. The GHG emissions in India originate primarily from the combus-
tion of fossil fuel and manufacturing of industrial products, agricultural practices, and associated
energy use from them. Intensive cultivation of ~12 M ha under the rice–wheat (Oryza sativa–Tri t-
icum aestivum) system and mismanagement of nite natural resources are adversely affecting soil
health and food quality and exacerbating the environmental problems. In general, inappropriate
management practices seem to accelerate the production and thus the emission of GHGs in the
atmosphere which are further responsible for the abrupt changes in the climate (Lal 2004a, 2004b).
In several states (e.g., Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu,
etc.), soil organic C (SOC) concentration has declined to ~0.2– 0.4% (MoA&FW 2019. So, now is
the time to focus on the restoration of the SOC pool for advancing sustainability of food, nutritional,
economic, and environmental security in India.
SOC is a key determinant in soil health and a novel weapon to ght against climate change, food
and nutritional insecurities, and other environmental concerns. Through carbon (C) sequestration,
soil can capture the atmospheric carbon-dioxide (CO2). There are two types of soil C sequestra-
tion, 1) biomass-based organic C, which is a key part of the food chain in the ecosystem and 2)
paedogenic calcium carbonate (CaCO3), called an inorganic C sequestration which is often bane
for farmers. It is in this context that the French government at the conference of parties (COP)-21,
Paris Climate Summit in 2015, initiated a program called “4 per 1000.” Lal (2004a) described ve
principal global C pools, out of which the oceanic pool is the largest; other pools include geologic,
pedologic (soil), biotic, and atmospheric pools. The aim of “4 per 1000” initiative is to capture the
atmospheric CO2 and restore SOC in the agricultural soils at the rate of 0.4% yr−1. to promote food,
nutritional, environmental, and economic security. Thus, best management practices (BMPs) should
be adopted to restore the atmospheric C in terrestrial and agriculture ecosystems. Agricultural sus-
tainability largely depends on soil C stock and its turnover. Thus, soil C sequestration is a viable
option to restore the SOC pools in agroecosystems by reducing net greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
sions and capturing the atmospheric CO2. Soil C sequestration also helps to improve soil health and
mitigate climate change (Lal 2004b, 2011; Bronick and Lal 2005). India has a large potential to
sequester C in the forest and agricultural soils Figure 13.1
There is a rapid increase in India’s CO2 emissions since 1970, and, particularly in recent decades,
emissions of CO2 ux into the atmosphere from different sectors have increased because of anthro-
pogenic activities Figure 13.2.
Furthermore, to meet the ever-increasing fertilizer demand, production of the nitrogenous fertil-
izers through the Haber-Bosch process results in the release of 0.52 Mg (Megagrams) of CO2-C
Mg−1of ammonia (NH3)-N (nitrogen) (Bakker et al. 2012). Thus, the emission of CO2 into the atmo-
sphere as a result of anthropogenic activities is a major concern. In most agroecosystems of India,
the SOC ranges from ~ 0.25% to 1.15% in topsoil (30 cm), which is more than that in horizons
beneath (Bhattacharrya et al. 2000). Small changes in SOC may cause signicant alterations in
atmospheric CO2. Cropping systems can be a major source of CO2 release to the atmosphere through
unsustainable crop management practices in different cropping systems Figure 13.3.
The SOC content and stock depend on soil, cultivation practices, various inputs for crop produc-
tion, and residue management in the cropping systems (Loveland and Webb 2003; Giller et al. 2011).
In India, the loss of the different types of SOC pools is a big challenge to stopping the C uxes for
anthropogenic activities. On the other hand, judicious management can be useful in managing the
direct and indirect factors related to agricultural systems and climate change (Olivier et al. 2017;
Meena et al. 2018).
Out of the total land area of 297.3 Mha in India, around 27.3%, 20.3%, 17.4%, 12.3%, 8.3%, 6.2%,
0.6%, and 0.27% area are covered by Alsols, Vertisols, Inceptisols, Ultisols, Entisols, Aridisols,
Mollisols, and Gelisols, respectively (Vermeulen et al. 2019). The SOC stocks in the soils of India,
varying among different land uses and cropping systems, are shown in Tables 13.1 and 13.2.
Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGPs) (constitute about 60% of the total area of the Great Plains) have
many sustainability issues viz., the decline in underground water and SOC levels and, thus, poor soil
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4 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
health and low yields of reduced nutritional quality (Bhatt et al. 2016). Intensive tillage and open
burning of crop residues are also responsible for the increased loss of the C stocks into the atmo-
sphere. This is the reason nowadays that conservation agriculture (CA) practices (viz., minimum
tillage, crop rotation, and crop residues placement as mulch on to the bare soil) are recommended
for regions of low SOC concentration (Meena et al. 2020a). Further, the practices, such as green
manuring, application of farmyard manure, compost, vermicompost, biochar, etc., can enhance the
SOC stock and improve soil properties and agronomic yields (Bhattacharrya et al. 2000). In gen-
eral, SOC concentration increases with an increase of rainfall and decrease of the mean annual
temperature (Table 13.3).
Soils of arid and semi-arid climatic regions, though covering around 33% of the country, have
lower SOC contents due to prevailing light-textured soils and higher temperatures which further
accelerate the decomposition rates of the organic matter. Out of the total area (160 M ha) in the
Indian Peninsula, around 30 M ha area is occupied by the black cotton soils (Vertisols) which have
inherently lower SOC content due to higher temperature and associated soil carbon oxidation.
From a policy point of view, the Indian government has taken a few initiatives to enhance C
sequestration by launching different schemes. But on the practical aspect, still much more attention
is required to successfully implement these plans and policies to achieve the required target of soil
C restoration. Therefore, considering the importance of soil C, this chapter is mainly focused on
the effective plans and policies for soil management and C restoration in agricultural ecosystems
that will eventually make the country more secure in the aspects of food, nutrition, environment,
and economy. A roadmap on soil C policies is also discussed to encourage the implementation of
BMPs for soil health and C stock restoration, and realize the “Sustainable Development Goals” of
the United Nations for a better country and the planet in general.
13.2 SOIL ORGANIC CARBON IN AGRICULTURE
Being a large country, the agroecosystems of India are a key component of the global C cycle. It
has diverse agricultural practices and cropping systems. Ten approaches which affect soil prop-
erties are(Lal 1998; Meena et al. 2020a): (1) Improving the nutrient use efciency by using the
slow-release fertilizers viz., poly-coated or neem coated urea, (2) Avoiding in-eld burning of crop
residues, (3) Enhancing water use efciency, (4) Minimizing soil tillage, (5) Adopting erosion con-
trol measures in hilly regions, (6) Strengthening soil biodiversity, (7) Increasing soil aggregation,
(8) Reducing losses of nitrogen by drainage, erosion, and volatilization, (9) Increasing buffering
capacity against sudden uctuations in soil reactions, and (10) Moderating soil temperatures. The
judicious management of SOC stock is a common strategy in all these ten factors.
FIGURE 13.1 An nual carbon sequestr ation in forest and agricultur al soils of India (Datasou rce: Ramachandra
and Shwetmala 2012).
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5Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
Climate change and soil health are two interrelated factors which affect the food, nutritional,
environmental, and economic status of a country. However, most soils of India are less fertile and
have low SOC stock. So, it is the need of the time to focus on restoration of SOC and nutritional
security in India. Now there is an urgency to take needful actions for the implementation of BMPs
and different policies and planning for sustainable and eco-friendly agricultural systems in India.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed numerous strategies to
enhance soil C restoration for different agriculture systems to ensure food, environmental, and
economic security. Choice of BMPs (Figure 13.4) to be followed for sustainable soil management
involve: (1) improvement of soil fertility maintenance for SOC sequestration e.g., judicious use of
organic and inorganic source of nutrients for enhancing nutrient use efciency, increasing biologi-
cal nitrogen xation (BNF), nutrient cycling through cover crops and fallow plantation, (2) use of
organic inputs (animal manure, green manuring, recycling of organics), (3) recycling of plant litter
and agricultural by-products (4) recycling urban waste, (5) changing land use patterns, (6)adopting
soil biological management, (7) using modern biofuel and other renewable sources (e.g., solar, wind,
hydro, geo, tidal) for energy rather than crop residues and animal waste, (8) adopting ecological
FIGURE 13.2 Carbon emission from the different agriculture sectors of Indian (Datasource: FAOSTAT
2020).
FIGURE 13.3 Emission of CO2 equivalent in different cropping systems in India (Datasource: FAOSTAT
2020).
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6 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
weed management (e.g., integrated weed management, minimal use of herbicides); (9) establish-
ing land restoration measures (e.g., erosion control through runoff management with terraces, veg-
etative barriers, soil surface amendment, mulch farming, and fallow plantation); (10) promoting
conservation agriculture (zero or reduced tillage, surface residue retention, mulch farming, legume-
based crop rotation); (11) growing legumes, grain crops, grasses, green manure crops, shrubs, and
trees, etc.; (12) promoting eco-friendly farming systems with high diversity (e.g., mixed farming,
agroforestry, silvo-pastoral systems, etc.); (13) encouraging crop breeding programs for deeper root
systems; and (14) creating environmental awareness at the farmer levels.
Concerning C sequestration in the different land-use systems, Lal et al. (1998) addressed two
focal points i.e., soil C management aspects as well as the policy instruments. From a manage-
ment point of view, Lal (2002) suggested that the focus should be to promote suitable land-use and
TAB LE 13.1
Mean Annual Carbon Inputs, Depletion Rate, and Input Requirement in Land Use and
Cropping Systems (Data sources: Srinivasarao et al. 2011, 2012)
Location Production System
Mean
Annual
C Inputs
(Mg C
ha−1 yr−1)
Mean C
Depletion
Rate (Mg C
ha−1 yr−1)
Critical C Input
Requirement (Mg
ha−1 yr−1)
Anantapur Groundnut (Arachishypogaea) 0.5–3.5 0.18 1.12
Bangalore Groundnut-nger millet (Eleusine coracana) 0.3–3.0 0.92 1.62
Bangalore Finger millet 0.3–3.1 0.25 1.13
Solapur Winter sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) 0.6–3.4 0.23 1.10
SK Nagar Pearlmillet (Pennisetumglaucum)-cluster bean
(Cyamopsistetragonoloba)-castor (Ricinus
communis)
0.2–1.9 0.67 3.30
Indore Soybean (Glycine max)-safower (Carthamus
tinctorius)
1.9–7.0 0.47 3.47
Varanasi Upland rice (Oryza sativa) -lentil (Lens
culinaris)
1.1–5.6 0.15 2.47
TAB LE 13. 2
Distribution of Labile Carbon (mg g−1) Under Different Land-Use Systems (Data Source:
Pandher et al. 2020)
Depths of
Soil
Cropping Systems
Mean
Maize (Zea mays)-
wheat (Triticum Agro-horticulture
Agroforestry
3 years 6 years
0–15 1.13 1.70 1.31 1.72 1.47
15–30 1.47 0.97 1.00 1.29 1.18
30–60 0.83 1.19 1.31 1.35 1.17
60–90 0.92 0.74 0.57 1.57 0.95
90–120 0.78 1.01 0.44 0.78 0.75
Mean 1.03 1.12 0.93 1.34
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7Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
agricultural practices, soil conservation and BMPs, diversied crops and tree plantation, and proper
management of agricultural waste for better soil, health, and eco-friendly agriculture systems.
13.3 NEED FOR SOIL ORGANIC CARBON
RESTORATION IN THE SOILS OF INDIA
India has diverse ecological regions. Therefore, there is huge potential to improve the SOC pool in
cultivated soils. The SOC concentration in cultivated soils is <0.05% compared to 0.15–0.20% in
uncultivated soils (Sahoo et al. 2019). Soil C stock distribution by order in Indian soils is presented
in Table 13.4.
It is important to formulate and implement policies for SOC restoration in order to strengthen
the agricultural soil systems. Thus, the government has to work in collaboration with farmers to re-
carbonize soil by promoting recycling of crops and animal wastes back into the soil prole. The low
SOC content and stock may be due to intensive tillage practices, crop residue burning, and nutrient
TAB LE 13. 3
Soil Organic Carbon Concentrations of Soils of India Concerning the Rainfall Regime and
Temperature (Data Source: Srinivasararao et al. 2009)
Rainfall
(mm yr−1)Mean Annual Temperature (OC)
Soil Organic C Content (g kg−1)
Surface Sub-surface
Less than 500 25.9–26.7 1.20–8.0 1.2–4.0
500-1000 23.9–27.9 1.80–12.5 0.7–11.7
More than 1000 24.4–27.2 2.6–9.0 2.3–8.4
FIGURE 13.4 Best management practices (BMPs) for improving soil carbon pool.
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8 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
mining because of extractive practices. Accelerated soil erosion by water is also a big problem in the
country, which can lead to an annual loss of ~00.7 Pg (Petagrams) of SOC (Lal 2004a). The SOC
stock, has a positive relationship with soil fertility and productivity and with that of the country’s
agricultural production trend. Redesigned policies should be focused on soil, environmental, and
human health through soil C restoration. Through planning to manage the agroecosystem, it is pos-
sible to establish a link between soil and human wellbeing toward achieving sustainability.
For that, planning on soil C must be prioritized at all levels by the governing bodies through
providing adequate funding for soil C restoration and its research, better knowledge transfer along
with extensive dialogue among farmers through demonstration techniques. In this context, chemical
fertilizers have to be gradually replaced by biofertilizers including animal manures and composts
wherever possible without yield reduction (Meena et al. 2020b). This can be accomplished by the
inclusion of livestock in the existing farming systems to ensure adequate availability of manure and
compost for application to the soil, and crop residues must also be recycled as a nutrient source.
In this regard, the government has to support landowners and tenants for building up C stock in
soil strata. Mixed farming can also be supported by giving a special scoring uplift to farmers for
middle-tier agri-environmental agreements. Besides, the impact of contract farming and land rental
agreements on soil C trends is still not explored.
13.4 INDIA’S PROGRESS AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL
The Government of India (GOI), after considering the consequences of climate change, initiated
a program in 2008 named “National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)” with eight mis-
sions. Under NAPCC, NMEEE (National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efciency) was launched
to identify mitigation strategies against climate change. Further, PAT (Perform, Achieve, and Trade)
under the NMEEE is designed to reduce CO2 emissions to about 30 million tonnes, which reduces
CO2. Article 6.4–7.7 of the Paris Agreement establishes a mechanism to contribute to the mitigation
TAB LE 13.4
Carbon Stock (in Pg = 1015g) Distribution by Order in Indian Soils (Modified from:
Bhattacharyya et al. 2000; Pal et al. 2015)
Soil Order
Soil Depth Carbon Stock (Pg)
Range in cm SIC SOC TC
Vertisols 0–30 1.07(26) 2.59(27) 3.66(27)
0–150 6.14(18) 8.77(29) 14.90(23)
Entisols 0–30 0.89(21) 0.62(6) 1.51(11)
0–150 2.86(8) 2.56(8) 5.42(8)
Inceptisols 0–30 0.62(15) 2.17(23) 2.79(20)
0–150 7.04(21) 5.81(19) 12.85(20)
Aridisols 0–30 1.40(34) 0.74(8) 2.14(16)
0–150 13.40(39) 2.02(7) 14.42(24)
Alsols 0–30 0.16(4) 3.14(33) 3.30(24)
0–150 4.48(13) 9.72(32) 14.20(22)
Ultisols 0–30 0.00 0.20(2) 0.20(1)
0–150 0.00 0.55(2) 0.55(1)
Mollisols 0–30 0.00 0.09(1) 0.09(1)
0–150 0.07(0.2) 0.49(2) 0.56(1)
Total 0–30 4.14 9.55 13.69
0–150 33.98 29.92 63.90
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9Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
of GHGs and support the Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM). The SDM is considered
to be a successor to the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), a exible mechanism under the
Kyoto Protocol by which parties could collaboratively pursue emission reductions for their intended
nationally determined contributions.
The highlights of Indian contributions toward resolving the issue submitted to UNFCCC (United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) is as follows (Ministry of Power 2020):
• To promote a healthy and sustainable way of living based on traditions and values.
• To adopt a climate-friendly and a cleaner path for economic development.
• To reduce the emissions by 33–35% by 2030 compared with 2020.
• To transfer technology involving low-cost international nance, around 40% electric power
to be generated from non-fossil fuel by 2030.
• To identify and realize an additional C sink of 2.5–3 Pg of CO2 equivalent through
afforestation.
• To propagate advanced climate-smart technologies for mitigating the adverse effects of
climate change—particularly in agriculture, water resources, etc.
• To assemble funds from developed countries for developing a mechanism to cut down the
emissions into the atmosphere in developing countries.
• To quickly transfer climate-smart technology in India’s villages and remote places; and for
joint international activities, collaborative research projects must be established to nd out
some more advanced ways to enhance the SOC and mitigate the consequences of climate
change.
13.5 THE NEED TO REFORM THE GOVERNMENT POLICIES IN INDIAN
AGRICULTURE FOR SOIL ORGANIC CARBON RESTORATION
In the present scenario of South Asia, India is a leading country in the agricultural sector of the
developing world. Growing concern about SOC at the international platform does not yet match
with the action and investment on soil C sequestration strategies at ground level in India. Many sur-
veys and reports depict that most of the farmers are not bothered about soil health and its relation to
food, nutrition, environmental, and economic conditions of the country. Likewise, farmers are not
fully aware of the importance of the soil C sequestration (Conference Report 2017). India does not
have any separate organization to work and research on the soil C sequestration. It is a big challenge
to politicians, researchers, policymakers, and extension workers. Now there is an urgent need to
address these challenges to solve the issue at the ground level for future sustainability because soil C
is a key element on the earth. The important challenges and barriers in the way of soil C sequestra-
tion are limited nance, lack of adequate knowledge, the governmental interest in a large business,
existing subsidies on depleting or C-exhaustive farm practices, lack of policy agenda to safeguard
rural communities and small farmers, and limited/no demonstration/policies to advertise stories of
farmers who have successfully adopted soil health/C sequestration practices.
To bring comprehensive changes in the agricultural policies of the country, it is important to
establish plans for soil C restoration. Such plans are essential to the transformation and establish-
ment of the protocol to offset markets and incentive payments. Along with designing nancial poli-
cies, there is a need for setting up guidelines to promote C management practices across different
agroecoregions, landscapes, and cultural contexts to the farmers (Conference Report 2017).
The GOI has recently emphasized balanced plant nutrition including organic and inorganic fer-
tilizers in the Union Budget 2019–20. Although, its implementation is still challenging due to the
lack of seriousness by the government to promote the use of organic inputs in farming, and policies
favoring unbalanced and excessive use of chemical fertilizers. The government should reduce sub-
sidies on the most harmful agricultural inputs (e.g., chemical fertilizers, pesticides), machines (e.g.,
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10 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
extensive tillage equipment), and promote eco-friendly inputs and reduce the energy consumption in
agriculture. The incentive payments and subsidies should be reduced for C-exhaustive inputs, which
will help to promote C-rich strategies. The government efforts must be on reforming the policies
that sub-optimize the subsidies on fertilizers and extensive tillage implements so that their use can
be minimized. Removing such subsidies would promote more efcient use of agricultural crop and
industrial waste after conversion to safe nutrient sources. Payments should be given to farmers as
an incentive for planting trees/shrubs in the agroforestry system or transforming tillage practices
from conventional to no-till that ensure a positive impact on soil C build-up (OECD/IEA/NEA/
ITF 2015). This will enhance the SOC stock and restore soil health in India. At the same time, the
government has to provide nancial assistance to promote the machinery, implements, practices,
infrastructure, and skills that reduce C loss and enhance C sequestration in the soil in a way that is
compatible with continuous productivity improvement. A successful policy puts efforts to measure
results, think for farmers' direct benets beyond soil C sequestration, reinstate C exhausted lands,
ensures active participation of farmers, and availability of tools for education and C sequestration.
The Healthy Soil Initiative scheme in California is a good example of a farmer’s involvement in
the C management system (Conference Report 2017). The government should also emphasize on
knowledge sharing among farmers, motivation, education, rewards, and monetary support to the
farmers and land managers to promote such activities for efcient soil C sequestration.
The protagonists across civil society and business governments must work together to restore
SOC stock by identifying and resolving barriers beyond their benets that urgently calls for a cross-
sectoral agenda (Figure 13.5) (Vermeulen et al. 2019). All the necessary need-based information
related to soil C importance and practices should be transmitted at the farmer’s level in local values,
languages, relationships, and the possible diversication in the traditional approaches.
This calls for better coordination among scientists, farmers, and land managers for designing of
efcient policy. It will help to generate a holistic approach for developing an action plan by taking
advantage of available technical and scientic resources to restore the C pool in national soil and
terrestrial ecosystems. The science and policy need to be brought together at a common platform
that is useful to all the living entity including soil. The role of land managers and farmers is to
identify such management practices with the help of scientists that are productive, C-rich, eco-
friendly and have a wider-scale adaptability. In this series, six important steps have to be followed
(Kimble et al. 2002): 1) Assessing the trends of C loss at regional and national scale, 2) Measuring
the C sequestration potential of management practices in major soils of key ecological regions, 3)
Analyzing the economics of soil organic C from a productivity and environmental point of view, 4)
Developing policy plans that help to build soil C stock, 5) Classifying standards and index for the
espousal of C sequestration practices, and 6) Forming policies for practical executions of identied
strategies.
To restore the SOCin the agroecosystems of India, three important priorities are 1) an over-
arching case and sight for action (e.g., it can involve a few countries that have already included
soil in their national agenda and are considered future leaders, such as Canada, Australia, Bhutan,
Uruguay, Ethiopia, etc.; 2) a robust business plan in the amalgamation of private and public investors
that will help to produce nance level and improved soil C management; and 3) a more attractive
value proportion for land managers and producers that will provide the nancial support to restore
soil C through daily management activities. The processes for soil C restoration awareness, policies,
knowledge, nance, and on-farm implementation are of a critical need in India (Figure 13.6).
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11Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
13.6 INTERVENTIONS AS A CARBON OFFSETTING OPTION/STRATEGIES FOR
SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND REDUCING THE FOOTPRINT
13.6.1 Reduce Food Wastage
As per the estimates of FAO (2019), one-third of all food produced in India is lost or wasted on the
journey from farm to mouth, and hence, water, energy, nitrogen, C, and other factors are direct/
indirectly adversely affected through the food wastage (Figure 13.7). Therefore, for reducing the
footprints, food wastage must be reduced to sustainably reduce the C footprint. Most of the agricul-
tural produce is lost during its production, post-harvest handling, storage, and consumption phases.
This fact is particularly true in India for vegetables as the country leads globally in vegetable pro-
duction and consumption of more than 50% (Scialabba and Lindenlauf 2010). Therefore, rst food
loss must be controlled in the eld, then during packing and storing stages, and, lastly, at home.
Further proper distribution is also important as, at certain places, people are prone to hunger while
on the other side, food is wasted because of poor storage. There is a need to focus on the new cold
storage and post-harvest technologies to reduce spoilage of the agricultural products, particularly
more perishable ones, like vegetables, fruits, raw materials, dairy products, etc. It is important for
their wide-scale and demand-based utilization as it also reduces the pressure for more production
and ultimately will help to reduce gaseous emissions that cooccur during production.
13.6.2 IndustRIal Waste as a caRbon Input souRce FoR cultIvated soIls
A rapid industrialization in India has generated large amounts of industrial waste—both in terms
of fuel gas and by-products and other wastes which have negative effects on the ecosystems (Yadav
et al. 2019). However, these waste products can be judiciously utilized as a good C source to restore
SOC content. Also, continuous increase of CO2 concentration results in global warming which has
its own adverse consequences on the agricultural sector, opening new land, which further leads to
many ecological and economic disruptions (Saravanan et al. 2018). To reduce the CO2 load in the
atmosphere, we can’t directly opt for the industry to shut down, as this will affect the country’s
economy. Hence, industrial waste can be converted to a C-based soil amendment (Yadav et al.
2019). Further, microalgae have a more rapid growth rate and CO2 xation efciency (10–50 times
more) than terrestrial plants and also can utilize concentrated amounts of CO2 present in industrial
wastes (Chiu et al. 2008; Tang et al. 2011). Microalgae can be a viable option for reducing C levels
FIGURE 13.5 Key protagonists and approaches for soil carbon restoration (Modied from: Vermeulen et
al. 2019).
TNF_13_397522_C013_docbook_new_indd.indd 11 8/25/2021 4:18:16 AM
12 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
in the atmosphere with a long-term and sustainable solution to global warming. Some methods
(viz., physical separation, chemical, and biological methods) can be applied for sequestering C from
various industrial wastes as power plants, steel and cement manufacturing units, and reneries. In
general, renewable and green sources of energy result in the least CO2 emissions (Yadav and Sen
2017). Presently, biological methods are considered as the most effective techniques to capture and
store CO2from ue gas and wastewater treated with microalgae (Yadav et al. 2007, Yadav et al.
2015). Hence, it will be a preferred choice for promoting CO2 sequestration from industrial wastes
throughout the country (Ugwu et al. 2008). Further, microalgal CO2 xation can be improved by
reactor operation modes, CO2delivery systems, and genetic engineering applications. Fixation of
atmospheric CO2 in the biomass can be used sustainably for biodiesel, bioethanol, biohydrogen, or
methane production (Tang et al. 2011; Kumar et al. 2011). India has still not implemented any poli-
cies to use industrial waste as a C source for soil. Therefore, there is a need to do brainstorming and
come up with ideas/plans on the ground level to practically utilize and convert the industrial waste
as a good and safe C source for the soil.
13.6.3 soIl MIcRobIal-based caRbon sequestRatIon
Being the hub of living and non-living matter, the soil ecosystem is highly complex with the multi-
tude of interactions among soil microbes (Nielsen et al. 2011; Meena et al. 2020). The soil microbes
play an important role in sequestered global C (Jansson 2011). Although higher plants contribute
FIGURE 13.6 Steps and action plans for soil carbon restoration in soils of India.
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13Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
dominantly to the uptake of atmospheric CO2, soil microbes also signicantly impact the C budget
being as plant symbionts, pathogens, or detritivores (Singh et al. 2010). There are several microbes
in the soil sub-surface (Blume et al. 2002; Fierer et al. 2003) that contribute to the CO2 xation
(Tab le 13.5).
Thus, the microbial community plays a critical role in the mineralization of organic matter. A
wide range of factors (e.g., soil prole, temperature, moisture, roots impacts, physical and chemi-
cal properties of soil) regulate the metabolism of soil’s biotic components (bacteria, fungi, viruses,
archaea, and fauna), and subsequently affect the mineralization or stabilization of soil C. As roots
are in close association with soil microbial community and their biomass is the main harbinger of
stabilized soil organic matter (SOM) (Kallenbach et al. 2016), it is a viable option to identify or
develop plant cultivars that modulate the soil–plant microbiome to increase SOC sequestration in
the rhizosphere. Soil microbes possess many traits like a biochemical constituent of cell walls and
envelopes that directly affect the persistence of soil C (Kallenbach et al. 2016). Also, microbial
population dynamics, growth rates, and mortality are likely to be linked with C turnover (Roller et
al. 2016). There are several challenges to manipulate microbial community for improved C seques-
tration due to huge diversity, lack of cultivability, characterization of soil microbes, and limited
understanding about their ecological roles (Singh et al. 2010; Uroz et al. 2013).
By utilizing the quantitative stable isotope probing (qSIP) (Hungate et al. 2015; Koch et al. 2018),
C persistence traits of microbial strain genomes can be analyzed to establish robust mechanistic
linkages between C cycling and soil microbial community (Blazewicz et al. 2014; Meena and Lal
2018). The application of “omics” techniques can also help understand the locking of soil C pro-
pelled by biological activities undertaken into the soil micro-niche (Trivedi et al. 2013). Among the
FIGURE 13.7 Food waste in relation to agriculture.
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14 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
fungi, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in symbiotic association with crop roots play a signi-
cant role in C stabilization (Wilson et al. 2009; Lambers et al. 2009). Thus, plant roots, AMF, and
SOC have a complex symbiotic interaction, benecially affecting each other (Feeney et al. 2006;
Hinsinger et al. 2009). The AMF especially of the genus Glomeromycota supply nutrients to plants,
which in turn dispense about 20% of the xed C in soil (Kell 2011). Microalgae are photosynthetic
organisms using CO2, water, sunlight, and inorganic salts for their growth and development (Razzak
et al. 2013) and are superior to plants in sequestering C (Rahaman et al. 2011; Van et al. 2012).
Further, around 50% of C in cell dry mass of microalgae can be sequestered (Sánchez Mirónet al.
2003) as up to183 Mg of CO2 could be sequestered by the production of 100 Mg of biomass (Chisti
2008) which can be converted into several products viz., pigments, cosmetics, food, and animal feed
(Kumar et al. 2011; Yadav et al. 2015).
Thus, there is a need to focus on designing research experiments, plans, and policies for studying
the role of in-situ microbes in C stabilization and capture in the soil. It is also important to know
the role of microbiota in CO2 capture and C locking up within soil aggregates and stabilize it for a
long time.
13.7 IN-FIELD BURNING OF CROP RESIDUES IN INDIA
Agricultural cropping systems produce a lot of residues in India. Most of the crop residues are
used for fodder, fuel, and other domestic purposes, but still, crop residues are burned annually
without any adequate management that causes emissions of particulate matter into the atmosphere
(Bhuvaneshwari et al. 2019). Regrettably, the quantity of crop residues being burned in India is
much more than the agricultural wastes generated in Bangladesh (72 Mt—Metric tons), Indonesia
(55 Mg), Myanmar (19 Mg), combined. It resulted in a loss of ~00.4 Pg of organic C (Kumar et al.
2018). One Mg of rice residue contains about 400 kg C which gets lost during the burning of crop
residues. Likewise, burning of one-ton rice residue releases 1460 kg CO2 into the atmosphere (Singh
et al. 2018). This is the amount that can enrich the soil with C if instead of burning residues, any
viable and sustainable scopes are generated to gain an advantage (The Economics Time 2019). Also,
the crop residue burning adversely impacts soil properties, minerals, fertility, and microbial activi-
ties that indirectly reduce the C capturing, and retention capacity of the soil, and have an adverse
effect on soil health and quality (Meena et al. 2019).
13.7.1 bIochaR as an optIon FoR cRop ResIdue ManageMent
Biochar being prepared through pyrolysis, gasication, and hydrothermal carbonization, comprised
of~35–60% C, which might be otherwise emitted into the atmosphere. The end products from bio-
char are bio-oil and syngas (Chowdhury et al. 2017). Application of biochar to soil enhances SOC
TAB LE 13. 5
CO2 Sequestration Capabilities of Microalgae Strain Under Different CO2 Concentrations
Microalgal Species
CO2 (%, v/
v) Biomass Productivity (g L−1 d−1) References
Dunaliella sp. 12 0.71 Hulatt and Thomas (2011)
Scenedesmus obliquus 20 0.38 Ho et al. (2010)
Chlorella sp. 70 0.118 Sung et al. (1999)
Nannochloris sp. 15 0.35 Negoro et al. (1991)
Chlorella sp. 50 0.95 Maedal et al. (1995)
Chlorella sp. 20 0.70 Sakai et al. (1995)
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15Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
pool, and therefore, improves soil physico-chemical and biological properties, and restore soil health
(Day et al. 2005; Sohi et al. 2010; Srinivasarao et al. 2012, 2013). Biochar is a good option for long-
term C storage and ranks high among options of soil C sequestration. Even small-scale production
can be economical and sustainable (Pratt and Moran 2010). To avoid in-eld burning of residues
and to promote the SOC, Punjab Agricultural University (PAU, India) recommended biochar as an
option for the better management of paddy straw. Biochar is also used in croplands for better use of
fertilizers (PAU 2020). The concept of biochar is popularized among paddy farmers of Punjab state
in India through different extension centers viz., Krishi Vigyan Kendras (Farm Advisory Service
Scheme). Being ne-grained, soft, C-rich, porous structure, and high surface area, biochar is ideal
for reducing the C-footprints and for increasing SOC sequestration (Srinivasarao et al. 2013; PAU
2020). It can also help mitigate global warming consequences because of its effects on the recal-
citrant C storage in soil. In addition to saving of nitrogen, application of biochar @ 5 Mg ha−1
increases the crop yield by 10% (PAU 2020)
Application of biochar can mitigate 12–50% of anthropogenic C emissions depending on factors
like kind of material used, pyrolysis conditions and energetic performance of the biochar production
system, etc. (Cayuela et al. 2014; Chowdhury et al. 2017).
13.7.2 goveRnMent eFFoRts to pRoMote In-SItu ManageMent oF cRop ResIdue
The GOI initiated a scheme to promote the mechanization in agriculture for in-situ crop residue
management in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi in 2018–19 and 2019–20 by releasing
a fund of ₹ 1151.80 crores (~US$ 156.0million) (MoA&FW 2019). Under this scheme, the govern-
ment is providing up to 80% subsidy on the total cost of custom hiring of farm machinery for
in-situ crop residue management through cooperative society, private entrepreneurs, or self-help
groups. Besides, there is a provision of monetary support of up to 50% to the total outlay for the
procurement of agricultural machinery and equipment to the individual farmer for managing the
crop residues. The important machinery and equipment for in-situ residue management involved
under this scheme are Super Straw Management System, Happy Seeder, Rotary Mulcher, Hydraulic
Reversible Mould Board Plough, Paddy Straw Chopper/Shredder, Shrub Master, Rotavator, and
Zero-Till Seed-Cum-Fertilizer Drill. As per the government report (GOI 2019), a total of 32,570
different types of machinery have been distributed to the farmers besides setting up of 7960 custom
hiring centers in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, etc. The Department of Agriculture in the Punjab
government is organizing training programs at village, block, and district level to create awareness
among the farmers about the importance of crop residue incorporation in soil (Kumar et al. 2015a).
As a result, during 2018, more than 4500 villages in Punjab and Haryana were declared as zero
stubble burning villages as there was not a single crop burning incident from these villages. Besides
this, the Department of Agriculture Cooperation & Farmer’s Welfare (DAC&FW) is providing
separate funds to the States under the scheme of Sub-Mission on Agriculture Mechanization for
crop residue management. Under this mission, States have also been directed to conduct a demo of
types of machinery for residue management at farmer’s elds at the rate of ₹ 4000(~ US$55) ha−1.
Similarly, in 2014, a National Policy for Management of Crop Residue (NPMCR) was developed
by the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmer’s Welfare to promote in-situ crop residue management,
promote farm types of machinery to incorporate crop residues within the eld on subsidy, and to
provide nancial aid to the researchers for innovative ideas and project proposal on the same issues
(Datta et al. 2020).
The economic conditions of farmers do not allow them to adopt a long-term solution for residue
management. Therefore, the local government, municipalities, or farmers’ association should assist
the farmers in education, awareness creation, and capacity building for effective incorporation of
C-rich agricultural wastes into the soil body (Bhuvaneshwari et al. 2019). They should be made
aware of the advantages of crop residues on soil health, and the adverse effects of chemical fertiliza-
tion and residue burning.
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16 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
There is also a need to give attention to three important policy-related issues to crop residues
management: 1) to think of a self-running mechanism in a holistic way rather than in isolation, 2) to
identify strategies to empower stakeholders, and 3) to lean in the direction of nexus thinking rather
than sectorial thinking.
13.8 POLICIES FOR PROMOTION OF CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE
Conservation agriculture (CA) is not a new approach, but still, it has a need for wider adoption as
a challenging task, especially in the rice–wheat cropping system in India. It is a matter of grave
concern for policymakers and institutional leaders to transform the existing tillage practices into
a system-based CA. To make this transformation practically successful, there is a need to support
farmers by providing incentives and motivation for faster adoption of a system that will help to
enhance the soil C pool. It can be achieved by a regulatory standard framework, research and devel-
opment, wider training programs, legislations, incentive, and payback programs. Enhancement of
SOC concentration with the adoption of CA is a direct investment into soil fertility and C stock,
which is still not standardized by the government. Some cases have been observed in Africa and
Europe where farmers plow the soil as they know that the decomposition of organic matter upon
plowing will release the nutrients and the cost of fertilizer input will be reduced (Haugen-Kozyra
and Goddard 2009; Kassam et al. 2014).
Therefore, a policy framework is necessary for India to hold the landowner responsible for ensur-
ing the continuous addition of biomass-C into the soil. Furthermore, rules and regulations should
be the same for farmers who have or do not have their land to adopt CA-based practices to improve
the SOC pool. Policies should encourage and enable the unication and validation of CA protocol
in a practical form so that farmers can get pecuniary assistance for providing certain ecosystem ser-
vices. Likewise, the farmers get nancial and technical help from the government for adopting the
CA system to reduce soil erosion and subsequent C loss (Jangir et al. 2017). Such plans encourage
producers to transform their existing system of crop management into CA-based systems.
13.8.1 goveRnMent InteRventIons FoR conseRvatIon
agRIcultuRe and needFul actIon plans
The Indian government has to demonstrate and create awareness by conveying various CA promot-
ing policies through private and public extension services. Farmers suffer from yield losses caused
by the weed proliferation in CA systems initially. Therefore, governmental agencies have to ensure
the adequate and timely availability of subsidized and safe herbicides to lessen the initial costs and
credit lines for the procurement of CA tools and implements. Knowledge sharing must be promoted
among farmers at each level for the implementation of CA tactics. This can be achieved by creat-
ing a strong network and task force at the local, regional, and national levels to strengthen mutual
learning and capacity building. It will subsequently give a whole view of its benets, constraints,
awareness, and opportunities within the policy framework. Government has taken appreciable steps
in the direction of providing up to 50% subsidy on the total cost of procurement of CA types
of machinery and implements such as Super Straw Management System, Happy Seeder, Rotary
Mulcher, Hydraulic Reversible Mould Board Plough, Paddy Straw Chopper/Shredder, Shrub Master,
Rotavator, and Zero-Till Seed-Cum-Fertilizer Drill to the stakeholders. This provides opportuni-
ties and easiness for farmers to opt for the CA adoption by incorporating crop residues in soil or
retained on the surface. At the farm level, the changes in concentration of SOC will determine the
macro-level effects on soil health and crop productivity (Lal 2010b). Incentives should also be given
to producers for the adoption of novel practices and technologies for risk management. For endors-
ing the CA system, the policies should be designed in a way that gives a complete understanding
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17Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
of micro-level problems. As we know, the production economics in CA improve overtime, and that
larger farmers do not return back to conventional farming after conversion to CA practices.
13.8.2 technologIcal InteRventIons In the cRoppIng systeM
There is also a need to diversify the existing cropping systems before recommending any modern
crop establishment techniques to enhance SOC stock in soils of India. Thus, outows of C from
the agricultural soils of India should be reduced by adopting climate-smart agricultural techniques
which help to restore the SOC pool for overall improvement in agricultural sustainability in India
(Lal 2011; Doddabasawa et al. 2019). At present, rice–wheat cropping system covering ~12 M ha is
extensively practiced in India using conventional practices of both crop establishment and irrigation
which have generated many sustainability issues (Meena et al. 2020; Kumar et al. 2021). Moreover,
food preferences toward animal-based produces and food wastage are constantly developing pres-
sure for producing more and more agricultural commodities, and that compels farmers to over-
fertilization with large C-footprints. Under eld conditions, excessive tillage is performed under
standing water (puddling for rice) or without standing water (wheat), which results in the exposure
of the hitherto protected SOM within aggregates to microbial processes and exacerbating release
of GHGs into the atmosphere. Further, soil anaerobiosis in rice elds aggravate production of many
GHGs (methane, nitrous oxide, etc.), which further negate sustainability. Therefore, there is an
urgent need for intervention of diversied technologies in regions of rice-based farming systems
and conversion of transplanted/ooded to direct-seeded/aerobic rice or other upland crops (e.g.,
cotton, vegetables). Conversion to aerobic rice or other upland crops may save inputs (e.g., water,
energy for puddling) and other nite but precious resources.
Scientists from across the country suggested many technological interventions for enhancing
C sequestration, and further reduce the C-footprints (Gan et al. 2014). Reduction in C-footprints
of production system depends upon several factors viz., soil type, crop diversication, land cover,
air temperature, and land management practices (Sainju et al. 2010; Pinheiro et al. 2015). Further,
temperate regions have a better potential for C sequestration as compared to tropical regions (Lal
2004a; 2010a), and the former ranges from 50 kg C ha−1yr−1 to 1500 kg C ha−1yr−1 with the adop-
tion of different climate-smart technologies. A linear relationship is observed for soils of India
between C input and CO2 output. An increase of 00.4 Pg CO2 eq yr−1 of C input resulted in a cor-
responding increase in C output by ~0.2 Pg CO2 eq yr−1 through an increase in system productivity
(Maheswarappa et al. 2011). Usually, the landowners take care of maintenance and improvement of
soil fertility. But it is likely that many tenant farmers take the land on lease and take crop without
any C addition into the soil. So, there is a need to encourage farmers and landowners to diversify
some high remunerative and biomass production crops with resource conservation technologies as
per regional climate for betterment of a sustainable future.
13.8.3 polIcIes FoR pRoMotIon oF cRop dIveRsIFIcatIon
Adequate and proper policy planning is important to promoting crop diversication. The policy
should cover the infrastructure availability, supporting price, technological interventions, and farm-
er’s training to select alternative/ remunerative crops suitable to soil conditions. After analyzing the
negative consequences of rice–wheat system on ecological conditions and soil health, the govern-
ment is now looking for new scope through crop diversication that is remunerative and promotes
C accretion. For instance, in Punjab, basmati rice, oilseeds, pulses, fruits, and vegetables are being
encouraged as a substitute for rice and wheat monoculture. In 2002, a “multi-year contract farm-
ing” scheme was launched by the Punjab government to boost crop diversication to protect natural
resources including soil health. The government of Punjab constituted Agricultural Diversication
Fund (ADF) in 2005– 06 to improve d soil health under rice–wheat cropping system (Kumar et al.
2015a). Under ADF, the state government released a fund of ₹ 50.56 crores (~US$6.85 million) in
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18 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
2006–07 to empower the agricultural infrastructure and promote crop diversication in the rice–
wheat cropping system. Besides this, the Punjab government also released an additional fund of
₹ 10 crores (~US$ 1.35 million) in 2005–06 to establish Agricultural Research and Development
Fund (ARDF) for the screening of alternative crops and improved crop management strategies.
Cultivation of other low water requiring traditional crops (i.e., pearl millet, maize, sorghum, millet,
barley (Hordeum vulgare), pulses, etc.) should be reinforced by offering better support prices. The
Crop Diversication Program of the Punjab Agriculture Department has been successful in achiev-
ing 0.5 M ha area under the “Crop Diversication Pilot Scheme” in 2020. There is a need to extend
a similar in other states to enhance crop and soil productivity.
13.8.4 FalloW peRIods and theIR ManageMent plans
Sustainable management of soil C sequestration becomes more crucial when land is set aside and
returned to nature. In India, there are three types of fallow periods viz., summer fallow (April–
June), rice fallow (November–February), and fallow period in drylands (Kharif fallow in absence
of adequate rainfall or rabi fallow due to lack of residual moisture). In India, ~11M ha area remains
fallow after rice, of which about 82% is in the Eastern States like West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand,
Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, etc. The remainder of fallow land is in pen-
insular India viz., Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh (IIPR 2016). These are the areas
where rice is taken during the Kharif season (June to October) while the land is fallowed between
November and February. However, plowed bare fallowing has negative effects on the SOC stor-
age capacity of agricultural soils (Rasmussen et al. 1998). During this period, SOC is lost due to
its increased decomposition in absence of any input of biomass-C, and the increased temperature
and mineralization with soil tillage (Eagle and Olander 2012). The C loss in summer fallowing is
also accelerated through soil erosion. Thus, C capture and retention capacity of these soils can be
greatly enhanced by elimination of summer fallow by cultivating a short-duration crop during the
rice fallow period (Miglierina et al. 2000). In this context, there is a pertinent example from western
Canada which has successfully transformed the wheat-fallow period to wheat–wheat in semi-arid
regions, and this has improved the SOC content by 0.03 Mg ha−1(Smith et al. 2001). Formulation
and implementation of appropriate policies had great impacts on utilizing these fallow lands for
the cultivation of pulses and oilseeds using proper management technologies. Recently, the Indian
government has undertaken a good initiative for mapping of potential districts for pulses and oil-
seeds cultivation. The government, in coordination and collaboration with international institutions
and organizations, has initiated the screening, identication of suitable crops and cultivars, agro-
nomic management and other promotional technologies. In this direction, a scheme “Targeting Rice
Fallow Areas” (TRFA) was implemented under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) in eastern
India by DAC&FW during 2016–17 where 4.5 M ha under rice–fallow area was targeted to bring
under rabi pulses and oilseed within the next three years by releasing a fund of ₹ 75 crores (~US$
10millions) (NAAS 2016). Initially, in 2016–17, the TRFA was initiated in 15 districts of 6 states
(West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, and Assam) to cover 0.78 M ha. In 2017–18,
the area under the scheme was extended to 40 districts and 4000 villages to cover 0.6 M ha with
support of Minikit distribution, cluster demonstration, and farmers’ training (MoAFW 2018).
13.8.5 potentIal to pRoMote pulses In the RIce-based systeM
Most of the rice fallows are cultivated to diverse pulses and oilseeds such as lentil, pea (Pisum sati-
vum), green gram (Vigna radiata), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), black gram (Vigna mungo), pigeon
pea (Cajanuscajan), lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus), mustard (Brassica spp.), sesame (Sesamum indi-
cum), groundnut, sunower (Helianthus annuus), and linseed (Linumusitatissimum). The govern-
ment is further planning to extend the TRFA program in the rice fallows of southern, north-eastern,
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19Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
and Himalayan states up to 2022 with new norms of assistance (MoA&FW 2019a). Under National
Food Security Mission-Pulses (NFSM-Pulses), the government is also promoting areas under pulse
cultivation for more production and increased SOC content in rice fallows. In this context, soils
of India have a large potential for expansion under various upland pulses and oilseeds in different
agroecological conditions (Table 13.6). Although, the amount of SOC sequestered in these eco-
regions depends upon the quantity of crop residues being returned back to the soil.
Farmers are encouraged to grow pulses by establishing cluster demonstrations, distributing qual-
ity seed, providing improved types of machineries/tools/technologies, irrigation tools, and other
facilities. To support this scheme, other government plans like MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act), RKVY, and PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai
Yojana), are also contributing through developing water harvesting structures like farm ponds.
Several institutional and organizational projects are ongoing in different regions of the country to
strengthen pulses and oilseed cultivation in fallow soils. For example, the National Food Security
Mission (NFSM) is promoting the cultivation of pulses (i.e., lentil, chickpea, and lathyrus) in rice
fallow leaving positive impacts on building C stock in these regions (Kumar et al. 2019). The ICAR-
Indian Institute of Pulses Research (ICAR-IIPR) is providing technological and scientic support
for managing and expanding areas under pulses in these regions (Kumar et al. 2019). Likewise, the
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) in collaboration with NARS launched
a project in 2010 on “Enhancing Lentil Production for Food, Nutritional Security and Improved
Rural Livelihood” for Bihar, Assam, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. Similarly, another
exclusive project (i.e., “Enhancing Grass Pea Production for Safe Human Food, Animal Feed, and
Sustainable Rice–Based Production System in India”)is ongoing in Bihar, West Bengal, Eastern
Uttar Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh states with the support of NFSM in the International Center for
Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) (Kumar et al. 2019).
13.9 CARBON STATUS OF DRYLAND AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
As much as 175 M ha of land in India is prone to degradation by different processes (FAO 2017)
that need to be checked urgently by adopting principles of conservation agriculture. In these areas,
the average rainfall is lower than the potential evapotranspiration with less than 0.65 aridity index
TAB LE 13.6
Potential Crops for Rice Fallows in Different States
Crop States
Lentil Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and
Jharkhand
Pea Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, and Northern Madhya Pradesh
Chickpea Chhattisgarh, Bihar, and Jharkhand
Green gram Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and
Karnataka
Black gram Coastal Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Odisha
Grass pea (Lathyrus) Tal area of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and West Bengal
Cluster bean Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka
Lablab bean (Lablab purpureus) Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka
Mustard Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand
Sesame/linseed Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Jharkhand
Groundnut Char area of Bihar, Mahananda of Odisha, Brahmaputra Valley of Assam, and
coastal Andhra Pradesh
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20 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
(Safriel et al. 2005). The lack of water availability and land degradation in these areas hamper crop
productivity that negatively affect SOC and SOM stocks. Adoption of conservation agriculture,
crop rotations, crop residue retention, and cover crops show a positive impact on soil organisms,
weed seeds predation, biodiversity, and other ecosystem services (WBCSD 2018). Thus, practicing
improved agricultural methods and soil management can lead to SOC sequestration and improve-
ment of soil health in drylands.
13.9.1 ManageMent oF degRaded lands
Soil erosion involves breakdown of aggregates, which exposes the once hidden SOM to the oxidiz-
ing microorganisms and release of CO2 into the atmosphere. Reduction in plant biomass and its
roots is the main factor, associated with the decline in SOC contents in degraded lands. Further,
salt-affected soils of Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, and West Bengal may have SOC content of lower
than 5 g kg−1(Lal 2004). Hence, the higher the erosion losses the lower is the SOC contents, the
poorer the soil health and the lower the agronomic yields. So, focused research and policies should
be emphasized on integrated agricultural and livestock management. With implementation of vari-
ous agronomic and land management practices, drylands have a huge potential for enhanced C
budget in the soil so that these areas are also referred to as “bright spots” for C sequestration (UNEP
2011; FAO 2017). The target of achieving signicant C sequestration in degraded dryland soil is
feasible, which in turn will directly benet society and the environment.
13.9.2 goveRnMent actIon plans FoR dRyland agRIcultuRe
The GOI is promoting dryland agriculture through different schemes, programs, projects, and
missions in one or the other part of the country. For dryland agriculture promotion schemes like
MGNREGA and the National Agriculture Development Programme (NADP) promote activi-
ties for land development/management and construction of water harvesting structures. So vari-
ous water harvesting structures like farm ponds, community ponds, percolation ponds, and check
dams have been constructed at eld level. This helps to uplift dryland farming, as almost 60% of
farmers depend on dryland farming for livelihood. Several initiatives based on natural resource
management (NRM) have been launched to promote agriculture growth in rain-fed areas. A judi-
cious watershed management allows capturing the rainfall and runoff water at the eld level, thus
extending the availability of water in drylands. In this direction, schemes such as “Drought Prone
Areas Programme” and the “Desert Development Programme” were initiated in 1994–95. Under
both schemes, watershed development was targeted to control desertication by rejuvenating the
natural resources in dryland areas. National Watershed Development Project for Rain-fed Areas
(NWDPRA) was implemented at the state level in 1990–91 to intensify the efforts for agricul-
tural improvement in rain-fed areas based on the concept of integrated watershed management and
sustainable farming systems. In 2000–2001, it was further merged into the Macro Management
of Agriculture (MMA) scheme. Currently, this is being implemented in 28 states and two Union
Territories sponsored by the central government. For watershed development projects, the common
guidelines issued by the National Rain-fed Area Authority (NRAA) are followed. Currently, all the
watershed management schemes have been brought under the connements of the PMKSY. But
under PMKSY also, many sub-schemes have been structured that are handled by different agricul-
ture, water resources, and rural development ministries, all with their management strategies and
separate budgets. Under the NAPCC, the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) is
one of the initiatives to promote sustainable agriculture in India.
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21Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
13.9.3 polIcIes FoR pRoMotIng tRees/shRubs plantatIon FoR soIl caRbon RestoRatIon
Trees absorb atmospheric CO2 during photosynthesis and utilize it to form branches, stems, and
roots. The introduction of trees causes a marked increase in SOC level as the C introduced from
trees are more resistant to decomposition as compared to other herbaceous crop plants (Kumar et
al. 2018). So, forest areas are capable to absorb CO2 quickly from the air and store it as C sink for
long periods (Fig ure 13.8).
Agriculture and forestry in India are signicantly contributing to soil C sequestration. Thus,
adopting different strategies and policies to enhance C sequestration can enrich the national C econ-
omy. So, in this direction, the government has taken various initiatives such as MGNREGA, National
Mission of Green India, National REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation) Programme, and different forests policies. In September 2005, the Indian Ministry of
Rural Development proposed the livelihood security act named MGNREGA. The scheme was put
forward for achieving India’s climate change target under the Paris Climate Change Agreement in
2016. Under the scheme, the provision is to provide a minimum of 100 days of employment to at
least a single member of an eligible family for any unskilled manual work assigned. Thus, to miti-
gate climate change, activities like afforestation and fruit orchards creation have been undertaken
at block and village levels. Different interventions under MGNREGA have sequestered ~0.62 Pg of
CO2 equivalent in 2017–18 and it is predicted that by 2030 it will help to achieve sequestration of
about 1.97 Pg CO2 equivalent that is 8% of India’s target (Hindustan Times 2018). The UNFCCC
launched the REDD+ Programme globally in 2005 to utilize forest’s potential in C sequestration to
mitigate climate change. So, India has initiated its national REDD+ Strategy to address forest deg-
radation and deforestation issues and enhance ecosystem C stock. Under the Paris agreement, India
has established a target to capture 2.5–3.0 Pg of CO2 by 2030 through afforestation and planting of
trees (MoEF 2012). Therefore, the forest department is making intensive efforts in this direction to
capture and store C in soil over the long term. Because forests play an important role in natural C
sequestration, India has developed a robust policy and legal framework to preserve and maintain its
forests. To strengthen the forest cover in the country, several enactments launched include Wildlife
FIGURE 13.8 Trees enhance soil carbon sequestration.
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22 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
Protection Act (1972), Forest Conservation Act (1980), Environment Protection Act (1986), and the
National Forest Policy (NFP) (1988). Under NFP, GOI plans to extend the area under forest cover
by ~1% yr−1 and from 24% to 33% between 2005 and 2012. From the viewpoint of increased C
sequestration, these policies were aimed at expanding and improving the plantation coverage and
preventing deforestation of already existing forest area. During the ninth and tenth ve-year plan,
the government initiated the National Afforestation Programme (NAP) in integration with agricul-
tural and rural development intending to increase 1.0 M ha of forest cover area every year. Together,
all these forest policies have contributed signicantly to the net CO2 sink.
13.10 RESEARCH EVIDENCE ON CARBON DYNAMICS
IN AGROFORESTRY MODELS
Agroforestry is a key model for managing the natural resources, increasing production of agricul-
ture, and achieving the national vegetal cover for sustainable production and development. However,
the degree of its performance and outputs depends upon the site conditions, the ecological amplitude
of species, compatibility of trees, crops, and other components under the given set of environments.
The sole production of either crop or tree both have some limitations in terms of soil, resource uti-
lization, economics, environment, and ecological aspects. In this context, agroforestry has positive
outputs which include efcient nutrient cycling, reduction in loss of soil and nutrients, improve-
ment of the soil characteristics (physical, chemical, and biological), conservation of resources and
achievement of food security and its sustainability (Jhariya et al. 2012).
Agroforestry has good potential to rehabilitate degraded lands, improve productivity and restore
soil fertility. Agroforestry reportedly contributes up to 50% demand for fuelwood, more than 60%
of small timber, nearly 75% of plywood, 60% of paper pulp raw material, and up to 10% of green
fodder requirement besides the needs of the household (Nair et al. 2010). Presently, agroforestry
in India is practiced on 25.3 M ha (approx. 8.20% of the country’s area) (Dhyani 2018). Further,
nearly 15% of the total cultivated area has a diverse form of agroforestry which comprises 11.2%
irrigated and 16.5% of rain-fed areas. In arid and semi-arid regions, common tree species in the
agroforestry system comprise Acacia nilotica, A. tortilis, Ailanthus excelsa, Azadirachtaindica,
Albizia, Celtisaustralis, Dalbergiasissoo, Grewiaoptiva, Leucaenaleucocephala, Morus alba,
Prosopis cineraria, Ziziphus, spp. etc. The higher plants and shrubs signicantly enhance fod-
der supply in arid and semi-arid regions especially during the lean or dry periods when there is
least or non-availability of green fodder. Therefore, silvo-pastoral system is one of the promising
options for degraded lands (Dhyani 2018). For restoration of alkali soils through silvo-pastoral
approaches, Dagar et al. (2001) indicated that tree species such as A. nilotica, Prosopis juliora
and Tamarixarticulata have much potential. Dagar and colleagues also observed that incorpora-
tion of grasses like Brachiariamutica, Chloris gayana, and Leptochloafusca are also promising
and productive. Nair et al. (2010) also reported that agroforestry systems have the C sink potential
of 0.29–15.21 Mg ha−1yr−1 aboveground and 30–300 Mgha−1C up to 1m depth of soil. Nair and col-
leagues also observed that agroforestry has the potential of contributing toward 12% of the global
terrestrial C stock. Therefore, it is essential to adopt agroforestry on underutilized areas that can be
utilized efciently through its adoption and development by linking to the World Bank initiatives in
Community Development Carbon Fund and the Bio Carbon Fund toward resilient ecosystem (Nair
et al. 2010).
Managing C through diverse forestry schemes is pivotal to enhancing the amount of C seques-
tered in vegetation and soil C pools. Agroforestry systems have a large potential of C sequestration,
with a range of 25–96 Mg C ha−1, depending upon the species and site interactions, biomass produc-
tion, and ecological amplitude of the species (Dhyani 2018). Several researchers have conrmed
that agroforestry is a promising system for increasing plant and soil C stocks as well as adapting
TNF_13_397522_C013_docbook_new_indd.indd 22 8/25/2021 4:18:17 AM
23Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
and mitigating climate change. For example, Newaj and Dhyani (2008) reported that tropical agro-
forestry can sequester up to 12–228 Mgha−1C with an average of 95 MgCha−1.
The SOC and C mitigation potential in various land-use systems (Figure 13.9) indicates that
the higher values are under the alternate land-use practices than the farming and fallow land-use
(Reddy 2002). The highest SOC was recorded in the order: agri-silviculture (19.9 Mgha−1)>silvi-
pasture (17.5 Mgha−1)>agri-silvi-horticulture (17.0 Mg ha−1) >Leucaena leucocephala (15.7 Mg
ha−1) >Acacia albida (15.2 Mg ha−1) >Eucalyptus camaldulensis (13.2 Mg ha−1) >Tectonagrandis
(12.5 Mg ha−1) >Dendrocalamusstrictus (11.7 Mg ha−1) >Azadirachtaindica (11.4 Mg ha−1) > agri-
cultural system (9.4 Mg ha−1). Further, C mitigation potential is reportedly higher in agri-silviculture
(4.2 Mg ha−1) than that under fallow and agricultural land (Reddy 2002).
13.10.1 agRoFoRestRy polIcIes In IndIa
The policy and legal instruments are the key pillars for the successful implementation of technol-
ogy and the development of the country. India is the rst nation across the world to have a separate
policy in agroforestry (i.e., National Agroforestry Policy 2014). However, some earlier policies also
addressed and covered the agroforestry development in India such as Green India Mission, National
Policy for Farmers, National Bamboo Mission, National Agriculture Policy, and NPF. The new
policy on agroforestry emphasizes and promotes agroforestry development and income to the farm-
ing community, reduces the risk of climate change, offers various diversied products and outputs,
and creates avenues of farming community through employment generation and reduces the pres-
sure on natural forest and resources. Further, these policies are initiated to address the main motto
of covering 1/3rd area under vegetation cover for sustainability (Chavan et al. 2015).
In the Indian scenario, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh initiated the agroforestry policy to
combat poverty and offer alternative economic gains to the farming community through various
schemes, such as Lok Vaniki in Madhya Pradesh, to accomplish the forest in private farm or land. In
other states, the government has taken initiatives regarding home gardens, bund planting, etc. These
policies are framed to increase economic gains, enhance environmental sustainability, control soil
FIGURE 13.9 Carbon mitigation and soil organic carbon under various land-use in India (Datasource:
Reddy 20 02).
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24 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
erosion, reduce land and environmental degradation, and increase an efcient resource utilization
and C sequestration, especially in the small and marginal farming communities. The recent agrofor-
estry policy reects positive impacts of agroforestry extension, developing and shifting the outlooks
of farmers toward agroforestry. This new paradigm will contribute toward scaling up the agrofor-
estry for C sequestration and climate mitigation in India (Chavan et al. 2015).
13.11 PROMOTION OF COMPOSTING/
VERMICOMPOSTING AT THE BLOCK LEVEL
Demonstrations related to composting must be conducted at each block level by the agricultural
ofcers with the help of State Agricultural Universities, Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs known
as farmers’ science center), Agricultural Research Institutes/Stations, and the State Agricultural
Departments. Frequent visits, training, and nancial assistance shall be provided to the farmers
to make them aware of the practical benets of organic farming and the resultant improvements
in soil C status. The demonstration could involve the methods of preparation and use of compost,
vermicompost, and other organic inputs. Besides, farmers must be trained by demonstrating micro-
level trials utilizing waste decomposer, proper incorporation of crops residues and stubbles in soil,
legume promotion in crop rotation, balancing the input-output of farm products, effective utiliza-
tion of fallow period by growing leguminous green manuring, and other promotional activities
(Kumar et al. 2020). In general, farmers hesitate to adopt a technology/methodology unless or until
they see the practical signicance of that particular technique. In that situation, these trials could
better advertise the importance of soil health and organic farming and thus can be proved as an
excellent trainer of the farmers at village levels. To make this program successful, it is necessary
to take farmers into condence, and for this, the honesty, behavior, and dedication of concerned
Agricultural Ofcer to his/her responsibility are important. The Department of Rural Development
and Blocks in Punjab is facilitating the land for the establishment of biomass-based units throughout
the state (Kumar et al. 2015a).
13.12 POLICIES FOR SETTING UP COMPOSTING PLANTS AT LARGE SCALE
India annually generates about 5.0 Pg of crop residues, of which the cereal crops i.e., rice, wheat,
maize, millets, etc. contribute 70% (3.62 Pg) of residue. Of this, rice and wheat contribute 34 and
22% of residue respectively and a large proportion of that is being brunt on the farm (The Economics
Time 2019). Some of the crop residues produced are used as fodder and fuel and for other domestic
purposes. Yet, about 1.40 Pg of crop residues are surplus (Bhuvaneshwari et al. 2019). In addition,
about 3.20 Pg of cattle manure, 0.25 Pg poultry manure, and about 0.25 Pg of domestic wastes
are being produced annually in the country. The municipal solid wastes also greatly contribute to
cumulative organic wastes having an estimated annual production of 0.274 Pg including 0.045 Pg of
wastes from fruits and vegetables. At the same time, about 7.60 Pg of potato (Solanum tuberosum)
residues are produced annually throughout the country (MoA&FW 2020).
Thus, there is ample scope for the establishment of composting units at a large scale at the tehsil/
district level to promote their application and enhancing soil C stock. The country is generating a
huge amount of agricultural wastes/raw organic materials including crop residues which can be
effectively utilized after well decomposing in composting units for input into soil. According to the
NPMCR. These agro-wastes including crop residues can be benecially utilized again in farming as
input after proper processing and composting. Therefore, it is crucial to create awareness among the
farmers to establish vermicomposting units for recycling organic wastes rather than in-eld burning
of residues. The government has launched several schemes and programs to promote the addition
of organic inputs to the soil. Some of the central sector schemes, by which nancial assistance is
provided to the farmers through the State government, are National Project on Organic Farming
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25Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
(NPOF) (2004), NFSM (2007–08), RKVY (August 2007), Mission for Integrated Development of
Horticulture (MIDH) (2014–15), and NMSA (2014–15). Under NPOF, a 33% subsidy is provided on
total establishment cost up to a maximum ceiling of ₹ 60 lakhs (~US$ 0.08 million) through National
Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) for the installment of compost produc-
tion unit from agricultural wastes (Indian Botanists 2014).
13.13 POLICIES TO EXPAND THE AREA UNDER ORGANIC FARMING
A high priority must be given to formulating and implementing novel policies for encouraging
investment in research, technology transfer, farmers training, knowledge sharing, capacity building,
and application of advanced technologies based on the region-specic available raw organic materi-
als. The government is already working to promote balanced fertilization through soil test-based
and judicious application of inorganic and organic manuring to increase soil C but to make the
program successful still more efforts are needed in this direction. The GOI has also focused on the
transformation of conventional farming to organic farming indifferent parts of the country on basis
of site-specic ecological conditions. Further, attention was also given by the GOI to the concept
of balanced fertilization including inorganic and organic fertilizers. But still, it had a challenge as
small and marginal farmers who are doing farming on leased land do not have their own livestock
and are not able to access organic manures like compost, farmyard manure, etc. For that GOI have
to review the legal documents on organic manures to establish an appropriate legal structure on
organic inputs and other issues such as taxes, credits, and new technologies in farming. It is impor-
tant to frame the long-term policies on a priority basis to promote the production and application of
organic inputs in crop production, livestock farming, city and food processing waste, and other raw
materials such as peat, seaweed. The emphasis should be given to the balanced input use in areas
where organic farming alone is not possible due to the unavailability of raw materials, such as in
arid regions which are poor in soil fertility and prevalence of high temperatures can oxidize SOM
content.
The GOI has started several programs to promote the usages of C-based input in agriculture
and enhance organic production. Some important programs and schemes (Yadav 2017) of GOI
include Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY), RKVY, Organic Value Chain Development in
North Eastern Region Scheme (OVCDNERS), NPOF, National Programme for Organic Production
(NPOP), NMSA, Soil Health Management Scheme (SHMS), and Soil Health Card (SHC). The
PKVY is a cluster-based scheme under the NMSA mission to promote organic agriculture in 0.2
M ha areas covering 10,000 clusters (20 ha each). The government has sanctioned a total amount
of ₹ 300 crores (~US $ 40.63millions) under this scheme during 2015–16. In this scheme, nancial
support of ₹ 50,000 (~US $ 677) ha−1 per farmer was allocated for three years to bring 20 M ha of
land under organic cultivation during 2015–16 and 2017–18 (Yadav 2017). Organic farming and
production of domestic organic inputs are being promoted through rational resources under this
scheme. Besides, the scheme is focused to optimize the use of local natural resources for C-based
input generation, to use indigenous techniques of crop management, and to sustain soil health. The
scheme OVCDNERS was launched to promote organic farming in the north-eastern regions of the
country. An amount of ₹ 115 crores (~US $ 15millions) was released to promote this scheme. The
NPOP was launched by the GOI in 2001 to promote organic farming in 11 States (i.e., Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Uttaranchal, Mizoram,
Sikkim, and Nagaland) (Yadav 2017). Under NMSA mission, the SHMS promotes integrated nutri-
ent management (INM) for balanced plant nutrition focusing more the on use of locally available
organic inputs such as compost, vermicompost, farmyard manure, green, manures, etc. to acceler-
ate soil C level and soil health. Besides, Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs) are also established to
recommend soil test-based fertilizer applications. As a part of the Swachh Bharat Mission, a policy
on promoting the use of city compost was designed in 2016 by the Department of Fertilizers. Under
this, nancial assistance of ₹ 1500 (~ US $ 32) is given for the production and consumption of 1 Mg
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26 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
of city compost. In 2017–18, a total of 90.7 Pg of city compost has been marketed by the fertilizer
companies. Besides, ICAR through the scheme of Network Project on Organic Farming is facilitat-
ing research in 20 centers covering 16 states to advance region-specic packages and practices of
organic farming in crops and cropping systems. But the major concern is that till now no scheme
and program is being promoted which has directly focused on restoring SOC stocks in India.
13.14 PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS FOR INVESTMENT
IN SOIL CARBON RESTORATION
The quantication and verication of C benets under different management practices over time
will motivate private investors to invest in soil C sequestration. Private investment in soil will be
promoted up to an extent if the government clearly declares it to be new business opportunities.
Private organizations/companies can promote the instruments and implements that enable farmers
to adopt soil C sequestration practices such as CA implements and types of machinery. For that,
an appropriate price on C is essential and that is an effective way to increase soil C sequestration.
The public and private investments can also be attracted by documenting that soil C sequestration
practices are directly linked with biodiversity, adaptation, mitigation, water management, and the
economics of farming and rural communities. It can be accelerated by demonstrating C sequestra-
tion potential of best management practices through eld trials, demonstration projects, regional
and state trials, and farmer’s training programs, and in the coming years, it may be one of the top
priorities. The private companies together with the public sector may compensate farmers for SOC
sequestration at least during the initial period of land use change toward new management practices.
It is of great interest to see if existing payment programs and subsidies can be adjusted to prize the
C accrual approaches.
13.15 RECOMMENDED POLICY AGENDA FOR SOIL CARBON RESTORATION
The amount of C sequestrated in soil depends on land-use change with same management approaches
and on land-use decisions. Presently, several policies are promoting management decision to
improve crop production and environmental quality, and attain enhanced SOC stocks. Regulatory
standard policies (command-and-control guidelines) should be designed to encourage farmers for
adopting best management practices or land-use decisions to increase soil C content and stocks.
These regulatory policies should maintain standard rules and regulations to promote the adoption
of C-intensive practices. Soil C sequestration can be considered indirect pecuniary support to the
farmers in three important ways as follows:
Firstly, there should be a provision of direct incentive payment to the farmers or land manag-
ers for switching from conventional tillage to conservation agriculture. However, the C-intensive
practices may be specic to a particular region of the country following the spatial heterogeneity
of available resources. Therefore, the choice can be given to the farmers to choose the management
practices among the recommended C-intensive practices or land-use decisions in accordance with
the suitability of a particular approach in the eld and other dened or undened regions.
The farmers’ incentive should be on per-hectare bases as the minimum amount per Mg of C
sequestration that will encourage the farmers to achieve SOC storage. Appropriate policies can
endorse SOC sequestration in parts of the country where the production losses can be counter-
balanced by the incentives received from the sale of per hectare and per Mg of C sequestration.
Besides, the sequestered C can be sold to the industries and companies interested in the reduction of
GHGs emissions at the current market price. In Australia and Canada, for example, some govern-
ment-subsidized, incentive-based compensation projects and trading related to soil C sequestration
are being implemented (Paustian et al. 2019). However, implementation is lacking at a wider scale.
In both per hectare and per Mg payment scheme, the following assumptions are used to evaluate the
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27Soil Organic Carbon Restoration in India
management decisions made by the farmers: 1) Each hectare of land is managed separately and that
strategies followed in that eld do not affect the nearby eld, 2) Each farmer takes only one crop,
and 3) Farmers have a xed and sufcient capital to take crop using either no-till or conventional
tillage. Although the spatial heterogeneity in the eld, soil features, and their interference in assess-
ing the change in soil C by adopting newer management practices or land use are some of the very
issues that complicate the formulation of dynamic policies. Also, even after these policies being
efcient in C sequestration, their execution and authentication could be challenging, as they require
intensive knowledge in the understanding of connection between SOC sequestration and land qual-
ity, use and management as well as the guesstimate of SOC baseline. A policy can be efcient only
if it endorses the espousal of best management practices to increase soil C sequestration by taking
into consideration the overall economics of the program.
13.16 CONSIDERATIONS FOR POLICIES FRAMEWORK
ON SOIL CARBON RESTORATION
• Advance policy agendas to stop the destruction of existing C-rich soils through deforesta-
tion, land degradation, and detrimental land-use change, etc.
• Document the efcacious C-intensive management approaches and demonstrate beneted
farms.
• Identify or approach the progressive farmers who are already taking care of agroecology
and C sequestration. Publish and popularize their success stories.
• Critically analyze data on existing subsidies that have a negative impact on soil C seques-
tration and communicate the outcomes in original and high-impact ways.
• Consider the multi-stakeholder approaches and accordingly advertise the governmental
agenda that will improve soil C sequestration in addition to the employment creation, food
security, environmental and social services.
• Reward the farmers and other stakeholders who adopt C-based practices by initiating an
award program on a specic policy.
• Make the brief policy papers in simple and local language for their better understanding of
the C sequestration program to the producers.
• Establish a protocol for tracing, quantication, and verication of historical change in soil
C status under different best management practices over the period.
• Monitor and timely evaluate schemes for their workability, corruption in implementation.
• Document feedback from farmers concerning easiness, incentives, and economics of activ-
ities and accordingly nd the gaps for further modication and improvement in existing
policies.
• Conduct farmers’ training programs at micro-level to create awareness on the nancial
support provided by the government to promote C inputs in farming by the expansion of
recommended management practices.
• Follow timely discussions or open communication and sponsored crusade to land manag-
ers and monitoring ofcials to adopt soil C sequestration in the employment agenda, rural
economics, and development.
• Establish a common platform for knowledge sharing among the farmers at the local,
regional, and national levels through e-learning, seminars, conferences, symposiums, and
other social platforms.
• Design governmental policy and C market in a way that includes small farmers, land ten-
ure, land access and protect their interest.
• Organize a summit on agroecological approaches on soil C sequestration including farm-
ers, rural communities, scientists, policymakers, and planners.
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28 Soil Organic Matter and Feeding the Future
• Advance a communication expedition that exposes the subsidies on C-exhaustive prac-
tices and positively publicize the benets of soil C, soil health, and their best management
practices.
• Draft a declaration of rules and regulations to direct policies and programs on soil C
sequestration.
• Form a strong virtual network among the farmers, land managers, and their associations
to prepare an action plan and look for available funding to promote C-based management
practices.
• Promote research and developmental activities on carbonaceous practices and land-use
decisions across the agroecological regions and most soil types.
• Carry out case studies on farmers and land managers who actively engaged in best man-
agement practices for the soil and communicate their stories to planners and democrats.
• Build a local C market for the selling of C offset of farmers.
• Publish the soil C prospectus and invite the investors to invest in the eld for C sequestration.
• Start work with developmental banks to reveal success stories on soil C sequestration to
entice public and private investors.
• Prioritize work with community-based nance, and help the farmers and producers by
providing small loans and grants for adopting best management practices in farming.
The following key points need to be considered to move forward on SOC sequestration:
• A strong and comprehensive political vision.
• An appropriate business proposal for land managers and farmers.
• A robust business proposal and track-record of triumph among private and public investors.
• Financial assistance and policy framework to make payment sturdier in programs and
schemes of ecosystem services that include producers and attract more investments.
• Legal provisions to resolve controversies over land and C tenure.
The government or an organization may invest in the restoration of SOC stock only when the fol-
lowing elements are combined: 1) improved productivity, 2) risk management capacity, 3) improved
marketing facilities, 4) nancial assistance to C offsets, and 5) governmental subsidies and nancial
incentives. Therefore, considering the importance of soil C, this chapter is mainly focused on the
effective plans and policies for soil management and C restoration in the agricultural soils that will
eventually make the country more secure against climate change and vulnerability to soil degrada-
tion. It will also support the aims of “Sustainable Development Goals” for a better country and the
planet in general.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This chapter formulated has been through the nancial support for faculty under the Institution of
Eminence (IoE) scheme No. 6031, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi (UP) – 221005, India.
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