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sensors
Communication
A Semi-Empirical Approach to Gas Flow Velocity Measurement
by Means of the Thermal Time-of-Flight Method
Jacek Sobczyk * , Andrzej Rachalski and Waldemar Wodziak
Citation: Sobczyk, J.; Rachalski, A.;
Wodziak, W. A Semi-Empirical
Approach to Gas Flow Velocity
Measurement by Means of the
Thermal Time-of-Flight Method.
Sensors 2021,21, 5679. https://
doi.org/10.3390/s21175679
Academic Editor: Vincenzo Spagnolo
Received: 9 July 2021
Accepted: 20 August 2021
Published: 24 August 2021
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4.0/).
Strata Mechanics Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Reymonta 27, 30-059 Krakow, Poland;
rachalski@imgpan.pl (A.R.); wodziak@imgpan.pl (W.W.)
*Correspondence: sobczyk@imgpan.pl
Abstract:
This paper presents a method of measuring gas flow velocity based on the thermal time-of-
flight method. The essence of the solution is an analysis of the time shift and the shape of voltage
signals at the transmitter and at a temperature wave detector. The measurements used a probe
composed of a wave transmitter and a detector, both in the form of thin tungsten wires. A rectangular
signal was used at the wave transmitter. The time-of-flight of the wave was determined on the basis
of the time shift of two selected characteristic points of the voltage waveform at the transmitter and
the wave detector. To obtain the correct velocity indication, a correction in the form of a simple power
function was applied. From the measurements performed, the relative uncertainty of the method
was obtained, from approx. 4% of the measured value at an inflow velocity of 6.5 cm/s to 1% for an
inflow velocity of 50 cm/s and higher.
Keywords: thermal anemometer; thermal time-of-flight (TTOF); thermal wave; low flow velocity
1. Introduction
1.1. Introduction to the Thermal Time-of-Flight Method
Measurements of the gas flow velocity constitute an important branch of metrology.
They are widely used in industrial and laboratory measurements. The need to measure gas
flow velocity appears in the chemical, aviation, and automotive industries, in the control
of ventilation systems. Another issue is the study of air flows in closed spaces (such as
production halls, offices, storage rooms, etc.). There is a great variety in the methods of
measuring the gas flow velocity.
In simplified terms, the following types of methods of measuring the gas flow velocity
can be distinguished (with exemplary devices):
•Based on pressure measurement (damming tubes, orifices, nozzles);
•Mechanical (vane anemometers);
•Thermal (hot-wire anemometers);
•Marker (LDA, PIV);
•Ultrasonic.
The thermal time-of-flight method uses a heated volume of flowing fluid as a marker.
Its advantages and disadvantages are best presented against the background of other meth-
ods. The most important advantage is the ability to measure very low flow velocities, even
in the order of mm/s, i.e., in the range where pressure-based and mechanical anemometers
cannot be used. Compared to other marker methods, it does not require the introduction
of a foreign phase (solid or liquid) into the flow, so it is minimally invasive. Another ad-
vantage of this method is its low sensitivity to changes in temperature or the composition
of the flowing gas, i.e., in conditions where the use of hot-wire anemometers is difficult or
even impossible. It requires neither complicated nor expensive apparatus such as LDA and
PIV methods. The main drawback of thermal time-of-flight method is the low bandwidth
determined by the time of the marker’s flight, which distinguishes it negatively from other
Sensors 2021,21, 5679. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21175679 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
Sensors 2021,21, 5679 2 of 16
methods. The spatial resolution of the velocity measurement, although better than that of
mechanical anemometers, is inferior to that of hot-wire anemometers due to the complexity
of the probe, which must include a wave transmitter and detector. Due to the fact that the
speed is determined on the path between the transmitter and the wave detector, the correct
orientation of the probe in the measured flow is important, therefore it is difficult to use it
in conditions where the velocity direction changes during the measurement.
1.2. Motivation of the Study
Interest in the thermal time-of-flight method and work on its development stem from
the need to measure very low gas flow velocities, in conditions where the gas composition
and temperature are unknown or change during the measurement. The second reason is
the need to conduct such measurements in real conditions (outside the laboratory), where
flows are turbulent.
This paper describes an attempt to modify the thermal wave method so that it is
enough to use only one wave detector to determine the gas flow velocity. The idea is
to determine the flow velocity on the basis of an analysis of the time intervals between
the characteristic points of the voltage waveforms at the temperature transmitter and the
detector. This simple approach, although more empirical than physical by nature, is in fact
a step forward in meeting the needs mentioned above.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Basics of the Thermal Time-of-Flight Method
The basis for determining the velocity of a flowing gas stream using the thermal wave
method is the measurement of the temperature wave propagation time in the tested flow
over a known distance. The test probe comprises a wave transmitter, usually in the form of
a fine wire, and one or two wave detectors (resistance thermometers), also in the form of
thin wires, positioned downstream of the transmitter. An important issue is the method of
determining the time-of-flight of the wave. Two interconnected phenomena are involved
in the process of propagation of a temperature wave in flowing gas: Wave drift with the
flow velocity, and thermal diffusion. For a sinusoidal wave, the dependence of the wave
phase velocity on the flow velocity is described by the relationship [1,2]:
vT=vr1+4κ2ω2
v4, (1)
where v
T
is the temperature wave phase velocity (m/s), vis the gas velocity (m/s),
ω
is the
wave frequency (rad/s), and
κ
is the gas temperature diffusivity (m
2
/s). From
Equation (1)
,
it follows that the velocity v
T
of the temperature wave is always greater than the drift
velocity vand depends on the frequency of the wave. If in Formula (1) the fraction is
negligibly small, which can be expressed in terms of the ratio of the Strouhal and Peclet
numbers: Sr
Pe =
κω
v21, (2)
then, the phenomenon of temperature diffusion can be ignored and the phase velocity of
the thermal wave can be assumed to be equal to the flow velocity, i.e., v=v
T
. Additionally,
if the thermal diffusion is negligible, the signal does not change its shape. In this case, it is
enough to measure the time interval between any chosen characteristic point of the signal
waveform registered by the detectors. The above analysis can be applied to a waveform of
any shape—Equation (1) then describes the propagation of the i-th harmonic components
of the signal with frequencies ωi.
2.2. Main Approaches to the Thermal Time-of-Flight Method
In order to generate a thermal wave in the flowing gas, the temperature of the transmit-
ter must change over time. In the thermal wave method, various types of electric current
waveforms heating the wave transmitter are used: It may be a pulse signal [
3
–
6
], a sinu-
Sensors 2021,21, 5679 3 of 16
soidal signal [
1
,
2
,
7
–
10
] or—easiest to implement and most commonly used—a rectangular
signal [
11
,
12
]. Other signals that have been used include a pseudo-stochastic signal [
13
], a
signal composed of the sum of sinusoidal waveforms with various appropriately selected
frequencies and amplitudes [
14
], and a rectangular multifrequency binary sequence (MBS)
signal [
15
]. MBS signals have the property that the major part of the signal power is
concentrated in several harmonic components [16].
To determine the time-of-flight of the wave, the following solutions are used: A
direct method, determination of mutual correlation of signals on the detectors, and cal-
culation of the phase shift of the signals. In the direct method, the time of flight of the
wave is determined on the basis of selected characteristic points in the time waveforms
of the signals recorded by the detectors. The most frequently selected points are the
beginning of the signal rise [
17
] or the maximum signal [
5
,
10
]. The correlation method
consists of determining the time interval between the signals using the cross-correlation
function [
13
,
18
]. The phase shift of the signals is determined using the spectral analy-
sis [1,12,15].
The correct measurement, especially at very low flow velocities, is possible provided
that the influence of temperature diffusivity and the phenomenon of wave dispersion
on the signal shape is taken into account. A method based on the harmonic analysis of
temperature waveforms exists followed by the determination of phase shifts of individual
harmonics [
12
,
13
,
15
]. In this method, the flow velocity is determined by matching the
measured phase shifts of harmonic components to the theoretically calculated relationship.
This method is insensitive to changes in the temperature diffusivity of the gas, and as a
consequence, enables the measurement of the flow velocity in non-isothermal flows and
flows with a variable composition of the flowing gas. A certain drawback of this method is
the need to use two wave detectors. This leads to complications in the measuring probe
and increases its sensitivity to aerodynamic flow disturbances.
Even if we determine the transit time of the wave correctly and take into account the
temperature diffusion and wave dispersion, a problem arises related to the phenomenon
of the so-called aerodynamic shadow formed behind the transmitter and wave detectors
placed in the flow [
19
,
20
]. This consists of a reduction in the flow velocity behind the
obstacle. In fact, we measure the velocity of the flowing gas vbetween the transmitter
and the wave detector or between the two detectors, while what interests us is the inflow
velocity v
∞
. Unfortunately, since the aerodynamic shadow practically coincides with the
temperature trace (in which the detector must be placed), it is impossible to completely
eliminate the influence of the former on the measurement result by changing the probe
geometry [20].
2.3. Measurement Stand
Measurements were carried out in a closed-circuit TANPOZ wind tunnel (Strata
Mechanics Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland). Its main
features are as follows [21]:
•Measurement chamber dimensions: 0.5 ×0.5 ×1.5 m (W ×H×L);
•Velocity range: 0.01–62.0 m/s;
•Turbulence level: <0.4%;
•Temperature and relative humidity: Controlled.
Therefore, measurements were carried out under controlled conditions at low and
very low inflow velocities. The inflow velocity was controlled using a Schmidt thermal
anemometer (model SS 20.500), whose measurement range is 0.07–2.50 m/s and measure-
ment uncertainty is 1.5% of the indicated value, but not less than 0.07 m/s. Velocities below
0.07 m/s were estimated using the frequency of the wind tunnel fan inverter with similar
uncertainty.
The thermal wave anemometer probe was placed close to the center of the measure-
ment chamber, at a sufficient distance from the Schmidt anemometer to avoid the mutual
influence of the two devices.
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For the generation and detection of temperature waves, a computer-controlled digital
anemometer-thermometer (CCC2002) was used [
22
]. This enables the imposition of various
types of voltage signal on the transmitter and the measurement of voltage on wave detec-
tors, which are resistance thermometers. The transmitter and the two wave detectors were
made of tungsten wire; 8
µ
m in diameter and 6 mm in length (transmitter) and 3
µ
m in
diameter and 3 mm in length (detectors). Thermal signal propagation measurements were
made for inflow velocities ranging up to 2.5 m/s. The transmitter operated in a constant
temperature-anemometer (CTA) system with a rectangular input. The overheating ratio
of transmitter wire alternated between 1.0 and 1.8. The wave frequency was 0.25, 0.5 or
1.0 Hz. Each measurement lasted no less than 10 periods of the thermal wave.
Data acquisition from both anemometers was performed with the use of an analog-
to-digital converter (ADC) card (16-bit) from the NI and NI Signal Express software. The
voltage range was set to 0–10 V. The resulting resolution was 0.15 mV. The sampling
rate of the card was set to 10 kHz per channel. In order to keep the level of signal-to-
noise ratio (S/N) as high as possible the measuring system was connected to an “on-line”
uninterruptible power supply (UPS). This type of UPS isolates connected devices from the
mains and its disturbances.
The geometric configuration of the probe is shown in Figure 1b. The distance of the
detector T1 from the transmitter N (denoted as dxNT1) was 3.7 mm.
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16
0.07 m/s were estimated using the frequency of the wind tunnel fan inverter with similar
uncertainty.
The thermal wave anemometer probe was placed close to the center of the measure-
ment chamber, at a sufficient distance from the Schmidt anemometer to avoid the mutual
influence of the two devices.
For the generation and detection of temperature waves, a computer-controlled digi-
tal anemometer-thermometer (CCC2002) was used [22]. This enables the imposition of
various types of voltage signal on the transmitter and the measurement of voltage on
wave detectors, which are resistance thermometers. The transmitter and the two wave
detectors were made of tungsten wire; 8 μm in diameter and 6 mm in length (transmitter)
and 3 μm in diameter and 3 mm in length (detectors). Thermal signal propagation meas-
urements were made for inflow velocities ranging up to 2.5 m/s. The transmitter operated
in a constant temperature-anemometer (CTA) system with a rectangular input. The over-
heating ratio of transmitter wire alternated between 1.0 and 1.8. The wave frequency was
0.25, 0.5 or 1.0 Hz. Each measurement lasted no less than 10 periods of the thermal wave.
Data acquisition from both anemometers was performed with the use of an analog-
to-digital converter (ADC) card (16-bit) from the NI and NI Signal Express software. The
voltage range was set to 0–10 V. The resulting resolution was 0.15 mV. The sampling rate
of the card was set to 10 kHz per channel. In order to keep the level of signal-to-noise ratio
(S/N) as high as possible the measuring system was connected to an “on-line” uninter-
ruptible power supply (UPS). This type of UPS isolates connected devices from the mains
and its disturbances.
The geometric configuration of the probe is shown in Figure 1b. The distance of the
detector T1 from the transmitter N (denoted as dx
NT1
) was 3.7 mm.
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Photograph of the thermal wave anemometer probe (a) and a diagram of its geometric
configuration (b). The wires (invisible on the photograph and shown on the diagram as black lines)
are welded at the tips of the supports.
2.4. Data Analysis and Visualisation
To analyse and visualize data, the OriginLab OriginPro software was used. All the
presented analyses were done by hand in order to track all the phenomena that can be
distinguished in the signals. Localizations of the characteristic points (vide Section 3.2.)
were estimated with the uncertainty ranging from ±0.0012 s for the lowest inflow veloci-
ties to ±0.0001 s for inflow velocities equal to 0.4 m/s and higher. These values resulted
from the S/N ratio of the detector T1 voltage signal and the sampling rate of the ADC card.
Figure 1.
Photograph of the thermal wave anemometer probe (
a
) and a diagram of its geometric
configuration (b). The wires (invisible on the photograph and shown on the diagram as black lines)
are welded at the tips of the supports.
2.4. Data Analysis and Visualisation
To analyse and visualize data, the OriginLab OriginPro software was used. All the
presented analyses were done by hand in order to track all the phenomena that can be
distinguished in the signals. Localizations of the characteristic points (vide Section 3.2)
were estimated with the uncertainty ranging from
±
0.0012 s for the lowest inflow velocities
to ±0.0001 s for inflow velocities equal to 0.4 m/s and higher. These values resulted from
the S/N ratio of the detector T1 voltage signal and the sampling rate of the ADC card.
2.5. Shapes of Recorded Voltage Waveforms
The voltage signal supplied to the transmitter of the thermal wave N had a shape
similar to a rectangle. Figure 2a shows the course of 11 consecutive pulses, while Figure 2b
shows one selected pulse.
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2.5. Shapes of Recorded Voltage Waveforms
The voltage signal supplied to the transmitter of the thermal wave N had a shape
similar to a rectangle. Figure 2a shows the course of 11 consecutive pulses, while Figure
2b shows one selected pulse.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 2. Voltage signal supplied to the transmitter by the CCC2002 device: course of 11 consecu-
tive pulses (a), one selected pulse (b), and structure of the overdrive (c).
The overdrive visible at the beginning of each pulse is to obtain the steepest possible
edge of the signal heating the transmitter. The structure of this overdrive is shown in Fig-
ure 2c.
Detectors T1 and T2 working in thermometer mode react to temperature changes in
their surroundings. The voltage signal recorded on the resistance bridge of each of the
detectors is proportional to this temperature. The thermal wave propagating from the
transmitter to the detectors quickly weakens over time. Therefore, the signal recorded by
detector T2 is usually much weaker than that recorded by detector T1.
Figure 3 shows the shapes of voltage signals recorded by detector T1 in conditions of
no flow (v∞ = 0 m/s,) for three wave frequencies: f = 0.25 Hz, f = 0.50 Hz, and f = 1.00 Hz.
Figure 2.
Voltage signal supplied to the transmitter by the CCC2002 device: course of 11 consecutive
pulses (a), one selected pulse (b), and structure of the overdrive (c).
The overdrive visible at the beginning of each pulse is to obtain the steepest possible
edge of the signal heating the transmitter. The structure of this overdrive is shown in
Figure 2c.
Detectors T1 and T2 working in thermometer mode react to temperature changes in
their surroundings. The voltage signal recorded on the resistance bridge of each of the
detectors is proportional to this temperature. The thermal wave propagating from the
transmitter to the detectors quickly weakens over time. Therefore, the signal recorded by
detector T2 is usually much weaker than that recorded by detector T1.
Figure 3shows the shapes of voltage signals recorded by detector T1 in conditions of
no flow (v
∞
= 0 m/s,) for three wave frequencies: f= 0.25 Hz, f= 0.50 Hz, and f= 1.00 Hz.
In all three signals presented in Figure 3, one can distinguish the rising edge of the
signal, the peak related to the voltage signal overdrive at the transmitter, the beginning of
a further slow increase of the signal, and finally fall of the signal. The differences in the
shapes of these three pulses are due to the different lengths of the thermal wave period.
The change in the shape of the pulses towards sawtooth with the increase in the frequency
of the wave is caused by the shorter heating time of the transmitter in the successive
periods of the thermal wave. As a result, the fragment of pulses related to the heating of the
transmitter supports is shortened. Further increasing the frequency of the thermal wave
would shorten this fragment further until the waveform was very close to the sawtooth. At
the same time, the amplitude of this waveform would be further reduced.
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(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3. Shapes of voltage signals recorded by detector T1 in conditions of no flow for three differ-
ent frequencies of the transmitter wave: f = 0.25 Hz (a), f = 0.50 Hz (b), and f = 1.00 Hz (c).
In all three signals presented in Figure 3, one can distinguish the rising edge of the
signal, the peak related to the voltage signal overdrive at the transmitter, the beginning of
a further slow increase of the signal, and finally fall of the signal. The differences in the
shapes of these three pulses are due to the different lengths of the thermal wave period.
The change in the shape of the pulses towards sawtooth with the increase in the frequency
of the wave is caused by the shorter heating time of the transmitter in the successive peri-
ods of the thermal wave. As a result, the fragment of pulses related to the heating of the
transmitter supports is shortened. Further increasing the frequency of the thermal wave
would shorten this fragment further until the waveform was very close to the sawtooth.
At the same time, the amplitude of this waveform would be further reduced.
A very narrow peak (pin) visible just before the beginning of the signal growth rec-
orded by detector T1 is formed when the transmitter is overdriven. It is the result of cross-
talk between the channels of the ADC card’s multiplexer or is caused by the transmission
of an electromagnetic wave between the transmitter and detector.
In the case when the inflow velocity is non-zero, the amplitude of the signal on de-
tector T1 increases and its shape changes. This is illustrated in Figure 4. The change of the
signal shape is related to two phenomena. The first is the transport of the heated medium
towards the detectors. This transport shortens the time between the generation of the ther-
mal wave and the moment of its detection, which reduces the level of thermal energy
dissipation and increases the temperature recorded by the detectors. The second phenom-
enon is the increased transfer of thermal energy from the transmitter to the medium due
to cooling. The flow that cools the transmitter also changes the nature of the voltage–cur-
rent relationship, although its actual temperature does not change significantly, since the
transmitter operates in a constant temperature system (CTA).
Figure 3.
Shapes of voltage signals recorded by detector T1 in conditions of no flow for three different
frequencies of the transmitter wave: f= 0.25 Hz (a), f= 0.50 Hz (b), and f= 1.00 Hz (c).
A very narrow peak (pin) visible just before the beginning of the signal growth
recorded by detector T1 is formed when the transmitter is overdriven. It is the result
of crosstalk between the channels of the ADC card’s multiplexer or is caused by the
transmission of an electromagnetic wave between the transmitter and detector.
In the case when the inflow velocity is non-zero, the amplitude of the signal on detector
T1 increases and its shape changes. This is illustrated in Figure 4. The change of the signal
shape is related to two phenomena. The first is the transport of the heated medium towards
the detectors. This transport shortens the time between the generation of the thermal wave
and the moment of its detection, which reduces the level of thermal energy dissipation
and increases the temperature recorded by the detectors. The second phenomenon is the
increased transfer of thermal energy from the transmitter to the medium due to cooling. The
flow that cools the transmitter also changes the nature of the voltage–current relationship,
although its actual temperature does not change significantly, since the transmitter operates
in a constant temperature system (CTA).
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(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 4. Pulse shapes recorded by detector T1 for three thermal wave frequencies: f = 0.25 Hz (a), f
= 0.50 Hz (b), and f = 1.00 Hz (c), at the inflow velocity v∞ = 0.065 m/s.
The graphs of pulses from the T1 detector presented in Figure 4 were recorded at an
inflow velocity of v∞ = 0.065 m/s. They differ from those shown in Figure 3 in having more
than five times greater amplitude and no initial peak. A further increase in the inflow
velocity causes the shape of the pulses recorded by detector T1 to approach a rectangular
shape.
Figure 5 shows the signals recorded by detector T2 at v∞ = 0.0 m/s. The thermal signal
reaching detector T2 is greatly weakened in the absence of forced convection. This is
mainly due to the distance of detector T2 from the transmitter, but also due to the fact that
the signal encounters an obstacle in its path in the form of detector T1. In Figure 5, the
thermal signal is marked in dark grey. The nature of the graphs indicates that they were
recorded at the limit of ADC card resolution. The amplitude of these signals does not
exceed a few mV at the measuring range of 10 V. The curves created by smoothing the
measured waveforms are marked in green. Signals recorded by detector T2 resemble the
corresponding signals recorded by detector T1, but have a much lower amplitude. For the
thermal wave frequency f = 1 Hz, the signal has a sawtooth shape.
Figure 4.
Pulse shapes recorded by detector T1 for three thermal wave frequencies: f= 0.25 Hz (
a
),
f= 0.50 Hz (b), and f= 1.00 Hz (c), at the inflow velocity v∞= 0.065 m/s.
The graphs of pulses from the T1 detector presented in Figure 4were recorded at an
inflow velocity of v
∞
= 0.065 m/s. They differ from those shown in Figure 3in having
more than five times greater amplitude and no initial peak. A further increase in the inflow
velocity causes the shape of the pulses recorded by detector T1 to approach a rectangular
shape.
Figure 5shows the signals recorded by detector T2 at v
∞
= 0.0 m/s. The thermal
signal reaching detector T2 is greatly weakened in the absence of forced convection. This
is mainly due to the distance of detector T2 from the transmitter, but also due to the fact
that the signal encounters an obstacle in its path in the form of detector T1. In Figure 5,
the thermal signal is marked in dark grey. The nature of the graphs indicates that they
were recorded at the limit of ADC card resolution. The amplitude of these signals does
not exceed a few mV at the measuring range of 10 V. The curves created by smoothing the
measured waveforms are marked in green. Signals recorded by detector T2 resemble the
corresponding signals recorded by detector T1, but have a much lower amplitude. For the
thermal wave frequency f= 1 Hz, the signal has a sawtooth shape.
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(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 5. Shapes of voltage signals recorded by detector T2 in conditions of no flow and for three
thermal wave frequencies: f = 0.25 Hz (a), f = 0.50 Hz (b), and f = 1.00 Hz (c).
At an inflow velocity of v∞ = 0.065 m/s, as in the case of detector T1, the amplitude of
the signals recorded by detector T2 increases significantly (Figure 6). In this case, however,
it increases by more than an order of magnitude. The shape of the pulses also changes in
a similar way.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.
Shapes of voltage signals recorded by detector T2 in conditions of no flow and for three
thermal wave frequencies: f= 0.25 Hz (a), f= 0.50 Hz (b), and f= 1.00 Hz (c).
At an inflow velocity of v
∞
= 0.065 m/s, as in the case of detector T1, the amplitude of
the signals recorded by detector T2 increases significantly (Figure 6). In this case, however,
it increases by more than an order of magnitude. The shape of the pulses also changes in a
similar way.
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 5. Shapes of voltage signals recorded by detector T2 in conditions of no flow and for three
thermal wave frequencies: f = 0.25 Hz (a), f = 0.50 Hz (b), and f = 1.00 Hz (c).
At an inflow velocity of v∞ = 0.065 m/s, as in the case of detector T1, the amplitude of
the signals recorded by detector T2 increases significantly (Figure 6). In this case, however,
it increases by more than an order of magnitude. The shape of the pulses also changes in
a similar way.
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Cont.
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(c)
Figure 6. Pulse shapes recorded by detector T2 for three thermal wave frequencies: f = 0.25 Hz (a), f
= 0.50 Hz (b), and f = 1.00 Hz (c), at the inflow velocity v∞ = 0.065 m/s.
An increase in the inflow velocity to v∞ = 1.97 m/s results in a change in the voltage
waveform recorded by detector T2 (Figure 7). It shows a further, though relatively small,
increase in the signal amplitude, a significant change in shape towards rectangular, and a
disturbance occurring in the area of maximum voltage values.
The pulse shapes are adversely affected by aerodynamic disturbances caused by the
presence of the transmitter and detector T1. The influence of aerodynamic disturbances
from the transmitter was visible in Figure 4, where the waveform in the area of maximum
voltage values showed a slight undulation. In the case of detector T2, standing behind two
obstacles in the form of pairs of supports with stretched resistance wires, this disturbance
is more visible [23,24].
Figure 7. The shape of the pulse recorded by detector T2 for the thermal wave frequency f = 1 Hz
and the inflow velocity v∞ = 1.97 m/s.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Characteristic Points of Recorded Voltage Signals
The proposed method of velocity measurement consists of determining the time in-
terval between the characteristic points of the voltage waveform on the wave transmitter
and detector. Figure 8 shows the signal from the transmitter. It essentially has only two
characteristic points—marked Na and Nc. The third (Nb) results only from the initial
overdrive.
Figure 6.
Pulse shapes recorded by detector T2 for three thermal wave frequencies: f= 0.25 Hz (
a
),
f= 0.50 Hz (b), and f= 1.00 Hz (c), at the inflow velocity v∞= 0.065 m/s.
An increase in the inflow velocity to v
∞
= 1.97 m/s results in a change in the voltage
waveform recorded by detector T2 (Figure 7). It shows a further, though relatively small,
increase in the signal amplitude, a significant change in shape towards rectangular, and a
disturbance occurring in the area of maximum voltage values.
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16
(c)
Figure 6. Pulse shapes recorded by detector T2 for three thermal wave frequencies: f = 0.25 Hz (a), f
= 0.50 Hz (b), and f = 1.00 Hz (c), at the inflow velocity v∞ = 0.065 m/s.
An increase in the inflow velocity to v∞ = 1.97 m/s results in a change in the voltage
waveform recorded by detector T2 (Figure 7). It shows a further, though relatively small,
increase in the signal amplitude, a significant change in shape towards rectangular, and a
disturbance occurring in the area of maximum voltage values.
The pulse shapes are adversely affected by aerodynamic disturbances caused by the
presence of the transmitter and detector T1. The influence of aerodynamic disturbances
from the transmitter was visible in Figure 4, where the waveform in the area of maximum
voltage values showed a slight undulation. In the case of detector T2, standing behind two
obstacles in the form of pairs of supports with stretched resistance wires, this disturbance
is more visible [23,24].
Figure 7. The shape of the pulse recorded by detector T2 for the thermal wave frequency f = 1 Hz
and the inflow velocity v∞ = 1.97 m/s.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Characteristic Points of Recorded Voltage Signals
The proposed method of velocity measurement consists of determining the time in-
terval between the characteristic points of the voltage waveform on the wave transmitter
and detector. Figure 8 shows the signal from the transmitter. It essentially has only two
characteristic points—marked Na and Nc. The third (Nb) results only from the initial
overdrive.
Figure 7.
The shape of the pulse recorded by detector T2 for the thermal wave frequency f= 1 Hz
and the inflow velocity v∞= 1.97 m/s.
The pulse shapes are adversely affected by aerodynamic disturbances caused by the
presence of the transmitter and detector T1. The influence of aerodynamic disturbances
from the transmitter was visible in Figure 4, where the waveform in the area of maximum
voltage values showed a slight undulation. In the case of detector T2, standing behind two
obstacles in the form of pairs of supports with stretched resistance wires, this disturbance
is more visible [23,24].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Characteristic Points of Recorded Voltage Signals
The proposed method of velocity measurement consists of determining the time
interval between the characteristic points of the voltage waveform on the wave transmitter
and detector. Figure 8shows the signal from the transmitter. It essentially has only two
characteristic points—marked Na and Nc. The third (Nb) results only from the initial
overdrive.
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(a) (b)
Figure 8. Selected characteristic points of the voltage signal provided at the transmitter (a). Precise
position of point Nb (b).
In the case of signals recorded by detectors, due to their complex shape, several char-
acteristic points can be distinguished. Due to the change in the shape of the signal as a
function of the inflow velocity, not all points can be determined for each inflow velocity.
Four points (from T1a to T1d), the easiest to determine with the use of automatic methods,
were selected for further analysis. They are shown in Figure 9, taking as an example the
signal from detector T1 for the inflow velocity v∞ = 0.065 m/s and the wave frequency f =
1.0 Hz. The points T1a and T1c correspond to points Na and Nc, respectively, on the trans-
mitter, and points T1b and T1d are the inflection points of the rising and falling signal
portions, respectively.
Figure 9. Selected characteristic points of signals from the detectors, using the example of the signal
from detector T1 for the inflow velocity v∞ = 0.065 m/s and the wave frequency f = 1.0 Hz.
Determination of the moment of the characteristic point occurrence can be done in
many ways. For the binary transmitter signal, simple thresholding may be just enough.
However, detectors signals require more sophisticated handling. One of the simplest ap-
proaches starts with the calculation of derivative of the voltage signal together with the
appropriately chosen smoothing. The derivative amplifies changes in the original wave-
form while “ignoring” the constant values. This enables a much easier determination of
all chosen characteristic points in the detectors signals by hand. Unfortunately, precise
automatic detection of points T1a, T2a, T1c, and T2c may be difficult and in certain cases
even impossible.
On the other hand, the four remaining points are easy to be determined by simply
finding the locations of peaks of the derivatives (Figure 10).
Figure 8.
Selected characteristic points of the voltage signal provided at the transmitter (
a
). Precise
position of point Nb (b).
In the case of signals recorded by detectors, due to their complex shape, several
characteristic points can be distinguished. Due to the change in the shape of the signal as a
function of the inflow velocity, not all points can be determined for each inflow velocity.
Four points (from T1a to T1d), the easiest to determine with the use of automatic methods,
were selected for further analysis. They are shown in Figure 9, taking as an example the
signal from detector T1 for the inflow velocity v
∞
= 0.065 m/s and the wave frequency
f= 1.0 Hz. The points T1a and T1c correspond to points Na and Nc, respectively, on the
transmitter, and points T1b and T1d are the inflection points of the rising and falling signal
portions, respectively.
Sensors 2021, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
(a) (b)
Figure 8. Selected characteristic points of the voltage signal provided at the transmitter (a). Precise
position of point Nb (b).
In the case of signals recorded by detectors, due to their complex shape, several char-
acteristic points can be distinguished. Due to the change in the shape of the signal as a
function of the inflow velocity, not all points can be determined for each inflow velocity.
Four points (from T1a to T1d), the easiest to determine with the use of automatic methods,
were selected for further analysis. They are shown in Figure 9, taking as an example the
signal from detector T1 for the inflow velocity v∞ = 0.065 m/s and the wave frequency f =
1.0 Hz. The points T1a and T1c correspond to points Na and Nc, respectively, on the trans-
mitter, and points T1b and T1d are the inflection points of the rising and falling signal
portions, respectively.
Figure 9. Selected characteristic points of signals from the detectors, using the example of the signal
from detector T1 for the inflow velocity v∞ = 0.065 m/s and the wave frequency f = 1.0 Hz.
Determination of the moment of the characteristic point occurrence can be done in
many ways. For the binary transmitter signal, simple thresholding may be just enough.
However, detectors signals require more sophisticated handling. One of the simplest ap-
proaches starts with the calculation of derivative of the voltage signal together with the
appropriately chosen smoothing. The derivative amplifies changes in the original wave-
form while “ignoring” the constant values. This enables a much easier determination of
all chosen characteristic points in the detectors signals by hand. Unfortunately, precise
automatic detection of points T1a, T2a, T1c, and T2c may be difficult and in certain cases
even impossible.
On the other hand, the four remaining points are easy to be determined by simply
finding the locations of peaks of the derivatives (Figure 10).
Figure 9.
Selected characteristic points of signals from the detectors, using the example of the signal
from detector T1 for the inflow velocity v∞= 0.065 m/s and the wave frequency f= 1.0 Hz.
Determination of the moment of the characteristic point occurrence can be done in
many ways. For the binary transmitter signal, simple thresholding may be just enough.
However, detectors signals require more sophisticated handling. One of the simplest
approaches starts with the calculation of derivative of the voltage signal together with
the appropriately chosen smoothing. The derivative amplifies changes in the original
waveform while “ignoring” the constant values. This enables a much easier determination
of all chosen characteristic points in the detectors signals by hand. Unfortunately, precise
automatic detection of points T1a, T2a, T1c, and T2c may be difficult and in certain cases
even impossible.
On the other hand, the four remaining points are easy to be determined by simply
finding the locations of peaks of the derivatives (Figure 10).
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Figure 10. Pulses recorded by detector T1 (a) and T2 (b) at the thermal wave frequency f = 1.00 Hz,
and the inflow velocity v∞ = 0.065 m/s and their derivatives, (c,d), respectively. Dashed lines connect
characteristic points from the corresponding graphs.
Derivatives presented in Figure 10c,d despite the preliminary smoothing are still
“jagged”—exhibit some noise. Further smoothing would make them less noisy, but the
stronger the smoothing, the more the peak positions will be shifted. Therefore, in order to
find positions of peaks accurately it is indispensable to apply approximation with a func-
tion. In this study, the best results (the lowest χ2 values) were obtained using the Gumbel
probability density function (3) [25–27], which was chosen only due to its shape:
𝑈=𝑈+
𝐴
𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑒𝑥𝑝− 𝑡−𝑡
𝑤−𝑡−𝑡
𝑤+1, (3)
where U is the voltage (V), U0 is the voltage offset (V), A is the amplitude (V), t is the time
(s), tc is the centre of the peak (s), and w is the peak’s width (s). Fits were made with the
use of nonlinear estimation (Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm [28,29]).
The procedure described here is very precise—the expected accuracy for signals with
sufficient S/N value is better than the time resolution resulting from the ADC sampling
rate.
3.2. Selection of Characteristic Points
Analysis of the time intervals between the characteristic points of the corresponding
voltage pulses from the transmitter and both detectors, with knowledge of the actual dis-
tances between these three elements, enables the preparation of a velocity map (Figure
11). The values determined are the velocities resulting from the reference of time to dis-
tance. The time intervals were determined by pairing the characteristic points on the volt-
age waveforms of the transmitter N and the detectors T1 and T2 within the same period
of the thermal wave. The analysis was performed for two distant periods of the thermal
wave in order to check the repeatability of the results.
Figure 10.
Pulses recorded by detector T1 (
a
) and T2 (
b
) at the thermal wave frequency f= 1.00 Hz,
and the inflow velocity v
∞
= 0.065 m/s and their derivatives, (
c
,
d
), respectively. Dashed lines connect
characteristic points from the corresponding graphs.
Derivatives presented in Figure 10c,d despite the preliminary smoothing are still
“jagged”—exhibit some noise. Further smoothing would make them less noisy, but the
stronger the smoothing, the more the peak positions will be shifted. Therefore, in order
to find positions of peaks accurately it is indispensable to apply approximation with a
function. In this study, the best results (the lowest
χ2
values) were obtained using the
Gumbel probability density function (3) [25–27], which was chosen only due to its shape:
U=U0+A exp−exp−t−tc
w−t−tc
w+1, (3)
where Uis the voltage (V), U
0
is the voltage offset (V), Ais the amplitude (V), tis the time
(s), t
c
is the centre of the peak (s), and wis the peak’s width (s). Fits were made with the
use of nonlinear estimation (Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm [28,29]).
The procedure described here is very precise—the expected accuracy for signals with
sufficient S/N value is better than the time resolution resulting from the ADC sampling
rate.
3.2. Selection of Characteristic Points
Analysis of the time intervals between the characteristic points of the corresponding
voltage pulses from the transmitter and both detectors, with knowledge of the actual dis-
tances between these three elements, enables the preparation of a velocity map
(Figure 11)
.
The values determined are the velocities resulting from the reference of time to distance.
The time intervals were determined by pairing the characteristic points on the voltage
waveforms of the transmitter N and the detectors T1 and T2 within the same period of the
thermal wave. The analysis was performed for two distant periods of the thermal wave in
order to check the repeatability of the results.
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(a) (b)
Figure 11. Velocity maps made with the use of selected characteristic points related to the voltage
signals rising (a) and falling (b) edges. For clarity, velocities resulting from pairs of points not cor-
responding to each other were omitted. The same applies to pairs containing point Nb. The numbers
along the horizontal axes indicate whether the data columns correspond to the first or second ther-
mal wave period.
In Figure 11, the horizontal red line marks the inflow velocity v∞ = 0.352 m/s. The
velocity values determined by pairing characteristic points obtained from voltage wave-
forms from the detectors (the pairs T1a-T2a and T1c-T2c) are closest to the set inflow ve-
locity. However, the main limitation of the velocity determination method based on infor-
mation from both detectors is the requirement of steady flow. Even slight changes in the
flow direction lead to a deterioration or even loss of the signal at detector T2.
If all points related to detector T2 are removed from the graphs in Figure 11, only
four series of points will remain. The first two series, referring to the characteristic points
Na-T1a and Nc-T1c, give velocity values that are around twice as high as the correct val-
ues, and fails to ensure repeatability of the results. In the other two series, two points relate
to the pair of characteristic points Na-T1b (in Figure 11 they correspond to values closer
to the inflow velocity), and two relate to the pair of characteristic points Nc-T1d (in Figure
11 they correspond to values further from the inflow velocity). Therefore, the characteris-
tic points Na-T1b were selected for further considerations.
3.3. The Method of Correcting the Velocity Measurement Results
An analysis was made of measurement data obtained in a cycle of 13 measurements
for a velocity range from 0.0 to 2.5 m/s. Only one thermal wave frequency, f = 1.0 Hz, was
taken into account. The calculations of every single velocity value used three adjacent pe-
riods of the thermal wave occurring not earlier than five periods from the moment of ac-
tivation of the transmitter. The obtained results, relating to the characteristic points Na-
T1b, were averaged to obtain one velocity value. The results are shown in Figure 12a and
are marked with green squares. Figure 12b shows a subset of these results limited to ve-
locities below 1 m/s, to better visualise their nature in the range of lowest velocities.
Figure 11.
Velocity maps made with the use of selected characteristic points related to the voltage
signals rising (
a
) and falling (
b
) edges. For clarity, velocities resulting from pairs of points not
corresponding to each other were omitted. The same applies to pairs containing point Nb. The
numbers along the horizontal axes indicate whether the data columns correspond to the first or
second thermal wave period.
In Figure 11, the horizontal red line marks the inflow velocity v
∞
= 0.352 m/s. The ve-
locity values determined by pairing characteristic points obtained from voltage waveforms
from the detectors (the pairs T1a-T2a and T1c-T2c) are closest to the set inflow velocity.
However, the main limitation of the velocity determination method based on information
from both detectors is the requirement of steady flow. Even slight changes in the flow
direction lead to a deterioration or even loss of the signal at detector T2.
If all points related to detector T2 are removed from the graphs in Figure 11, only
four series of points will remain. The first two series, referring to the characteristic points
Na-T1a and Nc-T1c, give velocity values that are around twice as high as the correct values,
and fails to ensure repeatability of the results. In the other two series, two points relate to
the pair of characteristic points Na-T1b (in Figure 11 they correspond to values closer to
the inflow velocity), and two relate to the pair of characteristic points Nc-T1d (in Figure 11
they correspond to values further from the inflow velocity). Therefore, the characteristic
points Na-T1b were selected for further considerations.
3.3. The Method of Correcting the Velocity Measurement Results
An analysis was made of measurement data obtained in a cycle of 13 measurements
for a velocity range from 0.0 to 2.5 m/s. Only one thermal wave frequency, f= 1.0 Hz,
was taken into account. The calculations of every single velocity value used three adjacent
periods of the thermal wave occurring not earlier than five periods from the moment of
activation of the transmitter. The obtained results, relating to the characteristic points
Na-T1b, were averaged to obtain one velocity value. The results are shown in Figure 12a
and are marked with green squares. Figure 12b shows a subset of these results limited to
velocities below 1 m/s, to better visualise their nature in the range of lowest velocities.
Figure 12 compares the inflow velocity measured with the Schmidt anemometer
(horizontal axis) with the velocity determined with the thermal wave anemometer (vertical
axis) using the method described above. The figure also includes a dashed line that shows
the ideal relationship of the two velocities (ratio 1:1). If the velocity values determined with
the use of the thermal wave anemometer were close to the actual values, the measurement
points (squares) should appear on this straight line.
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(a) (b)
Figure 12. Velocity measurement results without correction (squares), ideal relationship (dashed
line), measurement results after applying the correction (circles): all the results (a), and a subset of
the results limited to velocities below 1 m/s (b).
Figure 12 compares the inflow velocity measured with the Schmidt anemometer
(horizontal axis) with the velocity determined with the thermal wave anemometer (verti-
cal axis) using the method described above. The figure also includes a dashed line that
shows the ideal relationship of the two velocities (ratio 1:1). If the velocity values deter-
mined with the use of the thermal wave anemometer were close to the actual values, the
measurement points (squares) should appear on this straight line.
Figure 12 shows that the higher the inflow velocity, the greater the difference be-
tween the results of the measurements using the thermal wave anemometer and the actual
values. The presentation of these deviations as a function of the velocity in the wind tunnel
reveals their exponential character (Figure 13a). The imposition of a correction in the form
of a power function (4) of Belehradek type [30] on the measurement results leads to a
significant improvement in the indications of the thermal wave anemometer. Adjustment
of the values of parameters a and n require only a few iterations. Measurement points with
the applied correction are marked in Figures 12 and 13 with circles.
𝑣 =𝑣+𝑎∙𝑣−𝑣 (4)
Designations used:
• vNT1—velocity with applied correction;
• vNT1′—measured velocity;
• vp—velocity of thermal wave propagation in the current medium;
• a, n—parameters of the Belehradek function, which are determined during fitting.
Determined values of the parameters of Equation (4):
• a = 0.409;
• n = 1.650;
• vp = 0.055 m/s.
Figure 12.
Velocity measurement results without correction (squares), ideal relationship (dashed
line), measurement results after applying the correction (circles): all the results (
a
), and a subset of
the results limited to velocities below 1 m/s (b).
Figure 12 shows that the higher the inflow velocity, the greater the difference between
the results of the measurements using the thermal wave anemometer and the actual values.
The presentation of these deviations as a function of the velocity in the wind tunnel reveals
their exponential character (Figure 13a). The imposition of a correction in the form of a
power function (4) of Belehradek type [
30
] on the measurement results leads to a significant
improvement in the indications of the thermal wave anemometer. Adjustment of the values
of parameters aand nrequire only a few iterations. Measurement points with the applied
correction are marked in Figures 12 and 13 with circles.
vNT1=vNT10+a·vNT10−vpn(4)
Designations used:
•vNT1—velocity with applied correction;
•vNT10—measured velocity;
•vp—velocity of thermal wave propagation in the current medium;
•a,n—parameters of the Belehradek function, which are determined during fitting.
Determined values of the parameters of Equation (4):
•a= 0.409;
•n= 1.650;
•vp= 0.055 m/s.
Figure 13b shows a graph of the relative differences (expressed as a percentage value)
between the velocity values corrected using the power function and the set values in
the wind tunnel. Deviations of the corrected velocity values from the set values amount
to about 1% for velocities above 0.5 m/s, and increase to about 4% with a decrease in
velocity. The increase is systematic, hence it will be possible to apply a simple second-order
correction to reduce the value of the deviations in the range of lowest velocities. The higher
deviations in the range of lowest velocities may also result from the metrological properties
of the instrument used as a reference, the Schmidt anemometer.
Sensors 2021,21, 5679 14 of 16
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(a) (b)
Figure 13. Differences in velocity values between measurements and inflow velocity (a) and resid-
uals of measurement with correction (b). The measurement results are marked with squares, and
the measurement results after applying the correction are marked with circles.
Figure 13b shows a graph of the relative differences (expressed as a percentage value)
between the velocity values corrected using the power function and the set values in the
wind tunnel. Deviations of the corrected velocity values from the set values amount to
about 1% for velocities above 0.5 m/s, and increase to about 4% with a decrease in velocity.
The increase is systematic, hence it will be possible to apply a simple second-order correc-
tion to reduce the value of the deviations in the range of lowest velocities. The higher
deviations in the range of lowest velocities may also result from the metrological proper-
ties of the instrument used as a reference, the Schmidt anemometer.
In the graphs in Figures 12 and 13a, one point is visible with behaviour different from
the others. This point was determined in the absence of inflow (v∞ = 0 m/s). It was placed
on these graphs since the related velocity value appears in Equation (4) as the parameter
vp. In practice, the value of this parameter should be determined at the beginning of each
measurement (since it is the velocity of thermal wave propagation in the current medium),
and then the actual measurement should be carried out with discrimination against sig-
nals with such low amplitudes (see Figure 3). Otherwise, measurements at velocities close
to the thermal wave propagation velocity vp and lower will carry greater measurement
uncertainty.
4. Conclusions
In light of the presented results, one can draw the following conclusions:
• The estimated thermal time-of-flight value strongly depends on the chosen charac-
teristic points;
• for the single detector probe the most accurate flow velocity estimations can be
achieved with the use of the following points: The beginning of the transmitter signal
rise (point Na) and the inflection point of the detector signal rising slope (point T1b);
• flow velocity values resulting purely from the thermal time-of-flight estimations
(with the use of Na-T1b pair of characteristic points) vary from the inflow velocity,
and the difference increases with the increasing velocity;
• application of a simple numerical correction transfers the achieved results into an
acceptable region.
The main features of the described measurement method are as follows:
• It does not require the use of information provided by detector T2;
• The algorithm calculating flow velocity values directly from the thermal time-of-
flight estimations requires only two arguments—the positions of two points, Na and
T1b. Moreover, only the position of T1b depends on flow;
Figure 13.
Differences in velocity values between measurements and inflow velocity (
a
) and residuals
of measurement with correction (
b
). The measurement results are marked with squares, and the
measurement results after applying the correction are marked with circles.
In the graphs in Figures 12 and 13a, one point is visible with behaviour different from
the others. This point was determined in the absence of inflow (v
∞
= 0 m/s). It was placed
on these graphs since the related velocity value appears in Equation (4) as the parameter
v
p
. In practice, the value of this parameter should be determined at the beginning of each
measurement (since it is the velocity of thermal wave propagation in the current medium),
and then the actual measurement should be carried out with discrimination against signals
with such low amplitudes (see Figure 3). Otherwise, measurements at velocities close
to the thermal wave propagation velocity v
p
and lower will carry greater measurement
uncertainty.
4. Conclusions
In light of the presented results, one can draw the following conclusions:
•
The estimated thermal time-of-flight value strongly depends on the chosen character-
istic points;
•
for the single detector probe the most accurate flow velocity estimations can be
achieved with the use of the following points: The beginning of the transmitter signal
rise (point Na) and the inflection point of the detector signal rising slope (point T1b);
•
flow velocity values resulting purely from the thermal time-of-flight estimations (with
the use of Na-T1b pair of characteristic points) vary from the inflow velocity, and the
difference increases with the increasing velocity;
•
application of a simple numerical correction transfers the achieved results into an
acceptable region.
The main features of the described measurement method are as follows:
•It does not require the use of information provided by detector T2;
•
The algorithm calculating flow velocity values directly from the thermal time-of-flight
estimations requires only two arguments—the positions of two points, Na and T1b.
Moreover, only the position of T1b depends on flow;
•
Of all the characteristic points of the signal from detector T1, T1b is the easiest to
determine with the use of automatic methods. Moreover, its determination is the most
unambiguous and accurate.
Further research will be carried out for probes with a different spatial arrangement,
i.e., with various mutual positions of the transmitter and detector. Work will also aim to
improve the accuracy of the method.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, J.S.; methodology, J.S. and A.R.; validation, J.S., A.R. and
W.W.; formal analysis, J.S.; investigation, J.S. and W.W.; writing—original draft preparation, J.S. and
Sensors 2021,21, 5679 15 of 16
A.R.; writing—review and editing, J.S., A.R. and W.W.; visualization, J.S.; supervision, J.S. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was completed in 2020, as part of a statutory work carried out at the Strata
Mechanics Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Krakow (Poland), funded by the
Ministry of Science and Higher Education.
Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments:
The authors express their gratitude to Marek Gawor for the valuable guidance
and help in preparatory work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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