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School Psychology
A Call to Action for School Psychology to Address COVID-19 Health
Disparities and Advance Social Justice
Amanda L. Sullivan, Bryn Harris, Faith G. Miller, Lindsay M. Fallon, Mollie R. Weeks, Celeste M. Malone, Tara Kulkarni,
Sherrie L. Proctor, Austin H. Johnson, Eric Rossen, Thuy Nguyen, and Elizabeth Shaver
Online First Publication, August 19, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spq0000463
CITATION
Sullivan, A. L., Harris, B., Miller, F. G., Fallon, L. M., Weeks, M. R., Malone, C. M., Kulkarni, T., Proctor, S. L., Johnson, A. H.,
Rossen, E., Nguyen, T., & Shaver, E. (2021, August 19). A Call to Action for School Psychology to Address COVID-19 Health
Disparities and Advance Social Justice. School Psychology. Advance online publication.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spq0000463
A Call to Action for School Psychology to Address COVID-19
Health Disparities and Advance Social Justice
Amanda L. Sullivan
1
, Bryn Harris
2
, Faith G. Miller
1
, Lindsay M. Fallon
3
, Mollie R. Weeks
1
,
Celeste M. Malone
4
, Tara Kulkarni
5
, Sherrie L. Proctor
6
, Austin H. Johnson
7
, Eric Rossen
8
,
Thuy Nguyen
1
, and Elizabeth Shaver
1
1
Department of Educational Psychology, University of Minnesota
2
School of Education and Human Development, University of Colorado Denver
3
Department of Counseling and School Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston
4
Department of Human Development and Psychoeducational Studies, Howard University
5
College of Education, California State University Monterey Bay
6
Department of Educational and Community Programs, Queens College, City University of New York
7
Graduate School of Education, University of California Riverside
8
National Association of School Psychologists, University of Florida
The health, economic, and social challenges associated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) present
a range of threats to students’well-being, psychoeducational experiences, and outcomes, spurring fears for a
“lost generation.”In this article, we present COVID-19 as a large-scale multisystemic disaster causing
massive disruptions and losses, with adversities moderated by the intersectional nature of systemic inequity.
We first synthesize the broad effects of COVID-19 as they relate to equity and social justice, followed by the
major implications for students and schools, with a focus on intersectional systemic issues. We then propose
foundational considerations and resources intended to usher a paradigm shift in how school psychologists’
roles and activities are conceptualized in the years to come, ending with key imperatives for practice and
graduate education in school psychology.
Impact and Implications
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused unprecedented disruption across social institutions
and caused massive losses that are likely to affect communities and schools for many years to come.
We synthesize the wide-ranging implications of resultant health disparities and propose foundational
implications and practice recommendations to guide school psychology’s long-term responsiveness as
afield.
Keywords: school psychology, COVID-19, pandemic, health disparities, social justice
Supplemental materials: https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000463.supp
In many of the seminal writings of the field around the turn of the
21st century, scholars broadened the conceptualization of educational
issues relevant to school psychology to envision professional roles for
supporting students on a larger scale (e.g., Conoley & Gutkin, 1995;
Shapiro, 2000;Sheridan & Gutkin, 2000). In short, these scholars
appealed to us tothink bigger—and to think systemically—in order to
ensure the relevance and import of our practical and scholarly efforts.
Herein, we argue that such a paradigm shift is exactly what school
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Amanda L. Sullivan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8675-154X
Bryn Harris https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1733-1696
Faith G. Miller https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9229-4066
Lindsay M. Fallon https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0813-3337
Mollie R. Weeks https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8964-0164
Celeste M. Malone https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5803-5001
Tara Kulkarni https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0735-5010
Sherrie L. Proctor https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8785-0483
Austin H. Johnson https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6349-0049
Thuy Nguyen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6032-6756
Elizabeth Shaver https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4908-5311
The contents of this article were developed in part from support provided
by the Birkmaier Educational Leadership Professorship to the first author,
as well as under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education,
#H325D160016, Project Officer, Sarah J. Allen, PhD. However, these
contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the U.S. Department
of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal
Government.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Amanda
L. Sullivan, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Min-
nesota, 56 E River Rd, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States. Email:
asulliva@umn.edu
School Psychology
© 2021 American Psychological Association
ISSN: 2578-4218 https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000463
1
psychology must fully enact in order to rise to the challenge of
addressing bigger problems than many might ever have imagined as
the potential purview of school psychologists. Yet, as we navigate this
point in history, the field’s collective commitment to this paradigm
and a shared focus are as important as ever—if not more so—because
of the implications of concurrent mass trauma of coronavirus disease
2019 (COVID-19) and the national reckoning with racial injustice for
our profession.
For school psychology and other areas of health service psychology,
the multisystem, sustained disruption of COVID-19 and the growing
disparities in its wake necessit ate large-scale action to address complex
health disparities. In doing so, conceptualization of this problem and
related professional roles matters. As such, in this article, we first apply
a disaster frame to conceptualizing COVID-19 and discuss its broad
effects as they relate to social justice, followed by the major implica-
tions for students and schools, with a focus on intersectional systemic
issues. We then propose foundational ideas to guide conceptualization
of school psychologists’activities in the years to come, ending with
key imperatives for practice and graduate education.
In doing so, we recognize the influence of our positionalities as a
collective of scholars of diverse personal and professional back-
grounds and experiences. We are midcareer and early career profes-
sionals who share doctoral training in school psychology, generally
grounded in scientist–practitioner model, ecological framework, and
tiered service delivery. Our professional experiences have included a
variety of professional contexts: public and private schools, clinical
settings, school psychology graduate programs in a range of (pre-
dominantly urban) higher education institutions, and professional
organizations throughout the U.S. and in multiple countries. Collec-
tively, we represent a range of dominant (White, male, middle or upper
class, cisheterosexual, Christian) and (multiply) marginalized and
systematically excluded identities including Black, Indian, and
Vietnamese women; immigrant and first-generation Americans;
multilingual (native Marathi, Spanish bilingual, Vietnamese); queer;
first-generation college students; low-income and economically mar-
ginalized communities throughout the U.S.; and minoritized faiths and
religious positions (Jewish, Hindu, agnostic, atheist). We also both
work in and are parents of students attending schools during this
disaster, so we approach this scholarship holding multiple stakeholder
roles in the school systems we discuss. Our scholarly and applied
interests and expertise span much of the field, but we share a
commitment to social justice and a focus on minoritized populations.
Many of us increasingly draw on critical theories and interdisciplinary
scholarship to inform our work. These experiences, perspectives,
identities, and roles invariably inform the viewpoints expressed herein.
Social Justice in the Shadow of COVID-19
The global health crisis that is COVID-19 can be conceptualized as
adisaster, having destabilized institutions and resulting in continued
massive losses across communities (Tierney, 2019). Disasters are
characterized not just by the direct fallout of the catalyst (here, the
infections and deaths attributable to the virus) but by far-reaching
adversities moderated by sociopolitical context (Kadetz & Mock,
2018). Put differently, events become disasters because preparation
for, experiences of, and responses to them are shaped by structural
inequality that acts as a conduit for harm and systematic differences
thereof (Tierney, 2019). In this way, exploration of the macro- and
chronosystemic features of the disaster and resultant cascade across
interrelated proximal systems (e.g., families, communities, and
schools) elucidates the complex unfolding of this ongoing event
from the local to national (and international) contexts. Figure 1
summarizes these proximal and distal forces, including COVID-19-
related influences. In particular, disasters often magnify the pernicious
effects of systems of power and oppression, accentuating stratification,
marginalization, and differential access and care within education,
health, and human service sectors (Atallah et al., 2019;Tierney,
2019). Such has been the case with COVID-19 in the United States
and other natural disasters and public health crises before it (e.g., HIV/
AIDS, Hurricane Katrina; Bowleg, 2020;Kadetz & Mock, 2018).
What most differentiates COVID-19 from other disasters is at
least in part a matter of scale, pace, persistence, and visibility
(Horesh & Brown, 2020). The ongoing pandemic, coupled with
continued civil unrest surrounding widespread calls for racial justice
(and the backlashes against them), has amplified the pervasive
effects of structural racism, sexism, ableism, classism, xenophobia,
and other systems of oppression (e.g., anti-fatness, homo- and
transphobia), as well as their intersections, in compounding disad-
vantage across domains and social sectors. The ripple effects of this
disaster within the deeply stratified social structure of the United
States have exacerbated a range of acute and far-reaching inter-
connected health, economic, and social disparities that differentially
affect systematically disadvantaged populations. Note that we
restrict our analysis to the U.S. because disasters are characterized
by the unique sociopolitical contexts in which they occur (Tierney,
2019), and because varied national responses to the pandemic have
resulted in wide-ranging topologies of disruption and loss (Razavi
et al., 2020) with differing implications for educational systems.
Drawing on this interdisciplinary framing of disasters, responses
within school psychology and other areas of health service psychol-
ogy must be predicated on an intersectional understanding of
multisystem, multilevel disruption and its effects.
COVID-19 Health Disparities
Differential outcomes associated with COVID-19 have laid bare
the grim reality that health and survival are intimately linked with
systems of privilege and oppression. Since the early days of
COVID-19, minoritized groups have systematically experienced
disproportionate negative health outcomes in addition to significant
barriers to effective social distancing and health care. Compared to
White Americans, Black, Indigenous, and Latino Americans are
approximately 1.4–1.8 times as likely to be infected, four times as
likely to be hospitalized, and 2.6–2.8 times as likely to die from
COVID-19 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC],
2020b). Although COVID-19 is considered a syndemic (i.e., syner-
gistic epidemic) because of the compounding of disease burden
from interactions with other epidemics of chronic health conditions
shaped by structural inequality (Horton, 2020), COVID-19 health
disparities are not attributable to biological susceptibility or indi-
vidual behaviors, but rather the effects of structural oppression.
Health disparities are preventable differences in health outcomes
or health-related opportunities experienced by minoritized commu-
nities (CDC, 2013). These are shaped by social determinants of
health categorized around economic stability, educational opportu-
nity, health care access and quality, built environment, and
social or community support (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2020). The American Psychological Association
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2SULLIVAN ET AL.
(APA, 2016) recognized that “[h]ealth disparities are caused by
persistent, systematic, unjust policies and practices that increase a
group’s risk for poorer health and limit access to quality care”(para. 2).
The CDC (2020a) stated that inequities in social determinants contrib-
ute to both primary and secondary health outcomes and are worsened
by COVID-19 with roots in racism and other discrimination in the
criminal justice, education, finance, health, and housing systems.
COVID-19 health disparities have emerged in part because social
distancing, testing access, and health care quality are moderated by
privilege and positionality in systems of oppression (e.g., racism,
classism, sexism, cisheteronormativity, ableism, anti-fatness, xeno-
phobia) and intersections thereof. Indeed, social distancing has
emerged as a social determinant of infection (Blackstock, 2020).
For example, marginalized groups—women, immigrants and
undocumented persons, individuals from racially, ethnically, and
linguistically minoritized backgrounds—are systematically dispro-
portionately exposed to employment conditions via relegation to
“essential labor”that preclude social distancing and provides inade-
quate personal protective equipment, subsistence wages (or less),
sick leave, health benefits, or potential to work from home (Selden &
Berdahl, 2020;Tai et al., 2021). As such, many Americans from
historically minoritized groups faced a formidable Catch-22: follow
health recommendations at the expense of their livelihoods or
continue to participate in essential labor at the potential cost of
their wellness (and even their lives).
Unsurprisingly, COVID-19 mortality has been stratified by edu-
cational attainment and is highest among agricultural, food, trans-
portation, facilities, and manufacturing workers, particularly those
who are Black, Latino, or Asian (Chen et al., 2020,2021). Likewise,
the residential conditions associated with increased risk of infection,
such as crowding and insufficient sanitation in public spaces and
residential buildings, and reliance on public transportation, are those
conditions to which racially, ethnically, and economically margin-
alized communities, as well as sexual and gender minorities, are
disproportionately exposed (Rauh et al., 2008;Ruprecht et al.,
2021). Thus, individuals and groups’social positions are associated
with both increased virus exposure and reduced safeguards for
health. Furthermore, in treating COVID-19, structural racism’s
effects are imbued into even seemingly objective medical processes
with potentially life-altering consequences (e.g., Schmidt et al.,
2021), again underscoring the need for an intersectional lens in
understanding all dimensions of this disaster.
The long-term effects, both in terms of physical and mental health
outcomes, of COVID-19 are unknown, but widespread challenges
are likely given the complexity of extensive, layered stressors. These
stressors have been summarized to include:
abrupt changes in life circumstances; uncertainty about the future;
deterioration of livelihood; restriction of social contacts; imposed
quarantine; stigmatization, discrimination, and fragmentation of com-
munities; loss of loved ones; deprivation of culturally appropriate
mourning rituals; and finally, the threat of contracting COVID-19.
(Javakhishvili et al., 2020,p.2)
These, in turn, are associated with increased prevalence of mental
health disorders and comorbidities (Holman et al., 2020). Because
of the intersectional nature of this disaster, difficulties are likely to be
distributed unevenly in the population. For instance, increasing anti-
Asian discrimination has been associated with higher levels of
anxiety and depression (Wu et al., 2021).
COVID-19’s Educational Crisis
Children have shown differential susceptibility to illness and
complications among virus strains (Osterholm & Dall, 2021), and the
COVID-19 disaster is associated with a range of family and commu-
nity stressors, as well as restricted educational opportunity given the
effects of mitigation strategies on school functioning. As such, resul-
tant challenges jeopardize students’well-being and psychoeducational
experiences. This has spurred fears for a lost generation because of the
potential long-term effects for students’educational and economic
outcomes across their lifetimes (UNICEF, 2020).
Spring 2020 saw many school systems across the U.S. struggle
with transitioning to remote learning, with continued disruption
throughout the 2020–2021 academic year. Estimates of opportunity
gaps due to spring 2020 and 2020–2021 school closures, reliance on
remote learning, and inconsistent school quality range from 5 to
9 months on average, but up to 12 months for students from racially
minoritized backgrounds compared to 8 months for the average
White student (Dorn et al., 2020). These concerns have grown as
many schools’report increases in students being assigned failing
grades, with greater difficulties reported for students identified as
Black, Hispanic, multilingual, or those qualifying for special edu-
cation services (e.g., St. George, 2020). For students with disabil-
ities, parents’concerns regarding educational services have spurred
civil suits for violations of students’rights (Kamenetz, 2020). In
addition, the social isolation and related stressors resulting from
mitigation measures may be detrimental to students’social–
emotional development and mental health (Loades et al., 2020).
Areas of particular concern for students from minoritized back-
grounds are differential technology access, instructional quality,
engagement, and school support. Even before this pandemic,
schools varied in funding and technology resources (e.g., Baker,
2018), and these differences and shortfalls have been exacerbated
(Turner, 2020). For students made vulnerable by financial or
housing insecurity, access to remote schooling is contingent upon
access to appropriate technology, digital resources, reliable high-
speed internet access, personal and family technology knowledge,
and adult assistance—all of which are constrained by preexisting
and ongoing systematic economic, education, and employment
disparities (Lake & Makori, 2020). Home technology barriers are
greatest among Black, Hispanic, low-income, and younger house-
holds, of which at least one-third lack consistent computer or
internet access, reflecting existing technology gaps that become
even more detrimental in the context of remote schooling (Ong,
2020). This has been recognized as a threat to students’civil right to
equal protection, making it a high-stakes, long-term social justice
issue given not just the current centrality of students’learning and
well-being but also the indefinite reliance on remote schooling for
medically vulnerable students and families (Ong, 2020).
Instructional quality and effectiveness of remote learning remain
problematic. Educational opportunities and outcomes for our youn-
gest students are particularly worrisome given meta-analytic find-
ings of learning losses for young students provided asynchronous
video-mediated instruction compared to in-person instruction
(Strouse & Samson, 2021). Mathematics learning in particular
appears slow during remote instruction compared to pre-pandemic
growth rates for students grades 3–8(Kuhfeld et al., 2020). In fall
2020, approximately 84% of school districts reported students
engaged in remote learning at least part time (Kurtz, 2020).
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ADDRESS COVID-19 HEALTH DISPARITIES 3
In addition, successful remote learning is often reliant on extensive,
consistent family involvement that is often incompatible with the
economic and social realities of many families. Few families fitthe
single-earner nuclear family model on which many remote schooling
arrangements seem to rely (Sullivan, 2020). For example, students
from racially and economically marginalized households are more
likely to be raised by adults who are single parents, essential workers,
or have limited English proficiency, as well as the students themselves
being essential workers themselves or providing necessary childcare
for younger family members (e.g., Reilly, 2020;Smock & Schwartz,
2020;Sugarman & Lazarín, 2020). Unsurprisingly then, teachers
report lower levels of attendance and engagement among these
students (Chambers et al., 2020).
Additionally, mental health difficulties are likely to be wide-
spread among children and youth, with disproportionate effects for
students from minoritized backgrounds (Verdery et al., 2020),
especially with disruption to social support and grieving processes
(Burrell & Selman, 2020). The unpredictability and intractability of
the pandemic, its multisystem disruption, and related adversities
(food and housing insecurity, exposure to family violence, sub-
stance use, and medical trauma) are also likely to elicit elevated
trauma responses (Bryant et al., 2020). Disasters are associated with
anxiety, depression, adjustment disorders, and acute stress reactions,
with more difficulty shown among racially or economically minor-
itized groups (Goldmann & Galea, 2014). In past disasters, upward
of 10% of people had severe, chronic needs (Horesh & Brown,
2020), with young children showing the greatest vulnerability to
chronic difficulty (Esterwood & Saeed, 2020). Furthermore, inter-
national research suggests that the role of human action and racism
in this disaster, concurrent state violence, and resulting civil unrest
may also elevate risk for severe trauma responses among racially
minoritized youth, as traumas resulting from human (in)action,
institutional abuse, and discrimination contribute to toxic stress
and greater experiences of trauma (Muldoon et al., 2021). Taken
together, a higher level of mental health needs can be expected,
particularly for students already made vulnerable by family and
community exposure to the virus and systemic inequity.
Foundations for School Psychology in the Shadow of
COVID-19
The shadow of COVID-19 will be vast and lengthy (UNICEF,
2020), necessitating an expansive orientation toward its effects on
students, families, educational professionals, schools, and commu-
nities. Concurrently, enacting our unified commitment to antiracism
(García-Vázquez et al., 2020;National Association of School
Psychologists [NASP], 2020a) will likely require wide-ranging
changes to school psychologists’professional activities in order
to disrupt the pervasive effects of white supremacy and anti-
blackness, xenophobia, and other systems of oppression. Indeed,
given the current national dialogue surrounding critical race theory,
misrepresentation of its application and tenants, and growing
state and local opposition to equity and social justice efforts (e.g.,
Crenshaw, 2021; see also NASP, 2021), we are at a critical juncture
to chart a path forward for our field that truly and authentically
centers equity.
These are not distinct challenges. COVID-19 is a disaster not
because it strikes minoritized groups differently, but because struc-
tural inequality, and racism in particular, contributes to differential
vulnerability to health, social, and economic adversity before, during,
and after this disaster. Thus, the roots of this disaster and the need for
antiracism are the same, with both necessitatinglong-term, large-scale
responsiveness lest we suffer selective memory or willful ignorance
toward their implications for students and communities, and by
extension, the work of school psychology. Ensuring the relevance
and impact of the field requires reorienting around this new reality—
not temporary adjustments, but a re-imagination, or at the very least a
doubling down on the long-emphasized need to focus on systems-
oriented work (Conoley et al., 2020). This is not to say that
individual-level practices will not be needed, but it is clear that the
population’s needs, now more than ever, will far outstrip professional
capacity.
The field’s capacity has long been overtaxed by chronic
shortages, high student–psychologist ratios, and overemphasis on
individual services and inefficient, ineffective service delivery
models (e.g., Conoley et al., 2020;Shapiro, 2000;Sheridan &
Gutkin, 2000). Disasters exacerbate inequities, and COVID-19 is
no exception. There are immense needs in schools and communities
most affected by COVID-19, necessitating shifts to systems work in
order to ensure the sustainability and impact of this effort collec-
tively and individually. Scholarship of critical community resilience
praxis emphasizes how to “center the margins”by prioritizing the
needs of those most affected in determining the “new normal”and
engaging in meaningful collaboration with stakeholders, participa-
tory approaches, and empowerment of local communities (Atallah
et al., 2019, pp. 1, 11). We use this to guide recommendations
around three main ideas.
First, efforts to bolster resilience to this disaster and future
challenges should reflect a systems understanding of resilience as
a characteristic not just of individuals, but of families, communities,
systems, and institutions as well (Masten & Motti-Stefanidi, 2020).
Crucially, adaptive capacity is dynamic and interconnected with
processes and functioning of other systems such that resilience can
cascade across systems (e.g., from institutions to communities, from
community to individuals). Thus, health disparities, other structural
inequities, and the policies and practices that create and sustain
them—features of the distal levels of the ecological system—have
negative effects on individual, family, and community wellness.
When discussing resilience or the ecological model, the focus of
school psychologists has often been on the proximal levels of
ecological systems, but a mass disaster like COVID-19 emphasizes
the importance of distal influences. Put simply, we cannot focus on
individual or even family resilience at the exclusion of the distal
systems because of the interdependence of functioning and resil-
ience across systems, and thus, the importance of the resilience of
communities, systems, and institutions for individual well-being.
This underscores the need for systems work in order to support
cascading adaptation. This orientation is consistent with broad
recognition that “[h]ealth disparities are a social justice issue that
can best be eliminated through system level actions”(APA, 2016,
para. 2). Thus, we argue that central to school psychologists’
systems action is a continued emphasis on ecology with an increas-
ing awareness of the effects of macrosystemic and chronosystemic
factors, as well as multisystem interdependence through an inter-
sectional lens.
Second, health disparities are a threat to “collective resilience”
(Masten & Motti-Stefanidi, 2020, p. 104) and a critical target for
professional action to improve students’well-being. As racism and
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4SULLIVAN ET AL.
other forms of oppression are the root cause of health disparities,
efforts to advance antiracism and antioppressive policy and practice
are central to effectively responding to the COVID-19 disaster.
Antioppression refers to promoting rights, equity, and well-being
through both individual and structural efforts with recognition of the
interconnections of systems of oppression and their effects on well-
being, with a focus on client empowerment and partnership in every
aspect of services (Corneau & Stergiopoulos, 2012). Antiracism,
then, is a specific form of antioppression focused on understanding
and eradicating racism as a basis of oppression. Such efforts are
predicated on understanding of structural inequity and intersection-
ality as a basis for redressing disparities as part of advancing social
justice, thereby pointing to the critical nature of school psycholo-
gists’preparation. Failure to engage these efforts generally, and in
the context of COVID-19 specifically, undermines resilience at all
levels by failing to address the nature of the problem. Ensuring
school psychology’s responsiveness and salience in the face of the
structural inequities, disparities extenuated by this disaster, and
concomitant fights for and against racial justice (Roberts &
Rizzo, 2021) necessitates a sociopolitical consciousness and action
in all areas of our work.
Doing so, we argue, requires not merely orienting toward sup-
porting “all”students, but rather specifically orienting toward
empowering and supporting those most marginalized. To do other-
wise is to risk continuing to implicitly center dominant perspectives,
experiences, and needs at the exclusion of groups and individuals
systematically minoritized. Combatting the ravages of our current
disaster and the intractability of racism in our society and our field
will require intentionally and consistently shifting what and who we
center. Importantly, in our national context, it will require the
following of every one of us: Bravery to speak up and speak out
and an unwavering commitment to advocacy and action. These first
two premises above should underpin professional efforts, including,
as we discuss in the next section, development of sociopolitically
conscious trauma-informed supports, prevention, and intervention
services; partnership with families, community stakeholders, and
other providers in and out of schools to enhance coordination; and
advocacy to advance social justice.
Third, as a field, we must be committed to building our own
adaptive capacity—to making school psychology resilient—in order
to respond to this protracted disaster and to improve preparation for,
responsiveness to, and recovery from the next inevitable large-scale
crisis. This resilience, and the enactment of the above ideas, will
require a nimbleness and nondogmatic approach to practice in the
service of systemic change and the pursuit of social justice. In doing
so, we should commit to desired outcomes (i.e., equity, justice), not
to particular approaches or practices, as such allegiance will likely
undermine our adaptive capacity and potential to achieve field-wide
aims and promise.
Unfortunately, scholars have long pointed out the relative inflex-
ibility and inertia of the field to divesting from ineffective paradigms
and practices (e.g., for discussion, see Conoley et al., 2020;
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Figure 1
Ecological Context of COVID-19 and Foundational Elements, Activities, and Outcomes of Addressing Health
Disparities
COVID-19,
Antiracism/
BLM
Movements
Target Outcomes
Field-wide changes
in roles and
professional
learning
Socially just
policies, practices,
and resource
mobilization
Improved
collective
wellbeing and
resilience
Sustained
partnerships
Improved
individual
outcomes
Exosystems
Social networks,
Social institutions, Media,
Care/service sectors, Segregation,
Industry/Professions, Technology,
Policy-making entities
Mesosystems
Home School
School Community
Home Community
Home Workplace
Home Provider
Provider School
Macrosystems
Racism, Capitalism, Ageism,
Colonialism, Ableism, Sexism,
Xenophobia, Cisheteronormativity,
Ideologies, Epistemologies, Laws
Chronosystems
Generations, Historical period,
Major events/movements, Climate
change, Wars/Conflicts, Depre/recessions
Microsystem
Family
Workplace
Care providers
School
Peers
School Psychology
Activities & Roles
Socio-politically oriented
trauma-informed supports
0
Equity-centered prevention
and intervention
Multi-system coordination
and collaboration
Social justice advocacy for
students, school, community,
and institutional change
Proposed
Foundations of
School
Psychology
Multisystemic
resilience
Intersectionality
Social Justice
Antiracism and
anti-oppression
Partnering with
families and
communities
Shutdowns,
Essential labor,
Social distancing,
Disinformation,
Remote
access
Mandates,
Relief Package,
Disenfranch-
isement
Isolation,
Insecurity,
Closures,
Virtual
Note. The left side of the figure presents the ecological framework with general influences summarized in the center of each
level and COVID-19-specificinfluences in italics to the left. The right side of the figure summarizes the foundational ideas,
activities, roles, and outcomes based on this understanding of the ecological context of COVID-19 in school psychology.
ADDRESS COVID-19 HEALTH DISPARITIES 5
Shaw, 2021). Despite long-standing calls for a field-wide emphasis
on indirect services, ecological orientation, and adult-focused prac-
tices (e.g., Conoley & Gutkin, 1986;Sheridan & Gutkin, 2000),
consultation utilizing an ecological framework and a focus on
prevention remains rare (Newman et al., 2018). However, with
the challenges of our current disaster comes the opportunity to
re-envision roles and functions and to reassess the dimensions of
practice valued and prioritized in order to truly meet the needs of
students. School psychologists are encouraged to reassess their
efforts to maximize impact and improve outcomes of the students,
families, and communities that they serve. Engagement and action
in collaboration with school leaders, state and national professional
organizations, credentialing bodies, and state and federal agencies
will likely be necessary to bring macrosystemic influences on the
field (e.g., local service delivery models, professional standards,
practice models or descriptions, state and federal policy) into
alignment with this paradigm and vision. Thus, a commitment to
enhancing the field’s adaptive capacity is a crucial basis for advo-
cacy to amend policies and systems that restrict opportunities or
present barriers to socially meaningful professional activities, as
well as to change the content and processes of graduate education
and continuing education. The roles of school psychologists are
discussed in the following section.
The dynamic, iterative process of enhancing school psychol-
ogy’s adaptive capabilities in the services of responding to mass
trauma and elevated needs while advancing social justice will
likely entail relinquishing long lamented but seemingly intracta-
ble aspects of the field (e.g., Conoley et al., 2020;Shaw, 2021), as
well as adaptation and even eventual abandonment of new ones
with increased collective sociopolitical and cultural awareness
and understanding of outcomes, or lack thereof, in the service of
social justice. This, in turn, should be reflected in iterative changes
in pre- and in-service professional learning, professional stan-
dards, and organizational activities. In the section that follows, we
offer recommendations for the roles of school psychologists in
supporting those most marginalized, recognizing that such re-
commendations will necessarily be flexible to changes in the field
and broader social context. We conclude with considerations for
pre- and in-service professional learning to enact these recom-
mendations. Figure 1 depicts the relations to the concepts above
and discussion below.
The Role of School Psychologists in Supporting
the Most Marginalized
As health service psychologists, school psychologists have a
critical role in addressing health disparities through the delivery of
both direct and indirect services. In seeking to enact the major
premises above, we propose that necessary efforts represent enact-
ment and expansion of current guidelines and standards for the
field. These include foundational principles that center diversity
and multicultural practice through a focus on context, intersec-
tional experiences, and identities; approaching intervention deliv-
ery with cultural humility; and advocating within and across
systems, prioritizing prevention, early intervention, and recovery
(APA, 2017b). Our proposed expansion comes in focusing on
intersectionality at a systems level, rather than as a feature of
individual identity, which is less integrated in (school) psychology
compared to other areas of the health and social sciences
(Proctor, 2020;Settles et al., 2020). Although the responsibilities
of the school psychologist will continue to align with major
standards and guidelines (e.g., APA, 2017a;NASP, 2020b),
including practicing within a tiered service delivery model, practi-
tioners should reprioritize responsibilities to emphasize a focus on
systems, with the recommendations that follow intended to support
ongoing critical reflection (as opposed to complacency) about roles
and allocation of efforts to support impactful engagement within
schools and communities. The Supplemental Table presents
resources to support these efforts, which represent broad, over-
lapping targets for professional learning and action.
Develop Sociopolitically Oriented Trauma-Informed
Lens
This disaster necessitates adoption of a trauma-informed lens for
systems, group, and individual work grounded in sociopolitical
consciousness in order to avoid reproducing harm. Indeed, given
the scale of this disaster, “it creates risks for development of cultural/
societal trauma [ ::: ] requir[ing] a complex, trauma-informed
psycho-socio-political response for normalization of societal life
after”(Javakhishvili et al., 2020). Crucially, this orientation should
reflect the socioecological model of trauma that includes under-
standing intersectionality, the roles of historical and societal factors
in trauma exposure and response, and active disruption of the role of
schools in enacting trauma on minoritized communities and students
(Gherardi et al., 2020). This lens also requires acknowledging how
intergenerational and sustained oppression can shape group con-
sciousness and identity (e.g., the lasting effects of colonialism,
xenophobia), as well as the trauma that results from daily experi-
ences of systemic racism in and out of schools (e.g., cumulative
microaggressions, individual and community effects of anti-Asian
violence, medical racism; Gorski, 2020). In doing so, it is important
to center racism and other oppressions in order to avoid “(un)
intentionally criminaliz[ing] or pathologiz[ing] trauma-exposed
youth, especially Black and Brown youth, for their responses to
overwhelming conditions they do not control”(Alvarez, 2020, p. 2).
This also necessitates interrogating the ways educational policies
and practices harm students, including through school psychological
practices, and then uprooting racism and other systems of oppres-
sion (e.g., ableism, sexism) within our own field to foster antiop-
pressive practice.
Trauma-informed service delivery involves cultivating support-
ive and healing educational spaces that are responsive to youth’s
trauma and incorporate effective practices and systems change
within a comprehensive, integrated multitier framework featuring
a continuum of ecologically oriented supports (Chafouleas et al.,
2016). The purpose of trauma-informed supports is to promote
recovery and resilience within the school community (Griffin, 2020)
without stigmatizing those disproportionately impacted by toxic
stress while simultaneously working to address the root causes of
sustained trauma (Gherardi et al., 2020). In addition to the familiar
elements of trauma-informed supports (e.g., Chafouleas et al.,
2016), development of a sociopolitically oriented trauma-informed
lens should emphasize professional learning to support critical
consciousness, family and community partnerships, integration
with broader efforts for culturally responsive antioppressive prac-
tices, and vigilance against commonplace implicit deficit perspec-
tives and prejudice beliefs (see Gherardi et al., 2020;Gorski, 2020).
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6SULLIVAN ET AL.
Center Equity in Prevention and Intervention
By adopting a prevention-focused, systemic approach to enhance
environments, opportunities, and supports for students, multitier
systems of support (MTSS) offers a promising framework to im-
prove student functioning and educational outcomes. However,
MTSS is unlikely to eliminate disparities without an explicit and
intentional focus on social justice (Sullivan et al., 2020). Conse-
quently, calls have been made to adopt an equity-centered approach
to MTSS (Sabnis et al., 2020), particularly in the wake of COVID-
19 (Miller et al., 2020;Sullivan et al., 2020). To this end, equity-
centered MTSS is race and culture conscious, bias aware, and
supportive of socially just decision making (Sullivan et al.,
2020). In particular, centering equity requires decentering white-
ness, and its associated values and norms for learning and behavior
to instead center the needs, preferences, and values of the most
marginalized so that MTSS does not become a vehicle for perpetu-
ation and reproduction of structural inequity. This is compatible
with a sociopolitically oriented trauma lens, albeit more expansive.
Equity-centered MTSS has the potential to mitigate opportunity
gaps and disparities when designed and implemented with this
specific intention. School psychologists are trained to engage in
data-based decision making, and strong equity-centered MTSS
practices rely on consistently collecting, disaggregating, and utiliz-
ing data for school improvement and exploration how policies,
programs, practices, and systems are (or are not) serving youth from
marginalized groups. Data-based decision making remains critical
when implementing MTSS in the shadow of this disaster, but school
psychologists might consider new ways to both obtain and interpret
data in the context of COVID-19, structural racism, and other forms
of oppression. Data-based decision making must include consider-
ation of the impact of social determinants of health, such that data
are disaggregated for social groupings reflecting exposure to factors
such as racism, classism, and sexism and interpreted in terms of
what they reveal about systematic support for groups and necessary
adjustments to facilitate more positive outcomes. Notably, this is
fundamentally different from an interpretation for the purpose of
categorizing students and making associated intraindividual infer-
ences about deficits even if the data used are similar (e.g., racialized
groupings). All inferences should be situated as child within context
with a focus on malleable factors for change, particularly features of
the school or broader social environment.
Although systems work should be prioritized, individual services,
including special education processes, will certainly continue. Such
high-stakes decisions should be approached with caution given the
nature of COVID-19 and associated trauma such that what could be
considered reasonable adjustment challenges and learning difficul-
ties resulting from massive disruption are not identified as disabil-
ities. School psychologists must be wary of identifying educational
disabilities within a chronosystem when norms of most assessments,
as well as other data (or lack thereof) like observations and teacher
ratings, may not have the validity evidence to be interpreted in the
context of special education eligibility or other individual condi-
tions. Instead, focusing on core instruction, antiracist social–
emotional learning, connecting families to community resources,
and robust targeted academic and mental health supports should be
prioritized. School psychologists must normalize typical responses
to stress and resist the temptation to fall back on special education as
the primary way to support students who are in distress due to the
challenges brought on by this disaster. Given the complicated
history of special education, and its dubious effectiveness, particu-
larly for students with emotional and behavioral difficulties or those
from racially minoritized backgrounds (Sullivan, 2017;Sullivan &
Proctor, 2016), eligibility for milder, subjective disabilities must be
approached with caution. This disaster further complicates the
already untenable causal inference assumed in special education
decisions (Sadeh & Sullivan, 2017), so where more subjective and
unreliable identification is concerned, other means to support should
be prioritized. At the same time, ongoing monitoring and trauma-
informed individualized planning for students with disabilities are
important (Rossen, 2018).
Leverage Coordination
Given disjointed operations and increasing needs in schools and
community settings, service coordination and collaboration are also
perhaps more critical now. Coordinating services with other profes-
sionals can increase access, alignment, and, ultimately, child and
family outcomes (Arora et al., 2019). Nearly a decade ago, Adelman
and Taylor (2012) called for the development of connected systems
(CS; e.g., primary prevention, early intervention, and systems of
care targeting interventions across schools, public health, health
care, social services, behavioral health, and other systems) to
provide comprehensive and integrated supports; however, the prom-
ise of this approach has yet to be fully realized. Despite the
proliferation of various frameworks (e.g., Barrett et al., 2013),
few settings have achieved a unified and multifaceted framework
that comprehensively leverages school and community resources to
support the academic, social, emotional, behavioral, and physical
development of students through both practice and policy. Put
simply, we need to think bigger.
The CS framework offers an advantageous approach to concep-
tualizing and organizing comprehensive services by pooling school
and community resources, including facilities, stakeholders, pro-
grams, and services to produce integrated programs at every level.
Conceptualized as a unified system of service delivery, CS inten-
tionally and systematically integrates mental health, community,
school, and family partners to enhance interprofessional collabora-
tion and outcomes. Fragmented supports are not only inefficient,
they may actually exacerbate inequities; an understanding of con-
tributors and causes is critical to identifying and selecting appropri-
ate support strategies. Indeed, Adelman and Taylor (2012) noted
that “when the focus is on individuals’problems [ ::: ] interven-
tions contribute to the widespread undervaluing of the human and
social capital represented by students, their families, and a wide
spectrum of other resources in the community”(p. 17). The promise
of leveraging CS in the wake of COVID-19 as an organizing
framework for school psychologists is consequential and reenvi-
sions our roles as advocates, catalysts, brokers, coordinators, and
facilitators of reform.
Effective collaboration and teaming to enhance communication
among stakeholders from within the school and beyond are essen-
tial, particularly in strengthening relationships with families (see
Stefanski et al., 2016, for a review) and community-based organi-
zations and providers, which are made even more important by
mounting economic, social, and minority stressors (Brown et al.,
2020;Karpman et al., 2020). Schools can also be conceptualized as
hubs where community resources are shared (e.g., health and social
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ADDRESS COVID-19 HEALTH DISPARITIES 7
services; Dryfoos, 2008;Sanders et al., 2019), advancing the role of
schools not just as places of learning but also of multisystem support
and advocacy (Stefanski et al., 2016). The community school model
(CSM) is based on the belief that “inequality has more to do with the
policies and social/economic structures rather than with the charac-
teristics of individual children and their families”(Baquedano-Lo´pez
et al., 2013, p. 171), which can only be addressed using comprehen-
sive approaches beyond school walls (Bower, 2013). No two com-
munity schools are the same, as they are created for the communities
they serve based on the essential components of close cooperation
with community resource providers to create access; proactive,
responsive family partnership valuing their funds of knowledge;
and provision of extracurricular activities (Heers et al., 2016).
Another example of hubbed service provision is school-based
health centers offering physical and mental health services, often in
communities of racially or economically minoritized families,
thereby promoting care access and potentially improving health
disparities and educational outcomes (Knopf et al., 2016;Walker
et al., 2010). Building on the CSM model, powered-up schools
center the community and leverage resources to address gaps
exacerbated during COVID-19, grounded in the belief that reima-
gined community and family partnerships are critical to school
success given systemic complexities (Vegas & Winthrop, 2020).
Taken together, these efforts are collaborative and should supple-
ment, rather than supplant, the role of school-employed professionals,
including school psychologists. Further, the challenges of the current
context present other critical opportunities for school psychologists to
enhance our services to the broader school community. For example,
COVID-19 has increased stress for teachers and related service
providers (e.g., MacIntyre et al., 2020) such that their mental health
needs may undermine professional capacity. Addressing staff needs
through systems-level support (e.g., training on effective coping strat-
egies, disseminating information about community-based resources) or
collaboration can efficiently increase capacity and perceived support,
thus influencing the quality and impact of efforts.
Advocate for Systems Level Change In and Out
of Schools
Although the provision of individual services will invariably remain
part of school psychologists’roles, we can maximize our impact by
conceptualizing our primary role as that of a systems advocate.
Promoting and facilitating stronger, equitable preventative systems
should be central activities. Social justice advocacy will occur at
multiple levels: client, school, community, and the public arena
(Malone & Proctor, 2019). Systems advocacy does not ignore client
needs but emphasizes systems as essential targets for our efforts. Given
the impact of COVID-19 on child and family mental health, school
psychologists can increase the promotion of social–emotional wellness
through community, district, school, and classroom contexts.
Now, more than ever, advocacy for more just and equitable policies
and practices at the local, state, and national levels is critical (e.g.,
NASP, 2021), especially given extensive efforts to suppress them
(Crenshaw, 2021). The focus of these advocacy efforts may include
issues related to P–12 curricular or instructional initiatives, school
funding, exclusionary discipline, school vouchers/choice/privatiza-
tion, disability policy and supports, harassment and violence in school
and community contexts (e.g., anti-Asian violence), use of school
resource officers, policing divestment and abolition, and concomitant
investment in community resources (e.g., affordable housing, health
care, violence prevention, jobs creation, and enrichment programs).
Dismantling systems of oppression that perpetuate and exacerbate
inequities will require careful attention to whom policies and practices
are serving, and who is marginalized or disenfranchised. Collective
organizing and advocacy provides a mechanism for pushing forward
needed changes in partnership with youth, families, and communities
based on local needs. Advocacy can take many forms, including, but
not limited to youth participatory approaches (e.g., youth-led partici-
patory action research, organizing, planning, advisory boards; Ozer
et al., 2020), administrative advocacy, grassroots organizing, resource
mobilization and alignment with community and school-affiliated
organizations, (social) media campaigns, dissemination, policy lobby-
ing and other engagement of legislators, and creating or supporting
legislative or ballot initiatives and candidates to advance context-
specific social justice needs.
In many cases, such advocacy could be a natural extension of
family and community partnerships as many barriers to wellness are
structural, and as such, reified in education or public policy. It is not
enough to work to counteract the harmful effects of policy within
schools if we are not also advocating for change upstream. In this
regard, it is necessary to shift away from an apolitical or ahistorical
conceptualization of ethical practice; school psychologists must
recognize that the fields’aspirations for respecting justice, dignity,
and autonomy are fundamentally political in a national context
characterized by systemic, structural oppression. Thus, social justice
advocacy should take place both in and out of school contexts and
include both educational issues and other public policy issues
related to social determinants of health, and may including elevating
student, family, and community perspectives and leadership to enact
changes in governance, policy, resource allocation, program devel-
opment, and other initiatives relevant to structural barriers to
wellness and justice. Our ethical aspirations demand it.
Considerations for Graduate Education
and Professional Learning
While many school psychologists possess some of the founda-
tional knowledge and skills (e.g., knowledge of MTSS, consulta-
tion, collaboration) necessary to support children and families who
are disproportionately negatively impacted by COVID-19, research
suggests that school psychologists may not feel prepared to address
issues related to systemic oppression, particularly related to Black
students (e.g., Proctor et al., 2020). For many years, the field’s focus
has been on developing graduate students’and practitioners’mul-
ticultural competency without explicit focus on social justice, which
moves beyond awareness or appreciation of cultural differences to
interrogating the systems of oppression and privilege that maintain
inequities and discrimination against minoritized groups. In the
aftermath of numerous killings of Black people (e.g., Breonna
Taylor, George Floyd, Daunte Wright) occurring in the midst of
COVID-19, professional organizations have acknowledged the
historic and current racial injustices, including those related to
many social determinants of health associated with COVID-19,
and called for school psychologists to engage in social justice and
antiracist action (García-Vázquez et al., 2020;NASP, 2020a;
Trainers of School Psychologists, 2020).
This will require extensive graduate and in-service preparation.
Indeed, for school psychologists to truly be responsive to minoritized
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8SULLIVAN ET AL.
children and families impacted by COVID-19, they must have
knowledge of relevant social justice issues generally and in the
context of COVID-19 (e.g., reluctance of some Black adults to
take COVID-19 vaccine due to a history of the scientific and medical
abuse of Black people; Washington, 2020), or they risk reinforcing
inequitable and oppressive practices even when engaging in systemic
change, collaboration, and other recommended advances. Thus,
graduate programs and school systems must make concerted efforts
to provide ongoing, sustained professional preparation to facilitate
school psychologists’provision of ethical, socially just, competent
service delivery with minoritized students and families. Additionally,
school psychologists need the skills to engage in social justice
advocacy, distinct from other types of advocacy because it involves
working for and with marginalized populations to challenge institu-
tional barriers and societal injustices (Linnemeyer et al., 2018).
Current and future practitioners will benefit from explicit guidance
on how to engage in social justice advocacy (e.g., Malone & Proctor,
2019), and such preparation is integral not just in the context of
COVID recovery but also to broader efforts to support systems
change, antiracism, and student wellness. Social justice advocacy
should be viewed as complementary—if not central—to scholarship
and practice, and graduate students provided with skills to engage in
this work, to employ action research and use research in and as
advocacy, and to develop students and families’self-advocacy skills.
This will necessitate preparation grounded in antioppression,
cultural humility, intersectionality, and systems competence (e.g.,
Neff et al., 2020) and corresponding changes to core domains of
practice. Taken together, these foci share more holistic attention to
all levels of ecological systems, particularly in understanding the
effects of distal systems on development, experience, and practice.
This is a departure from typical conceptualizations of cultural
competence, social justice, or intersectionality in (school) psychol-
ogy, wherein the focus has typically been at the individual level or
the most proximal systems (Overstreet et al., 2020). This may
necessitate both minor and major changes to program curricula,
professional standards and accreditation requirements, and ap-
proaches to graduate education in order to comprehensively and
coherently advance justice with recognition and disruption of the
myriad ways professional activities in school psychology may
ignore or sustain systemic inequity. This will likely entail an
ongoing, iterative process of interrogating key features of our field,
including roles, scholarship, instructional practices, curricula, and
relationships with stakeholders. This work should be done in
partnership with stakeholders (e.g., practitioners, graduate educa-
tors, graduate students, scholars, and representatives of key partners/
recipients of school psychological services). Precisely what this will
look like in graduate education and practice is something leaders in
the field must co-create with our constituents and public stake-
holders, prioritizing engagement and leadership by those from
multiple marginalized communities.
Conclusion
In nearly every way, the COVID-19 pandemic has been a disaster
for U.S. communities and for the provision of educational services
to children and youth. These effects have been felt hardest among
communities who experience simultaneous, cumulative, and gener-
ational marginalization related to systemic racism, oppression, and
white supremacy. As school psychologists, we are entrusted with
supporting students and families who have experienced such mar-
ginalization, and we must do so by moving beyond microsystemic
explanations for trauma, poverty, and resultant risks to develop-
ment. Instead, we must develop an understanding of and respon-
siveness to the macro- and chronosystemic forces that shape
educational opportunities, and we must commit to reshaping the
educational landscape with an antioppressive lens at the forefront.
Anything less will leave behind those most impacted by this disaster
and become yet another example of the numerous ways in which
U.S. education has failed to uphold our nation’s central principle of
justice for all.
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Received February 15, 2021
Revision received July 6, 2021
Accepted July 13, 2021 ▪
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