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The Changing Face of German Christmas Markets: Historic, Mercantile, Social, and Experiential Dimensions

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Annually, there are between 2500 and 3000 Christmas markets in Germany. While claiming to be rooted in century-old tradition, the current concept of the markets, shaped in the 1930s, gradually transformed from primarily mercantile operations to experiential events. In contemporary times, these markets also have quantifiable social and experiential dimensions. The last of these, the experiential dimension, is a mélange of visual, auditory, and olfactory components that create a compound sensory response—the “Christmas atmosphere”. There are copious intangible elements of these markets, which combined create a sum greater than the addition of each of the individual constituent components. We find the recognition of such collections of entwined intangible heritage is novel, warranting further research and documentation, as standard approaches to the identification and management of intangible cultural heritage are too limiting.
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heritage
Article
The Changing Face of German Christmas Markets: Historic,
Mercantile, Social, and Experiential Dimensions
Dirk H.R. Spennemann * and Murray Parker


Citation: Spennemann, D.H.; Parker,
M. The Changing Face of German
Christmas Markets: Historic,
Mercantile, Social, and Experiential
Dimensions. Heritage 2021,4,
1821–1835. https://doi.org/10.3390/
heritage4030102
Academic Editor:
Francesco Soldovieri
Received: 5 July 2021
Accepted: 10 August 2021
Published: 16 August 2021
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Institute for Land, Water and Society, Charles Sturt University, PO Box 789, Albury, NSW 2640, Australia;
muparker@csu.edu.au
*Correspondence: dspennemann@csu.edu.au
Abstract:
Annually, there are between 2500 and 3000 Christmas markets in Germany. While claiming
to be rooted in century-old tradition, the current concept of the markets, shaped in the 1930s,
gradually transformed from primarily mercantile operations to experiential events. In contemporary
times, these markets also have quantifiable social and experiential dimensions. The last of these,
the experiential dimension, is a mélange of visual, auditory, and olfactory components that create a
compound sensory response—the “Christmas atmosphere”. There are copious intangible elements
of these markets, which combined create a sum greater than the addition of each of the individual
constituent components. We find the recognition of such collections of entwined intangible heritage
is novel, warranting further research and documentation, as standard approaches to the identification
and management of intangible cultural heritage are too limiting.
Keywords:
intangible heritage; German Christmas markets; Weihnachtsmärkte; multisensory inter-
actions; experiential heritage
1. Introduction
Annually, there are between 2500 and 3000 Christmas markets (“Adventsmarkt”,
“Christkindl Markt”, “Weihnachtsmarkt”) in Germany. Given the large number and the
role these markets play in the cultural fabric of German society during the pre-Christmas
season, it is surprising how comparatively little attention they have received in German
academic literature.
In German tradition, Christmas markets form part of the Christmas complex of
Advent (fourth Sunday before Christmas), St. Nicholas Day (6 December), Christmas
Eve, Christmas, St. Stephens Day (26 December), and Epiphany (6 January). While all
other events are rooted in Christian tradition and adhere to differing levels of spirituality
(depending on denominational affiliation), Christmas markets have more mercantile and,
in particular, consumption-oriented foundations that have become increasingly dominant.
A few authors focused on the role of Christmas markets as expressions of mass culture
at the interface of tradition and commercialism with an increasing disconnect between
the Christian foundations of the Advent and Christmas period and the consumer-focused
social experience. The majority of literature, however, focuses on the role of these markets
in the annual economy of regional service centers, examining aspects of tourism and
economic development.
The formal literature is augmented by a range of surveys commissioned by commu-
nities and the industry with at least one community carrying out longitudinal studies
(Hagen/Westphalia since 2002). In the literature, the focus has been on the economics and
cultural complexities of German Christmas markets, and research into the experiential
component has been largely ignored to date.
This paper will examine the historic background of Christmas markets in Germany
and the many dimensions that ensconce these markets into German culture and society. It
Heritage 2021,4, 1821–1835. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030102 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage
Heritage 2021,41822
will explore the multi-sensory experience of the Christmas market as a complex form of
intangible heritage that necessitates appropriate research and documentation.
2. Historic Context to the Christmas Markets in Germany
Christmas markets developed during the medieval period as opportunities to purchase
supplies and goods in the midwinter period in the run-up to Christmas. Whilst the early
versions of Vienna’s December markets of 1296 are often quoted as the first Christmas
markets in the world, these fourteen-day fairs did not include any specific associations
with the Christmas celebrations, despite being held in the Advent period. Street markets in
the town of Bautzen, Saxony, have been generally proclaimed as the first Christkindlmarkt
in the area of modern Germany, whereby King Wenceslaus IV granted the city the right
to hold a free meat market in 1384, giving butchers the right to sell meat until Christmas.
However, whether this constitutes an actual Christkindlmarkt is disputed, and it has been
argued that the beginnings of these Christmas markets are probably later than is often
indicated in the media and popular science. Despite this uncertainty, continually operating
annual markets include the Dresden Strietzelmarkt (since 1434) [
1
], the Strassburg market
(since 1570), and the Nuremberg (Nürnberg) Christkindlmarkt (Figure 1) (at least since
1628), with the Dresden markets reported to have traded special Christmas pastries, such
as gingerbread, in that year [2].
Figure 1.
Nuremberg, Christmas market on St. Thomas’s Day (21 December). Wood cut by Pius Ferdinand Messerschmitt [
3
].
2.1. Markets during the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Century
Evidence from the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries suggests that many
Christmas markets were located in close proximity to churches in order to attract church
attendees, with stalls vending commodities, including pottery and foodstuffs such as meat
and bakery, but also stalls selling specialty sweetbread and confectionery. The markets
attracted workers, who received seasonal gratuities, as well as visitors from the countryside,
and on occasion, nobility would provide their imprimatur through a formal visit (
Figure 2
).
Heritage 2021,41823
Over time, offerings at the stalls expanded to include candles, dolls, turnery, fur, and
sweets. While trade was always licensed, Christmas markets became regulated activities in
Berlin in 1750, both in terms of location (Breite Straße) and duration (11 December 11 to
6 January). During the nineteenth century, the principal German markets of Nuremberg,
Dresden, Frankfurt, and Berlin could be considered true “Spielzeugmessen” or toy fairs
due to the numerous dolls and figurines being sold in specialty stalls. The growth of such
markets is correlated with the wealth of the community; the Berlin market was comprised
of 50 stalls in 1650, 303 stalls in 1805, and about 600 stalls in 1840, all of which were erected
and dismantled daily.[4]
Figure 2.
Friedrich Wilhelm III and Queen Louise at the Berlin Christmas market, historicized wood
cut by Richard Knötel [5].
2.2. Decline and Regulation
Later generations would look to the markets of “Christmas past”, such as the Berlin
Christmas market of 1791, which was described in a novella by the Berlin author Ludwig
Tieck. Tieck described the people of all ages and ways of life marveling at the plethora of
toys, imitation (wax) fruits, marzipan and other confectionaries, candied fruits, and similar
treats. Writing in 1834, however, he also noted that Christmas markets (in Berlin) peaked
between 1780 and 1793, to be replaced by stores offering the same specialty goods in their
own showrooms. By the 1870s, traditional mercantile interests increasingly regarded the
Berlin Christmas market as unwanted competition. In conjunction with the implied political
power of the emerging department stores, Christmas markets were relegated to increasingly
peripheral settings, as well as with traders (mainly children) roaming the streets with
their wares. Although widely deplored by residents, the Berlin city administration cited
impediments to foot and horse traffic as justification for successive relocations of the venue
for main Christmas markets to ever less desirable locations.
This trend was exacerbated by an increasing proportion of urban poor that further
marginalized markets, which catered for the affluent middle-class despite being serviced
by the rural poor in the form of hand-carved toys, as well by the urban poor in the form
of retail services (Figure 3). After World War I, Christmas markets increasingly lost their
Heritage 2021,41824
economic market niche of selling seasonal gifts and toys (Figure 4) to the ubiquitous
department stores, and similar trends played out in other German and Austrian cities [6].
During the nineteenth century, communities regulated the markets and restricted
what could be sold and who would be allowed to trade. The community of Halle, for
example, allowed external traders despite protests by local traders, while Madgeburg and
Frankfurt did not. The 1869 police order for Frankfurt, for example, was very prescriptive
and stipulated that for the Christmas market from 5 December to 1 January, nothing could
be sold during mass on 25 and 26 December, as well as on 1 January, and that only “genuine
Christmas objects [were to be offered] such as children’s toys, Christmas trees, nativity
scenes, gingerbread and confectionery.” Other early to mid-nineteenth century markets
focused on the same range of products: a reference to the 1848 markets in Leipzig noted
primarily gifts for children and singled out “a small Christmas tree, a box of lead soldiers,
and a large gingerbread.” Depending on the socio-economic setting of the markets, even
relatively poor people could acquire Christmas decorations and toys [7].
Little had changed in that regard by the end of the century (e.g., Vienna). The 1863 reg-
ulations for Berlin specifically excluded stalls that sold alcoholic beverages, as did the
1893 regulations for Hamburg [8].
Figure 3.
Christmas market in Berlin during the Imperial era (pre-World War I). Reproduction of a painting by Wilhem
Schoebel 1913 [9].
Heritage 2021,41825
Figure 4.
Stall selling decorations for Christmas trees at the Berlin Christmas market at the Alexan-
derplatz in 1923 (source: Bundesarchiv 102-00790).
2.3. Revival and the Modern Form
The re-emergence of the Christkindlmarkt in Nuremburg and other markets in the
twentieth century was largely due to the reinvigoration of the market as a “wonderful
German custom” under the National Socialist Party mayor, Willy Liebel, alongside festive
ceremonies, speeches, and carol singing. In 1933, Liebel standardized the appearance of the
roofed stalls and restricted the range of offerings to items that had a direct connection with
Christmas, such as: angels made from lush gold, Christmas tree decorations, toys, dolls,
picture books, arts and crafts, handicrafts, gingerbread, prune men, and sugar confectionery,
as well as advent wreath binders and sellers of Christmas trees. Critically, however, the
Heritage 2021,41826
structured markets of the late 1930s added another component by incorporating food
offerings, such as bratwurst stalls and herring roasters.
The Christmas atmosphere was engendered through Christmas decorations with
garlands and glass balls, as well as fairy lights strung across stalls and festoon lights strung
across light poles. The use of torches, as well as electric spotlights, added to the look
and feel, albeit with Nazi overtones and an emphasis on a German Christmas. Similar
developments occurred in Berlin in 1934, Dresden (1937), Wroclaw (Krakau) (1937), and
Vienna (Figure 5). While claiming to be rooted in tradition, critical to these developments
was the transformation of the Christmas markets from a primarily mercantile operation to
an experiential event. Even during the early days of World War II (Figure 6) and after the
collapse of Nazi Germany in 1945, the formula of offerings and the experiential nature of
Christmas markets remained until the present day.
Figure 5. Christmas market at the Neubaugürtel in Vienna ca. 1939 (Press Photo Agentur Schostal, source: author).
During the late 1960s to late 1970s, Christmas markets transformed from individual
experiential events to those of mass culture, facilitated by increased personal wealth in the
post-reconstruction period and by increased car ownership and, thus, individual mobility.
This was aided when several communities extended the trading period of the Christmas
markets to commence as early as the Friday before the first advent (usually last weekend
in November). While, historically, all major regional centers seem to have operated such
markets, most smaller German Christmas markets, as well as markets in industrial cities,
are only 50 to 60 years old. This emergence can be correlated with the rise of consumerism
and the attempt to promote local businesses during the Christmas shopping period to
prevent the drift of consumers to larger regional centers [1012].
Early on, Christmas markets focusing on Christmas trees, toys, and gingerbread were
interpreted as a typical German custom. While Christmas markets have a long tradition
in the German-speaking border regions of Italy (Tyrol), Switzerland, and France (Alsace),
in the 1990s, German Christmas markets had become a “product” that was emulated in
Heritage 2021,41827
non-German speaking countries, such as the UK, the USA (Chicago, IL 1996; Columbus,
OH 1999), Russia, Poland, Japan, Mexico, and India, both as open air markets and, in the
case of Thailand, in shopping centers. While initially purely mercantile opportunities, some
of these also developed along experiential lines.
Figure 6.
Opening of the Berlin Christmas market at the Lustgarten, 19 December 1942 (Press Photo Atlantic-Boesig1942,
source: author).
3. The Mercantile, Social, and Experiential Dimensions of Christmas Markets
Today, there are reputedly almost 3000 annual Christmas markets throughout Ger-
many, ranging from small single-weekend affairs in small communities to large-scale
Christmas markets running from the last week in November to Christmas Eve. In 2007, the
number of markets across the country topped 2100, with over forty of these being found
in the Berlin area alone. Not surprisingly, as Christmas markets can attract very large
numbers of visitors, local economies receive a massive boost during the pre-Christmas
period. In 2012, the top ten Christmas markets attracted a combined 26.9 million visitors,
with Cologne (Köln) alone attracting 4 million and 5 million in 2019[
13
]. Among the other
traditional markets in historic settings, Frankfurt attracted 3 million, Munich (München)
2.8 million, and Nuremberg 2 million [14].
The shoppers are predominantly locals and drawn from nearby communities with
less than a third travelling more than 100 km (ca 1 hr travel time). Visitors from further
afield tend to be drawn only to Christmas markets at major historic town centers, such as
Aachen, Cologne, Dusseldorf (Düsseldorf), Frankfurt, Mayence (Mainz), Munich, Munster
(Münster), Nuremberg, Rothenburg, and Wurzburg (Würzburg). Travel companies offer
daily bus excursions to the more iconic markets, such as Nuremberg, with the popular-
ity underlined by the fact that on some weekends in the mid-1970s, up to 1000 buses
arrived [15].
Heritage 2021,41828
The centrality of the Christmas markets to the pre-Christmas experience is underlined
by a set of marketing surveys. In 2012, 80% of respondents saw a visit to Christmas markets
as obligatory, preferring smaller regional over larger markets. Additional marketing
surveys in 2016–2018 found that 73% of the respondents could not imagine an Advent
season without Christmas markets, that 71% intended to visit one, and that 69% became
sentimental by the agglomeration of huts selling Christmas decorations and mulled wine.
The fact that the markets were seen as too crowded (83%) and, in particular, over-priced
(82%) did not diminish the experience. In early December 2019, 59% of female and 51% of
male respondents planned to visit a Christmas market [16].
3.1. The Mercantile Dimension
For Germans, Christmas markets as ephemeral events have several dimensions: mer-
cantile, social, and experiential. The mercantile dimension formed the foundation of the
Christmas markets. As noted, during the medieval period, these markets provided oppor-
tunities for artisans, merchants, and producers to sell their wares in the midwinter period
and for the public to purchase supplies and goods in the run-up to Christmas [
17
]. Over
time, showmen augmented the offerings, turning a purely mercantile market into an event.
In the modern incarnation, the markets are comprised almost equally of stalls selling goods
and stalls selling confectionery, food, and drink. These are augmented by a small number
of amusement rides, all of a subdued nature fitting in with the “Christmas atmosphere”.
During the second decade of this millennium, Christmas markets lost their role as an
important venue to purchase Christmas presents to shopping centers and, increasingly,
the internet. Significantly, the competition of on-line options is universal, affecting both
towns that historically host Christmas markets and towns that have only done so in the
past 50 years [1827].
3.2. The Social Dimension
While the mercantile dimension was the primary driver for the initial establishment
of the markets, and while many visitors will still purchase a Christmas tree ornament
or a gift, the main function of the markets in the new millennium rests in the social
dimension. Visitors of the markets stated that food and drink were the main reason
they had come (34%), followed by spending time with friends or family (22%) and the
experiential atmosphere (22%). Buying items for themselves (5%) or as presents (9%)
rated low. The same preferences were also reflected in actual purchases, where 75% of
attendees purchased food or drink and only 12% bought Christmas decorations or other
souvenirs (9%). The deep-rootedness of this driver of participation is demonstrated by
similar observations made a decade earlier at smaller markets, at regional markets, and at
historic markets, as well as at more recently established markets, with a decreasing trend
of purchases and an increasing trend of consumption of food and drink [28].
Given the primary drivers for visitation, it is also not surprising that almost half of
those surveyed attended markets more than four times a year, frequently also visiting
Christmas markets in nearby towns. The number of markets has been increasing steadily:
approximately 950 markets in the 1970s; 1750 markets in 2002; 2100 markets in 2010;
2500 markets in 2018; and approximately 3000 markets in 2019. Concerns have been
expressed that the trend might lead to an inflation of offerings, resulting in increased
competition and increased demand for differentiation, which might result in a loss of
quality [12].
3.3. The Experiential Dimension
The experiential dimension of a Christmas market is less readily definable. It is a
mélange of visual, auditory, and olfactory components that create a plethora of sensory re-
sponses, acting upon the visitor simultaneously as well as discrete entities as the individual
progresses through the market space. Visual stimuli are the colorful stalls and their array of
wares, brought into sharper focus at night when surrounding visual cues of sky, buildings,
Heritage 2021,41829
and street furniture are negated. Festoon lights frame the experience (Figure 7) while lit
Christmas trees and floodlit historic feature buildings (churches, palaces or town halls)
provide visual anchors and landmarks (Figures 8and 9). Auditory stimuli are provided by
Christmas music emanating from stalls and live music performances by choirs and bands,
punctuating the low rumble of inter-personal communication among the multitude of
people. At the periphery, the sounds of merry-go-rounds may be heard. Olfactory stimuli
are ever present, with warm food odors dispersing far in the cold winter air: scents of
mulled wine (“Glühwein”), candied roasted almonds, and roasted chestnuts compete with
the odors of fried sausages (Bratwurst). These three primary stimuli are augmented by the
less prominent tactile stimuli (which only apply to those visitors exploring the objects on
sale with an eye on potential purchase) and the thermo-sensory stimuli on the skin (hands,
face) caused by the cold of the outdoor markets (further emphasized by the visible breath).
Drawing on Aho [
29
], we have to add these physical components, as well as the effects of
memory and association implanted in the formative period during childhood, which are
reinforced by cultural connotations and shared experiences in a social setting (see above).
Figure 7. Christmas market on the Domplatz at Mainz, 20 December 2016 (Photos DHRS).
The experiential dimension of Christmas markets is often shorthanded as “Christmas
atmosphere” or “Christmas mood” and is regularly queried in visitor satisfaction surveys.
The overall Christmas atmosphere is considered an important element of a successful and
appealing Christmas market, followed by the appearance of the stalls [
30
,
31
]. Moreover,
external visual elements of the Christmas markets also have a major influence on visitor
satisfaction, with markets in the settings of historic town centers engendering in visitors a
greater willingness to recommend them to others [31].
The integral components of a Christmas market were sub-zero Celsius temperatures,
stalls selling mulled wine (79%), Christmas festoon lights (79%), and Christmas trees (78%),
as well as stalls selling sweets (75%) and food (69%). Mulled wine (66%) and candied
roasted almonds (48%) were seen to be among the quintessential elements of Christmas
markets. Live music by choirs or brass bands was regarded as low quality and less
significant for the experience (33%), as were children’s attractions such as merry-go-rounds
Heritage 2021,41830
(17%). Indeed, in 2016, 88% of all respondents preferred a traditional-style Christmas
market without merry-go-rounds and other show-type rides [32].
Figure 8. Christmas market on the Römerberg at Frankfurt, 19 December 2016 (Photos DHRS).
Figure 9. Christmas market on the Domplatz at Mainz, 20 December 2016 (Photos DHRS).
Heritage 2021,41831
Given the mercantile, social, and experiential dimensions, coupled with its economic
significance, it is not surprising that Christmas markets materially add to a town’s image
as well as brand, with Nuremberg pioneering that market segment. Not surprisingly, then,
the tourism industry has promoted the socio-cultural experience of German Christmas
markets either as a destination in its own right or as a value-adding element to either
town-specific tourism or general winter tourism. Not only German markets were targeted
but also European and overseas markets, such as the UK or the USA, with additional online
promotion [3336].
A 2018 survey of visitors at ten different Christmas markets found that 85% of the
attendees were Germans, with the remainder from the Netherlands (6%) and other Eu-
ropean countries (Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, UK). The economic significance of the
Christmas markets reached beyond the immediate sales at the markets themselves. One
third of respondents included an overnight stay of one or more nights, with a higher
percentage of overnight stays in historic and picturesque towns.[
31
] It is interesting to note
that the clientele of these markets is predominantly local, with their motivations for visiting
being primarily the desire to experience the markets as a sense of nostalgia for a local
past. This is unusual in experiential tourism and opens up avenues for future qualitative
research [3739].
The experiential dimension of Christmas markets has not seen extensive qualitative
or quantitative analysis. An exception is a study by Kammerhofer-Aggermann et. al.,
who surveyed visitors at the Christkindlmarkt in Salzburg (Austria) trying to tease out
the significance of visual, auditory, and olfactory characteristics of the pre-Christmas
period [
6
]. They noted that a high level of importance was attributed to scents and odors,
whereas the setting at the Mirabellplatz, flanked by the Salzburg minster and the palace,
received polarized responses. Fairy and festoon lighting were important, as well as typical
Christmas music and sounds, while the decoration of the stalls was deemed to be of lesser
relevance.
4. Discussion
The cultural heritage of a community is defined by the tangible evidence that circum-
scribes the physical environment (e.g., historic properties, monuments, cultural landscapes),
its artefacts (e.g., archaeological material, art collections, public art), and its intangible
heritage (e.g., customs, language, oral history). Much of contemporary heritage manage-
ment is concerned with the preservation of physical structures and museum objects,[
40
],
as well as the preservation of intangible cultural practices. While the rhetoric advocates
the preservation of such heritage for the benefit of future generations,[
41
] the management
processes primarily serve the ideological and socio-political interests of the present.[
42
] The
management intangible heritage as currently practiced tends to focus on languages, cultural
practices, and expressions in the form of music and dance. The 2003 UNESCO Convention
for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, for example, defines the intangible cultural
heritage as “the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills [and associated
objects] . . . that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of
their cultural heritage” and which manifest themselves inter alia as “oral traditions and
expressions, including language
. . .
heritage; performing arts; social practices, rituals and
festive events; knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; traditional
craftsmanship.”[
43
] Intangible aspects of heritage outside this standard discourse, however,
tend to be overlooked or regarded as too difficult to address. As shown elsewhere, aural
heritage, the sounds generated by and prevalent in the human-generated environment
(as opposed to music), tends to be under-researched and mismanaged.[
44
,
45
] Similarly,
other sensory aspects, such as the olfactory components of cultural practices, tend to be
overlooked.
While Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage alludes to “festive
events”, the usage in its context, as well as other references to the term in the publication,
Heritage 2021,41832
strongly suggest that festive events are celebratory in nature and tied in with social practices
and rituals [43].
Thus, annual festivals such as the German Christmas markets are not covered per
se. While cases have been made for the heritage value of festivals, drawing on their
intangible heritage aspects, such as the Fallas Festival in Valencia (Spain),[
46
] or the
Swabian-Alemannic Carnival [
47
], these festivals are organized, choreographed events
(albeit with individual contributions), rather than organically developed and executed enti-
ties. Furthermore, none of these studies truly consider the multi-sensory components and
focus primarily on the visual aspects or the music performances as discrete entities. Some
movement in this direction has been the methodology advanced for the evaluation of the
cultural heritage values of the Flamenco, a dance which, while itself an intangible cultural
practice, includes a number of additional intangible elements that give complexity to the
dance, such as feelings, technique, innovation, distinctiveness, virtuosity, and composition
in terms of rhythm, harmony, or melody.[
48
] Their methodology draws on interviews with
experts, a double system survey for spectators and experts, and correlation and exploratory
factor analysis, which crystallizes three criteria: feelings, virtuosity, and composition.[
48
]
As the Flamenco is a performance, these criteria can be developed into a formal set that is
then used to grade various interpretations and performances, akin to the way performances
in dance competitions, gymnastics, or figure skating are assessed. Additional assessment
can be carried out similar to auditions by actors or musicians, although these are more
open to the subjective interpretation and evaluation by the assessor.
As discussed, Christmas markets in Germany are not solely about the mercantile
dimension, or more recently, tourism, but form an essential part of the history and culture
of the cities and villages that host them. As discussed, there are copious intangible ele-
ments that combine to form the recognized “Christmas atmosphere” of German Christmas
markets, such as the distinctive visual, auditory, olfactory stimuli, and tactile sensory
responses, yet the combination of these facets creates a sum greater than the addition of
each of the individual constituent components. It is this combination of a multisensory
collective that gives these markets their own unique intangible heritage. As these markets
have changed substantially over the past centuries, the sensory experiences/intangible
heritage aspects currently experienced are naturally different from those of the past. Un-
less the intergenerational transmission of intangible aspects of culture is canonized, e.g.,
Indigenous Australian cultural knowledge and languages,[
49
], the cultural heritage value
is informed and shaped by the common experiences of the oldest living generation (i.e.,
grand-parents and great-grandparents). While akin to the shifting baseline syndrome
in historic ecology,[
50
] cultural heritage values are mutable entities and defined by their
relevance to the majority of the community.[
51
] Thus, the intangible heritage aspects of
Christmas markets are defined by the significant sensory experiences of the markets as they
presented themselves in the immediate pre- and post-World War II period. With continual
intergenerational change, however, the significant sensory experiences will undergo change
as well. It is, therefore, important to document both the individual components and the
intangible multisensory collective, while, at the same time, acknowledging that social
heritage value is fluid [52,53].
The intangible heritage of Christmas markets is just one example that requires con-
sideration and documentation, as the underlying issue of documenting multi-sensory
communal events stretches to many other examples around the world. Global examples of
such an intangible heritage collective include, inter alia, the Songkran celebration of the
Buddhist New Year in Thailand, the Holi Festival in India, the Gion Festival in Kyoto, and
La Tomatina celebration in Buñol, Spain. It would certainly be interesting to investigate
how the sensory components of these events are experienced by attendees—especially
as all sensory experiences are extremely subjective—and how they may be documented
effectively as a form of intangible heritage.
While components of intangible heritage have been previously evaluated in cultural
festivals, and research has identified methods to analyze and archive existing and his-
Heritage 2021,41833
toric odors, aural landscapes and soundmarks, and visual experiences, to the authors’
knowledge, to date, no research has identified successful methods to both document and
archive these components as a collective in the social sphere. In this manner, we seem
to be still trapped in the nineteenth century, with the best documentation emulating the
word-smithery of Ludwig Tieck. A way forward may well be the creation of virtual real-
ity that augments the “standard” visual and auditory sensations with olfactory stimuli
and also haptic and kinesthetic experiences. The use of such a documentation technique,
however, then raises its own problems in terms of intergenerational digital archiving. In
addition, with the continual evolution of Christmas markets over time, the notion of docu-
menting “authenticity” presents unique and complex problems. These include issues of not
only the determination of what a “genuine” Christmas market experience actually is but
then establishing correct time frames and situational/locational parameters for apposite
documentation.
Author Contributions:
D.H.R.S., M.P. contributed equally to the paper. Both authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
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Wozel, H. Der Dresdner Striezelmarkt. Geschichte und Tradition des ä ltesten deutschen Weihnachtsmarktes; Husum Druck- und
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... With their Medieval origins, as well as settings in historic spaces (Figure 1), Christmas markets have been publicized as the quintessential event in Germany leading up to Christmas, with the over 2,000 locations [29] attracting large numbers of local, domestic, and international visitors [30][31][32][33][34]. Given the increasingly experiential nature of Christmas markets at the expense of their mercantile origins [35] and given their seasonal presentation, it is apposite to consider these as social and community events. Christmas markets are primarily intangible cultural constructs where visitors are exposed to a multitude of sensory stimuli and social interactions that coalesce into an experiential episode [31,35,36]. ...
... Given the increasingly experiential nature of Christmas markets at the expense of their mercantile origins [35] and given their seasonal presentation, it is apposite to consider these as social and community events. Christmas markets are primarily intangible cultural constructs where visitors are exposed to a multitude of sensory stimuli and social interactions that coalesce into an experiential episode [31,35,36]. Visitors of Christmas markets as community events are transitional, and often trans-communal, transnational, and even transcultural consumers in terms of services, discretionary foods, and drinks, as well as material objects exchanged in that space [30][31][32][37][38][39]. ...
... We can conceptualize a Christmas market as a universe that comprises (i) intangible aspects, primarily an experiential dimension, comprising sensory experiences and social components; (ii) of the topography (e.g., place, street) and setting of the markets (e.g., backdrop of historic buildings, Figure 1); (iii) the layout and inalienable infrastructure of the market itself (e.g., stalls, attractions); and (iv) the portable material culture that is sold at the markets, which enables and characterizes a Christmas market, and that can also be alienated by a visitor. While a considerable body of work has been carried out on history of Christmas markets [35,40], as well as [41] the of sensory components of these markets [31,35,36,42], little work exists on the material culture and materiality of these markets. An exception is Benke's commentary on the role of souvenirs [43], which is embedded in the wider literature on souvenirs. ...
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Many aspects of intangible cultural heritage have associated objects of material culture that augment or enable aspects of intangible heritage to be exercised or emphasized. Christmas markets have been publicized as the quintessential event in Germany leading up to Christmas, with the over 2000 locations attracting large numbers of local, domestic, and international visitors. From their origins as mercantile venues during the medieval period, Christmas markets have evolved into multisensory social and experiential events, where the acquisition of Christmas decorations or gifts has been supplanted by the consumption of mulled wine in a social setting. Christmas markets represent intangible cultural heritage staged in ephemeral surroundings. While the abundance of material culture in Christmas markets is widely understood, this focuses on the objects offered for sale at the markets, rather than the objects that characterize a Christmas market and enable its functioning. This paper provides the first comprehensive assessment of the portable material culture associated with the German Christmas markets, covering objects as diverse as payment tokens, lapel pins, special postmarks, beer mats, and commemorative cups issued for the consumption of mulled wine. These objects, as well as numerous other manifestations of material culture, are discussed in the wider framing of the materiality of the markets, examining their ontological qualities within the multiple spheres in which these objects attain meaning (i.e., personal, event, social, and public spheres). It demonstrates that the wide range of alienable material culture associated with German Christmas markets has different manifestations of materiality, depending on the viewpoint of the user (i.e., participant, vendor, organizer), and these manifestations have different expressions of representativeness. On this foundation, this paper examines the various groups of portable and alienable material culture and discusses them in terms of their authenticity and to what extent these are representative of German Christmas markets. While all items have a connection with Christmas markets and function as symbolic shorthand souvenirs, commemorative cups issued for the consumption of hot drinks as well as the deposit tokens associated with these are both genuine and authentic and are also representative of the conceptual, social, and experiential dimensions of the event.
... Following European tradition, Christmas markets ('Adventsmarkt,' 'Christkindlmarkt,' 'Weihnachtsmarkt') take place in the Northern Hemisphere winter, beginning at Advent and running through to the Christmas period, with some markets ending around Epiphany the following year. Being based as commercial enterprises rooted in tradition (Frevel, 2016;Spennemann & Parker, 2021) whilst exhibiting a form of mass culture (Göbel & Schramm, 2001), Christmas markets may be considered to operate at the crux of heritage and mercantilism (Hirschfelder, 2014). ...
... Whilst literature has discussed the historic background of German Christmas markets, and the historic, mercantile, social and experiential dimensions the main centres attained greater significance (Peters & Vetterlein, 2003). Modern markets, with their equal mix of stalls selling goods and those selling food, drink and confectionery, have retained this mercantile dimension, although during the nineteenth and twentieth century the suite of offerings shifted from practical goods to ornamental items, toys and gifts (Spennemann & Parker, 2021). During the past two decades, the role of Christmas markets as mercantile centers for Christmas presents diminished in favour of shopping centers, and more recently the Internet (Gansser, 2013, p. 18;Gansser & Reich, 2020, p. 18). ...
... Underlying the appeal of these Christmas markets is the experiential dimension which is more difficult to define. It is essentially a melange of visual, auditory, olfactory and gustatory stimuli produced by activities in the space, acting in concert (lights, sounds) and individually (spatial mosaic of smells), augmented by tactile stimuli as well as thermo-sensory stimuli on the skin caused by the sub-zero temperatures experienced in an outdoor market in mid-winter (Spennemann & Parker, 2021). The construction of this multisensory experience is derived from inherently individual responses to the stimuli, although informed and shaped by the individual's background, culture, and gender. ...
Article
Christmas markets in Germany and Austria exhibit historic, mercantile, social and experiential dimensions, entrenching them both as a form of heritage and as visitable sites of society and culture, yet research into tourist perception of sensory and multisensory experiential components of these markets has been highly limited thus far. This paper examines the extent of sensory components experienced in Dresden Strietzelmarkt, Nuremberg Christkindlmarkt (Germany) and Vienna Rathausplatz Christkindlmarkt (Austria), as reported in TripAdvisor reviews. Visitor experience ratings across all three Christmas markets were strongly positive, with internal visitors being more discerning in terms of actual experience. All five sensory components of sight, sound, smell, taste and touch were identified, with sight and taste being most commonly noted. The majority of reviews referred to two or three sensory experiences, and a positive correlation emerged between more complex sensory experience and higher visitor rating. Numerous comments connected experienced sensory characteristics with a sense of a Christmas atmosphere or mood, and perceptions on authenticity were entwined with past perception and expectation. In recognising such multisensory components having ascribed values, we argue they deserve to be correctly identified, documented and managed as forms of intangible heritage.
... The travel sections of the media regularly publicize Christmas markets as the quintessential heritage event in Germany leading up to Christmas [1,2]. From their medieval origins as single or multi-day venues for purchasing supplies and goods during the midwinter season, Christmas markets have morphed into experiential events and social venues, with larger markets lasting (at least) from the beginning of December until Christmas [3]. Markets in over 2000 communities attract millions of visitors representing a significant pillar in the economy of many communities [4,5]. ...
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The global COVID-19 pandemic led to the cancellation of all Christmas markets which are regarded as the quintessential German heritage event in the pre-Christmas weeks. Using visitor figures for major Christmas markets, this paper demonstrates the impact of the pandemic on the markets. It shows that following the nationwide cancellation in 2020 and the limited restart in 2021, the visitor numbers in 2022 and 2023 are significantly below pre-pandemic levels. It is suggested that the pandemic accelerated pre-existing trends in the declining importance of Christmas markets as venues to purchase Christmas presents. Avenues for further research are suggested.
... While research discussed the multiple components to varying degrees (see F I G U R E 1 Examples of recognized multiple sense intangible heritageadapted from Parker et al. (2023). review), notwithstanding limited research into multisensory food experience (the entire taste dimension), notably few studies identified and recognized heritage stemming from the totality of individual sensory experiences-for example, the visual, aural, gustatory, tactile, and olfactory experiences of European Christmas markets (Spennemann & Parker, 2021). Parker et al. highlighted the infancy of multisensory study within the heritage discipline, and as such, methodologies and terminologies are still in development. ...
Article
Full-text available
Sensory experience pertaining to any of the recognized senses can manifest as a form of intangible cultural heritage, therefore having considerable value for society. Heritage research into multiple sensory components needs to consider not simply the social experience of each of the individual modalities, but how these sensory components combine or integrate to form an all‐encompassing multisensory experience. Clear terminologies are needed to accurately identify and describe such complex processes. We put forward a distinct lexicon in this perspective, building on conventional terms “multisensory perception” and “multisensory integration” and advancing the definitions “multisensory experience” and “multisensory heritage.” Practical applications This perspective serves to delineate the extension of the term multisensory into the social science discipline. The sharing of a common nomenclature will allow a more unified development and scientific rigor moving forward and allows us to recognize, identify, and describe complex processes of multisensory experience and multisensory heritage. It allows us to understand that the human emotional response to multisensory experience is culturally enshrined, being recognized as a form of multisensory heritage following attribution of societal values. Finally, it recognizes the experiential response to multisensory heritage is unique, being significantly different than those of individual sensory experiences, presenting opportunities and challenges in heritage management.
... Christmas markets comprise a century-old tradition, and not only attract a large number of visitors annually but also play a vital role in German society and culture. With between 2,500 and 3,000 Christmas markets across German towns and cities and that attract large numbers of visitors (Spennemann & Parker, 2021), these vibrant gatherings are "are not solely about the mercantile dimension, or more recently, tourism, but form an essential part of the history and culture of the cities and villages that host them" (Spennemann & Parker, 2021, p. 4). Some historians even argue that these "markets should be inscribed on UNESCO's intangible cultural heritage list" (McKeever, 2021). ...
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Full-text available
Terrorist attacks, war, violent acts, and their media coverage remind us of our own mortality, which may provoke stress and coping mechanisms. The terror management health model (TMHM) proposes that even subliminal thoughts about existential threats trigger worldview defense and self‐esteem‐related behaviors. Based on the TMHM, our field experiment ( N = 228) examines the impact of a terrorist attack on death‐thought accessibility, the choice between alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, and if the impact on this choice is moderated by the importance of alcohol to one's self‐esteem (i.e., alcohol‐based self‐esteem), and the consciousness of the terrorist attack. Results show that thoughts about the terrorist attack increased death‐thought accessibility. The salience of the terrorist attack had no main effect on beverage choice, but alcohol‐based self‐esteem predicted choosing an alcoholic beverage. However, in the unconscious thought condition, participants who had low alcohol‐based self‐esteem and were provoked with death‐related thoughts about terrorism were more likely to choose an alcoholic beverage. In the conscious thought condition, participants who had high alcohol‐based self‐esteem were less likely to choose alcohol. This study suggests that thoughts about terrorism and, therefore, the threat of death, can be provoked in everyday situations and affect substance use behaviors with potentially adverse health consequences.
... Across all articles uncovered in this literature review, only 5% made mention of all five traditional sensory components with reference to heritage. Research has revealed that these elements combine to create the unique "Christmas atmosphere" of German and Austrian Christmas markets (colorful stalls and lights, carousel sounds, odors of Glühwein and bratwurst, taste of foods, cold weather, etc.) with the sum being greater than the individual parts -and with digital pivoting due to COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, the replacement virtual reality offerings were thus profoundly limited, with the traditional experiential dimensions being subsequently absent during this period (Parker and Spennemann 2021b;Spennemann and Parker 2021). In a similar vein, an exploratory ethnographic description of The Vinland Fair in Kansas (USA) describes a similar multisensory experience, with live music, hot humid air of Kansas in Summer, smell of stall foods and diesel from tractor pull events, alongside market sights and tastes all combining to create the atmosphere of the fair (Comi and Stamper 2021). ...
Article
Following the “authorized heritage discourse” in heritage management, visual components have traditionally formed the basis of aesthetic value assessment of heritage assets. Despite being considered important by national legislation and international conventions, other sensory components have been comparatively underresearched and are generally ignored. No research to date has investigated the breadth and depth of these sensory components either individually nor in combination, and a synthesis of the extent and complexity of this intangible heritage is currently lacking. This literature review aims to examine these sensory heritage components in the human environment setting over the last 10 years. Of the 122 articles included in this literature review, the majority of research focused on only one individual sensory heritage component, generally the sense of sight or sound. For research investigating more than one sensory component, visual and aural components were again highly represented. Smell and touch components were comparatively under-researched, and there was a general paucity of multisensory heritage research and investigation of perceived heritage values. This review shows there is vast potential to push past the authorized heritage discourse, to revisit the current processes of heritage assessment and to rethink the constraints of visually centered heritage documentation and management.
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Jarmarki bożonarodzeniowe są nieodłącznym elementem kultury wielu krajów, a ich wyjątkowy charakter łączy tradycję, estetykę i doświadczenia społeczne. Wywodząc się z średniowiecznych targów adwentowych, te wydarzenia przekształciły się w unikalne przestrzenie, które łączą funkcje handlowe z głęboko zakorzenionymi wartościami kulturowymi. Oferując zarówno tradycyjne produkty rzemieślnicze, jak i nowoczesne interpretacje świątecznych motywów, jarmarki te przyciągają odwiedzających z całego świata. To miejsca, gdzie magia świąt Bożego Narodzenia nabiera materialnego wymiaru, a atmosfera kreowana przez dekoracje, muzykę i zapachy tworzy wyjątkowe środowisko, które zachęca do spędzania czasu, interakcji społecznych i zakupów.
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This study offers a novel and significant contribution to the understanding of cultural tourism by exploring visitor motivations at one of Poland's largest Christmas markets, situated in Gdańsk. While Christmas markets are deeply rooted in European tradition, research on their appeal in the context of contemporary consumer behaviour, especially in the face of globalisation and secularisation, remains limited. By examining a diverse range of motives - spanning from social gatherings and shopping to tradition and inspiration - this research provides a fresh perspective on how Christmas markets can cater to both traditional and evolving interests. The study’s insights highlight how event-driven tourism can effectively support regional visitation beyond peak tourist seasons, offering a model that could be applied to other locations seeking to expand their tourism appeal throughout the year. Furthermore, the findings emphasise the strategic importance of culturally significant events in strengthening the tourism economy and community engagement within the Baltic region and beyond.
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Single and multiple sense stimuli create sensescapes, which combine to be perceived as multisensory integrated products. Such encounters may be experienced across multiple spaces and have importance due to esthetic sensuality, cultural value, economic benefit, or religious significance. This article presents a methodological protocol for the identification and documentation of on-site sensory and multisensory experiences. It outlines currently accepted methodologies for the key senses, followed by an inventory of method benefits and limitations. Externalities affecting sensory surveys are discussed, and a decision tree is presented to plan for and execute a sensory survey.
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The COVID-19 pandemic largely silenced the music profession in Australia on multiple occasions since 2020, largely due to governmental imposed restrictions such as venue capacity limits, alongside ‘social distancing’ measures, and isolation requirements for those considered casual contacts. The industry reacted by shifting online for both performance experiences and educational activities, and whilst generally successful, the hiatus of live music presents us with an opportunity to realise the dynamic importance of actual live music in our social world. Lessons learnt not only apply to the music domain but can be extrapolated to other potential areas of aural heritage, as it may be that the loss of these elements itself is a trigger for heritage value realisation.
Chapter
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Social value is perhaps the most misunderstood and misused assessment criterion in the Australian cultural heritage management process. Because social value is both a demanding and elusive attribute of cultural significance many significance assessments offer only a perfunctory glimpse of social value, thereby restricting the ability of social value discourse to contribute to the overall Australian cultural heritage management .
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Human existence is accompanied by environmental sounds as by-products of people’s activities and sounds that are intentionally generated to allow human society to function. The resulting soundscapes that surround people’s daily existence are subject to technological, as well as behavioural change. Cultural heritage management has begun to address the question of which sounds and soundscapes should be preserved and maintained as part of humanity’s legacy to future generations. A side-effect of the dramatic social and behavioural change caused by governmental responses to COVID-19 has been a dramatic temporary alteration of urban cultural sound-scapes. In this paper we will consider the nature and extent of these and will explore to what extent the COVID-19-induced reality can be employed to project a future of urban cultural soundscapes if no active heritage intervention were to occur.
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In an age when economic rationalism seems to rule all government decision making, cultural heritage management is continually called upon to justify its existence, and in particular to justify the expenditure of money and time, as well as of lost development opportunities, on aspects of the past.(1) Heritage tourism, as well as cooperative agreements between communities and owners of places, has been advocated as a means to fund what is perceived to be a "drain on society." The underlying ideology appears to be that heritage and historic preservation are a cost rather than an asset and an investment in society-and economists will always argue that costs need to be reduced.(2) We historic preservation managers have to shoulder some of the blame for the perception that heritage is a cost rather than an asset. Much of our public stance has been to argue that we are "preserving the past for the future." The "future" is some nebulous concept that is beyond the three to four year time line of politicians driven by re-election cycles. As a result, public officials often do not appreciate the value of heritage.(3) We have failed to express unequivocally, and publicly, that the past has relevance to the present and that the judicious use of our heritage is indeed a community asset in a continually changing world.
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