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NASS Journal of Agricultural Sciences | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | July 2021
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/njas.v3i2.359
NASS Journal of Agricultural Science
http://ojs.nassg.org/index.php/NJAS
ARTICLE
Saline Irrigation Water Retards Growth of Amaranthus in Coastal
Kenya
Ogalo Baka Oluoch1,2* Esther Mwende Muindi1 Elisha Otieno Gogo1
1. Pwani University, School of Agricultural Sciences and Agribusiness, Department of Crop Sciences, Kili, Kenya
2. Mivumoni Secondary School, Ukunda, Kenya
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article history
Received: 6 May 2021
Accepted: 10 May 2021
Published Online: 12 July 2021
Salinity is a major biotic factor that negatively affects growth and yield
of crops. Over 90% of the coastal region of Kenya is arid and semi-arid,
most farmers in the region use borehole irrigation water which is saline.
Amaranthus spp. is one of the main vegetables grown in coastal region.
There is limited information regarding the effect of salinity on amaranthus
production. The study sought to determine the effect of saline irrigation
water on amaranthus growth in coastal Kenya. Two experiments were set
up, one at Mivumoni Secondary School farm in Kwale County and another
at Pwani University farm in Kilifi County from beginning of September
2019 to the end of January, 2020. The experiments were laid out in a
randomized complete block design and replicated three times. The six
treatments tested were: fresh water alone, 75% saline water alone, 100%
saline water alone, fresh water + DAP, 75% saline water + DAP, 100%
saline water + DAP. Crop growth data collected were: emergence rate, plant
height, leaf number, leaf area, chlorophyll content, stem thickness, root
density, root weight, root volume and total plant biomass. Data obtained
were subjected to analysis of variance using SAS statistical package (SAS,
Version 10) and treatment effects were tested for signicance using F-test.
Signicant means at F-test was ranked using Tukey’s test at 5% level of
signicance. Amaranthus seeds sown in fresh water had higher emergence
rate compared to seeds sown in saline water. Salinity regardless of
concentration used and application of DAP, resulted in decrease in height,
leaf number, leaf area, stem thickness, chlorophyll content, root length, root
weight, root volume and total biomass. The study demonstrates that saline
irrigation water in coastal Kenya has a negative effect on Amaranthus
growth.
Keywords:
Amaranthus
Salinity
Water quality
Water potential
Germination
Growth
1. Introduction
Salinity is a major biotic factor that negatively affects
growth and yield of crops [1]. With over 90% of the coastal
region of Kenya being arid and semi-arid, most farmers
in the region are forced to use borehole irrigation water
which is mainly saline [2]. Saline water refers to any water
that contains more than 1,000 parts per million (mg kg-1) dis-
solved solids or one that has a specic conductance more
than 1,400 µ
Ω
/cm at 25 °C [3]. Salinity has a significant
effect on crop and soil. Salinity results in deterioration in
*Corresponding Author:
Ogalo Baka Oluoch,
Pwani University, School of Agricultural Sciences and Agribusiness, Department of Crop Sciences, Kilifi, Kenya; Mivumoni
Secondary School, Ukunda, Kenya;
Email: bacaogalo@gmail.com
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NASS Journal of Agricultural Sciences | Volume 03 | Issue 02 | July 2021
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
the physical structure of the soil like water permeability
and reduction in soil aeration, and reduction in the osmot-
ic potential of the soil solution. Salinity consequently result
in the reduction of plant water availability and minerals up-
take, increase in the concentration of certain mineral ions that
have an inhibitory effect on plant metabolism and physiology
which negatively affect growth and yields [4,5].
Kili County experiences unreliable rainfall with fre-
quent drought [6]. Areas like Bamba, Ganze and western
part of the county experience about 5-6 months of con-
tinuous dry weather. Therefore, groundwater contributes
nearly 50% of the water used in the area through bore-
holes [7]. Kwale County on the other hand which lies on
the southern part of the Kenyan coastal line is also dry and
experiences unreliable rainfall. Subsistence agricultural
activities within the area are rainfed while commercial
agriculture mainly relies on underground saline water to
complement the few rivers around.
According to Kumar and Rao [8], irrigation water qual-
ity depends on the type and quantity of dissolved salts.
Salinity of the soil reduces uptake of plant phosphorus
causes toxicity of ions, osmotic stress and deficiency of
nutrients such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium
(K), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) which limits
plant water uptake [9]. Elements like sodium (Na), chlorine
(Cl), and boron (Bo) have specic toxic effects on plant.
According to Akbarimoghaddam et al. [10] as well as Reyn-
olds et al. [11], presence of salts in the soil affects interac-
tion among physiological, morphological and biochemical
processes like germination of seeds, growth of plant,
nutrient and water uptake. Saline growth medium has ad-
verse effects on plant growth; osmotic stress, salt stress,
nutrition imbalance or combination of the factors [12]. Ac-
cumulation of salts in the soil is known to cause metabolic
and physiological disturbance in crop affecting, yield,
growth and crop quality [13-16]. Salt accumulation around
the root zone prevents plant roots from withdrawing wa-
ter from the surrounding soil decreasing available water
for plant, causing stress to plant [17]. Soil salinity causes
occulation which promotes soil aeration and growth of
roots; however, its increase to high level is lethal to plant
growth [18]. Sodium salts accumulation in soil has an oppo-
site effect to salinity in soil. High concentration of sodium
salts causes dispersion which leads to reduced inltration,
surface crusting and reduced hydraulic conductivity [19].
In clay soil high sodium concentration causes aggregation
and swelling [20]. High Na concentration causes osmotic
stress leading to cell death [17].
Amaranthus spp. is an important crop for human diet
and income generation in the coastal region [21]. However,
its yield and quality have been declining. This has been
attributed to poor soil condition and irrigation water qual-
ity, especially salinity, in addition to other factors like un-
favourable weather conditions leading to poor growth and
poor yields [22]. Despite the importance of salts in crops
nutrient uptake, physiological and metabolic activities
and the resulting yields and quality, limited research has
been carried out on the effects of saline borehole water es-
pecially within the Kenyan Coast. Objective of the study
was to determine the effect of saline irrigation water on
amaranthus (Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Thell.) growth
in Coastal Kenya.
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Site of the Study
Two experiments were set up, one in Mivumoni Sec-
ondary School farm in Kwale County and another in
Pwani University farm in Kili County, from beginning of
September 2019 to the end of January, 2020. Kili County
lies between latitude 3.63° S and longitude 39.85° E in
the Coastal lowland (CL) 3-CL6. The landscape covers an
area of 12,609.7 square kilometers and lies within 30 to
310 meters above sea level. It experiences average daily
temperature of 21°C - 32°C and average annual rainfall of
600-1100 mm. It is dominated by sandy-loam soil which
is well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark brown
to yellowish brown whose pH ranges between 4.22 - 7.80
[23]. Kwale County on the other hand lies between latitudes
4.33° S and longitudes 39.52° E in the Coastal lowlands
agro-ecological zones CL3-CL5. It covers an area of
8270.2 square kilometers, altitude of between 0 - 462
meters above sea level and receives poorly distributed,
unreliable annual rainfall ranging from 400 mm to 1200
mm per year and mean annual minimum and maximum
temperatures are 24 °C and 27.5 °C respectively. The pre-
dominant soil in the area is sandy-clay whose pH ranges
between 5.35 and 7.80 [23].
2.2 Candidate Crop
Amaranthus (Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Thell.) were
procured from Amiran, Mombasa, Kenya. The vegetable
was chosen because it is widely grown and consumed in
the coastal region.
2.3 Experimental Design, Treatment Application
and Crop Husbandry
The experiments were laid out in a randomized complete
block design and replicated three times. The six treatments
tested were: fresh water alone, 75% saline water alone, 100%
saline water alone, fresh water + DAP, 75% saline water +
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/njas.v3i2.359
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DAP, 100% saline water + DAP. Kwale county composite
soils were used for Mivumoni greenhouse experiment while
Kili county composite soil samples were used for the Pwani
University greenhouse experiment trials. Four kilograms
composite soil samples were measured and put in ve-liter
plastic pots. DAP fertilizer (250 kg/ha) was measured, in-
corporated in each pot that was meant for DAP treatment
and mixed thoroughly. Saline water (200 ml) at 4 dS m-1
electrical conductivity (EC) was used for 100% saline water,
fresh water of EC 0 dS m-1 and a mixture of the 150 ml saline
water and 50 ml of the fresh water for the 75% saline water
treatments were added every 2 days to compensate for evap-
orative losses. Twenty amaranthus seeds were then sown in
each pot. Thinning was done to allow only ten seedlings per
pot. Water treatments (200 ml) were applied throughout the
experimental period (60 days) in the form of manual irriga-
tion.
2.4 Data Collection
Three plants per pot were randomly selected from the
pots in the inner rows and tagged for data collection. Crop
growth data collected were:
2.4.1 Emergence Rate
Number of seedling emergence per treatment per day
was counted from 1st day of sowing and recorded up to
10th day, recorded and percent emergence computed.
2.4.2 Plant Height
Plant height was established by measuring the height
of the tagged plants from each pot using a meter rule. The
measurements were carried out on weekly basis from one
till tenth week after crop emergence. The measurements
were taken from the ground level to the tip of the shoot
and recorded in centimeters (cm).
2.4.3 Number of Leaves
Number of leaves was determined by counting the total
number of leaves on the tagged plants per pot on weekly
bases two weeks after crop emergence up to tenth week
after emergence.
2.4.4 Leaf Area
Fully expanded leaves (third, fourth, and fth from the
shoot) of the tagged plants per pot were used to determine
leaf area. The length and width of the leaf were measured
using a ruler. Length and width were multiplied by a con-
stant as in the formula: Leaf Area = Length × width × 0.75
(constant) for the triangular leaves such as amaranthus.
Leaf area was measured one week after emergence and
thereafter on weekly basis up to tenth week and results
recorded in squared centimeters (cm2).
2.4.5 Stem Thickness
Tagged plants per pot were used to measure stem thick-
ness using a standard vernier caliper. The jaws of vernier
caliper were placed on the stem just above the ground
level and readings recorded in centimeters (cm). This was
done on a weekly basis until tenth week from 1st week of
crop emergence.
2.4.6 Root Growth Characteristics
Root length: on the tenth week after emergence, the tagged
plants per pot were uprooted, washed. Root length measured
using a ruler and recorded in centimeters (cm). Root weight
(dry): on the tenth week after emergence, the tagged plants
per pot were uprooted, washed, dried and weighed on an
electronic weighing balance and Weight recorded in kilo-
grams (kg). Root volume: on the tenth week after emergence,
the tagged plants per pot were uprooted, roots chopped off,
washed and used to determine root volume by displacement
method. Known volume of water was lled into the beaker
to the brim. Clean roots were immersed then displaced water
was collected. Volume of displaced water was measured and
recorded in cubic centimeters (cm3).
2.4.7 Chlorophyll Content
Chlorophyll content was measured using chlorophyll
meter (CCM-200, Opti-sciences, Inc. Tyngsboro, MA,
USA) with a precision of ± 1.0 chlorophyll concentration
index units (CCI). This was done every until the tenth
week after emergence. The readings were taken from the
tagged plants per pot on the third, fourth, and fth leaves
from the shoot that had fully expanded.
2.4.8 Total Biomass
On the tenth week after emergence, the tagged plants
per pot were uprooted, then oven dried at 75 °C until a
constant weight and used to determine biomass yield.
Yield was determined by weighing on an electronic
weighing balance and weight recorded in kilograms (kg).
2.5 Data Analysis
Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance
using SAS statistical package (SAS, Version 10) and
treatment effects were tested for signicance using F-test.
Signicant means at F-test was ranked using Tukey’s test.
All analysis was at 5% level of signicance.
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3. Results
3.1 Seedling Emergence Rate
Signicantly (p≤0.05) higher emergence rate of seedlings
was observed in fresh water compared to those from saline
water in Pwani University (95%) and Mivumoni (97%)
respectively (Figure 1). This was followed by fresh water
which had signicantly higher rate of emergence compared
to saline water plus DAP, 75% saline water plus DAP and
75% saline water were not signicantly different. Saline wa-
ter plus DAP had the lowest rate of emergence in both sites.
3.2 Plant Height
Amaranthus grown in fresh water plus DAP was sig-
nicantly (p≤0.05) taller compared to the rest of the treat-
ments, in both Pwani University and Mivumoni by 56%
and 54% respectively (Table 1). This was followed by
fresh water, 75% saline water plus DAP and saline water
plus DAP. Plants grown in saline water plus DAP were the
shortest.
3.3 Leaf Number
Plants grown in fresh water plus DAP had signicantly
(p≤0.05) higher number of leaves, followed by fresh water
compared to the rest of the treatment in both Pwani uni-
versity and Mivumoni. Amaranthus grown in saline water,
saline plus DAP and 75% saline which had comparable
number of leaves. Plants grown in saline water had the
lowest number of leaves (Table 1).
3.4 Leaf Surface Area
Amaranthus planted in fresh water plus DAP had sig-
Figure 1. Effect of saline borehole water on emergence of amaranthus in Pwani University (Kili county) and Mivu-
moni (Kwale county). Means followed by the same letters within a study site are not signicantly different according to
Tukey’s Test (p≤0.05).
Table 1. Effect of saline borehole water on growth of amaranthus in Pwani University (Kili county) and Mivumoni
(Kwale county)
Plant height
(cm) Leaves (no./plant) Leaf surface area (cm2) Stem thickness (cm)
Treatment PU MI PU MI PU MI PU MI
Fresh 27.8a27.4a12.6b10.2a12.7ab 13.4ab 1.2b1.3a
Saline 13.9c14.1b 4.8c 4.0c 4.8d 8.7bc 0.8d1.0bc
75% Saline 18.5b18.6b 7.5c 5.3cb 8.1cd 12.0abc 1.0c1.3ab
Fresh + DAP 31.7a28.0a19.3a17.0a15.7a17.0a1.4a1.4a
Saline + DAP 13.9c12.9b 4.6c 4.0c 5.9d 7.2c1.0c1.0c
75% Saline + DAP 16.4bc 16.3b 7.4c 7.0cb 11.9bc 13.2ab 1.1bc 1.2abc
LSD (0.05) 4.0 7.5 3.3 5.3 3.8 5.6 0.2 0.2
CV (%) 6.9 13.4 12.4 23.6 13.5 16.8 5.1 6.3
Means followed by the same letter(s) within a column are not signicantly different according to Tukey’s Test (p≤0.05). PU = Pwani
University, MI = Mivumoni.
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Table 2. Effect of saline borehole water on root growth of amaranthus in Pwani University (Kili county)
Root volume (cm3)Root weight (g) Root length (cm)
Treatment PU MI PU MI PU MI
Fresh 9.0b10.0b1.5b1.4ab 14.4b15.6b
Saline 2.2d 2.5e0.2f0.3b 5.4c 8. 9e
75 % Saline 5.8c 6.0cd 0.8d0.7b 7.7c 9.0de
Fresh + DAP 13.8a14.0a2.2a2.2a19.8a19.9a
Saline + DAP 5.5c 5.2d0.5e0.4b 7.9c10.6d
75 % Saline + DAP 8.2b 7.5c1.1c1.6ab 13.1b13.1c
LSD value 2.2 2.2 0.8 1.4 2.9 1.7
CV (%) 10.3 10.4 6.0 44.6 8.9 4.6
Means followed by the same letter(s) within a column are not signicantly different according to Tukey’s Test (p≤0.05). PU = Pwani
University, MI = Mivumoni.
nicantly (p≤0.05) larger surface area compared to the rest
of the treatment in both Pwani University and Mivumoni
by 69% to 58% respectively (Table 1). This was followed
by fresh water alone. Amaranthus plants in saline, saline
plus DAP, 75% saline plus DAP and 75% saline had com-
parable leaf surface area. Plants grown in saline water
plus DAP had the lowest leaf surface area.
3.5 Stem Thickness
Amaranthus grown in fresh water plus DAP had sig-
nicantly (p≤0.05) higher stem thickness compared to the
rest of the treatments in both Pwani University and Mivu-
moni by 42% and 25% respectively (Table 1). This was
followed by fresh water. Plants planted in saline water, sa-
line plus DAP, 75% saline plus DAP had comparable stem
thickness. Plants planted in saline water had the least stem
thickness.
3.6 Root Growth Characteristics
Amaranthus grown in fresh water plus DAP had signi-
cantly (p≤0.05) larger root volume compared to the rest of
the treatments, in both Pwani University and Mivumoni
by 84% and 82% respectively followed by fresh water
alone (Table 2). Plants grown in saline, saline plus DAP,
75% saline plus DAP and 75% saline had comparable root
volume. Plants grown in saline water had the lowest root
volume.
Amaranthus grown in fresh water plus DAP had signi-
cantly (p≤0.05) higher root weight compared to the rest
of the treatments in both Pwani University and Mivumoni
by 91% and 86% respectively (Table 2). This was fol-
lowed by those grown in fresh water alone. Plants grown
in saline, saline plus DAP, 75% saline plus DAP and 75%
saline had comparable root weight. Plants grown in saline
water had the lowest root weight.
Amarnthus grown in fresh water plus DAP had sig-
nificantly (p≤0.05) longer roots compared to the rest of
the treatment in both Pwani University and Mivumoni by
73% and 55% respectively (Table 2). This was followed
by fresh water alone. Plants grown in saline, saline plus
DAP, 75% saline plus DAP and 75% saline had compara-
ble root length.
3.7 Chlorophyll Content
Chlorophyll content of amaranthus plants grown in
fresh water plus DAP had significantly (p≤0.05) higher
chlorophyll content compared to the rest of the treatment
both in Pwani University and Mivumoni by 31% and
28%. There was no significant difference in chlorophyll
content in fresh water, 75% saline and 75% saline plus
DAP. Plants grown in saline water had the lowest chloro-
phyll content (Figure 2).
3.8 Total Biomass
Amaranthus grown in fresh water plus DAP had sig-
nificantly (p≤0.05) higher biomass compared to the rest
of the treatments in both Pwani University and Mivumoni
by 88% and 74% respectively. This was followed by fresh
water alone. Biomass of plants grown in 75% saline and
75% saline plus DAP had comparable biomass. Plants
grown in saline water and saline water plus DAP had the
lowest biomass in both sites (Figure 3).
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4. Discussion
Amaranthus seedlings grown from fresh water had
higher emergence rate compared to those grown in saline
water. Salinity may affect germination by reducing water
imbibition in seeds since activities are related to germina-
tion. Additionally, salinity may have promoted absorption
of toxic ions altering hormonal or enzymatic activities [24].
Cuartero and Fernandez-Munoz [25] found that seeds re-
quired more days to germinate (50%) in medium at EC 1.4
mS/cm and 100% delayed germination in medium at EC
3.4 mS/cm. Neamatollahi et al. [26] reported that increasing
NaCl concentration in priming treatments causes higher
osmotic pressure hence reducing germination percentage
on fennel seeds. Asch and Wopereis [27] found that salinity
levels below 4 mS cm-1 delayed germination by 1 - 2 days,
while higher salinity delayed germination by more than
a week. Osborne et al. [28] also observed that exposure
of amaranthus to high salinity inhibits germination and
reduce rate of germination. Similar ndings were report-
ed with Eriochiton sclerolaenoides, Maireana georgei,
M. pentatropis, M. pyramidata, M. trichoptera and M.
triplera species in semi-arid climate Australia [29].
Increasing salt concentrations resulted to decrease in
height, shoot and root lengths, root volume, leaf number,
leaf surface area, chlorophyll content and stem thickness.
Salinity affects a number of aspects of plant growth and
development like; germination, reproductive and vegeta-
tive growth. Salinity may cause reduction in water avail-
ability by decreasing osmotic potential of total soil water
potential. Matric potential and osmotic potential of soil
are both elements of total soil water potential and add up
Figure 2. Effect of saline borehole water on chlorophyll content of amaranth leaves during production in Pwani Uni-
versity (Kili County) and Mivumoni (Kwale County). Means followed by the same letter(s) within a study site are not
signicantly different according to Tukey’s Test (p≤0.05).
Figure 3. Effect of saline borehole water on total biomass of amaranth during production in Pwani University (Kili
county) and Mavumoni (Kwale county). Means followed by the same letter(s) within a study site are not signicantly
different according to Tukey’s Test (p≤0.05).
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the effects on availability of water which causes decline
in both yield and evapotranspiration [30,31]. Abbas et al. [32]
found that salinity and Fe deciency reduced chlorophyll
concentration, shoot and root growth, photosynthetic,
stomatal conductance and transpiration rates. Retarded
growth may have been caused by osmotic inhibition of
oxidative stress, water absorption and specific ions that
affect crucial physiological processes in plants. Oxidative
stress prevents photosynthetic performance in high saline
conditions. Saline soil conditions affect stomatal aperture
and reactive oxygen species that hinder activities of the en-
zymes and membranes related to photosynthesis [5]. Saline
soils reduce the uptake of plant phosphorus significantly
since phosphate ions precipitates with Ca ions [9]. Salinity has
an effect on the absorption of some specic ions across the
cell membranes which cause nutritional disturbances to crops
[33]. This includes uptake of NO3
- which is lowered by Cl- and
K+ uptake which is reduced by Na+. When sodium accumu-
lates in the cell wall excessively, it leads to rapid osmotic
stress causing death of the cells [34].
Soil physical properties can be affected by accumulation of
some salts such as sodium in the soil solution as observed in
the study and the exchange phase can cause clay dispersion,
especially for smectitic clays, which affect soil physical and
chemical characteristics by reducing its structural stability
and promoting surface crust formation; increasing bulk den-
sity and mechanical resistance resulting in poor soil tilth and
soil aeration. Reduction of hydraulic conductivity and inl-
tration rate causes significant water management problems
by increasing runoff and erosion potential due to surface
sealing and poor inltration leading to poor water and nutri-
ent uptake hence poor crop growth [35,36].
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
Results observed indicate that salinity had effects on
growth characteristics of amaranthus. Amaranthus grown
in fresh water plus DAP had signicantly (p≤0.05) higher
growth characteristic than the rest of the treatments. Plants
grown in saline water had the lowest growth characteris-
tics in both sites. There was signicantly higher (p≤0.05)
emergence rate in seeds sown in fresh water compared to
those from saline water in Pwani University (95%) and
Mivumoni (97%) respectively. Fresh water plus DAP im-
proved amaranthus growth compared to saline water plus
DAP in both Pwani University and Mivumoni by 56% and
54% respectively. This was followed by fresh water, 75%
saline water plus DAP, 75% saline water, saline water and
saline water plus DAP.
Based on the research ndings there is need for further
studies on:
i. Effect of saline soils on physiology of vegetable
crops in coastal region.
ii. Effects of saline irrigation water on various crops
in the coastal region.
iii. Effects of saline irrigation water on availability
and uptake of mineral elements.
Other policy recommendations include:
Farmers should adopt appropriate measures to
manage salinity in irrigation. These measures could in-
clude diluting the saline water with fresh water, applica-
tion of manure to supplement soil nutrients and improve
soil structure, water retention capacity, soil microbial
activities and buffer soil and appropriate method of irriga-
tion water application.
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.36956/njas.v3i2.359
