Teaching IR in the Global South: views from Brazil and South Africa

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Cheltenham, UK • Northampton, MA, USA
ELGAR GUIDES TO TEACHING
Teaching International
Relations
Edited by
James M. Scott
Herman Brown Chair and Professor of Political Science, Texas
Christian University, USA
Ralph G. Carter
Piper Professor of Political Science, Texas Christian University,
USA
Brandy Jolliff Scott
Lecturer, Department of Political Science, Texas Christian
University, USA
Jeffrey S. Lantis
Professor of Political Science, College of Wooster, USA

© James M. Scott, Ralph G. Carter, Brandy Jolliff Scott and Jeffrey S. Lantis 2021
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4. Teaching IR in the Global South:
views from Brazil and South Africa
Jacqueline de Matos Ala, Cristina Yumie Aoki
Inoue and Marcelo Valença
INTRODUCTION
The concept of Global South reflects a political construct that comprises
a myriad of socio-cultural, political, and economic realities. It is both a geo-
graphic location and a metaphysical space. As such many scholars located in
the geographic North are associated with the Global South due to their origins,
backgrounds, or research agendas.
These unclear borders make it difficult to generalize about what the Global
South represents for the scholarship of teaching and learning in international
relations (IR). First and foremost, any attempt at reducing IR pedagogy in the
Global South to a single reality or experience may reinforce an Orientalist
approach to the discipline. Many criticisms of the Global South by Western
theories are due to the generalized belief that these theories are universally
applicable, irrespective of the local context, culture, and society. Nevertheless,
as academics of the Global South, it is inevitable that we assume positions
that express our particular loci of enunciation, even if they represent our own
experiences.
Thus, in this chapter, we discuss some of the challenges we face as academ-
ics teaching IR in the Global South. We present our reflections not only from
our experiences teaching at our institutions but also as participants in national-
and international-level discussions about what constitutes IR as a discipline
and an academic field of inquiry and teaching. The field is filled with both
an established and a critical scholarship on the process of knowledge-making
and a diversity of perspectives, ontologies, and epistemologies as to what
constitutes the “international” in IR. Still, little has been said about teaching
and learning IR in the Global South. It is relevant, therefore, to tackle this
silence. How we teach is a central aspect of the process of reproducing, perpet-
uating, and creating new IR narratives by bringing other voices into the debate
(Wemheuer-Vogelaar et al.). With the proliferation of IR-related departments

Teaching IR in the Global South: views from Brazil and South Africa 39
and majors around the world, the discussion on teaching in/from the Global
South is a large, overdue task to which we can just add a small piece.
Teaching IR in Brazil and South Africa is challenging enough given the
lack of resources, internal inequalities, and institutional constraints. Arguably,
a more fundamental problem is the fact that current curricula and textbooks
reflect neither a global (Acharya 2014) nor a pluriversal IR (Blaney & Tickner
2017a). IR as a discipline, and its theories, in particular, have been grounded
in knowledge derived from Western philosophy and historical events. If this
is a problem in the Global North classrooms, it is magnified when what is
taught does not relate to students’ realities in the Global South. The first years
of higher education are highly influential in students’ development within
a discipline as well as in their worldview after university (Powel, 9), so pre-
senting a body of knowledge compatible with students’ experiences is not only
recommended: it is imperative.
In order to develop strategies to overcome the lack of plurality in IR, we
make a claim for a “global pluriversal IR” perspective in the classroom that
recognizes regional and local contributions from History and Social Sciences
to IR as well as contributions from other knowledge systems, worldviews, and
other epistemologies and ontologies. To illustrate the challenges and possi-
bilities entailed in this claim we present two cases: Brazil and South Africa.
The former gives a general picture of IR teaching in a country as large and
diverse as the United States and discusses some challenges we face, bringing
a few examples of where we can start to build a more plural IR classroom. The
latter brings a concrete example of IR theory teaching and how it can actually
be made in a way that resonates with the local realities. We initially focus on
IR curricula, as theories are an essential part of the construction of a field’s
identity. However, a global pluriversal IR perspective should not be restricted
to theory teaching. In our view, any IR area can benefit.
Our chapter unfolds as follows. Following this introduction, we introduce
in the second section the so-called Global IR debate, which critically engages
IR knowledge-building processes. We point out IR foundational bases as
structured on Western knowledge (Acharya 2014; Tickner 2003b) and how
these bases have been recently challenged by a growing scholarship that tries
to redefine and reimage ways for a more plural IR field (Blaney & Tickner
2017a, 2017b; Acharya 2014). The third section conceptually delineates the
challenges and possibilities we face as scholars teaching in the Global South.
We then present the cases of Brazil and South Africa to illustrate how these
challenges and possibilities play out in our countries and some of the strategies
we developed in order to engage with these issues. We conclude our chapter
with a few remarks about how a global pluriversal IR perspective in the class-
room can also be important in other contexts even in the Global North.

Teaching international relations
40
DELINEATING OUR MAIN CHALLENGES AND
POSSIBILITIES
Many – if not most students – usually study IR theories by referring to the
Great Debates of the twentieth century. These debates relate, in different
ways, to historical events that affected the world in the last century, but mainly
Europe and the United States. The narrative proposed by the Great Debates
since 1919 goes hand in hand with the interaction between the great Western
powers, the changes they face, and the strategies developed to achieve their
goals.
The dominance of academia from the United States has been so substantial
that Stanley Hoffman characterized IR as an American Social Science. This
statement is not limited to the field of theory but also to others. Sub-areas
like foreign policy analysis, international security, and political economy are
equally dominated by the American academy and its understanding of what
science is and how knowledge is constituted.
Despite its predominance in the twentieth century, this epistemic hegem-
ony has been challenged in the last two decades. There is a growing body
of scholarship criticizing how IR theory is anchored on Western knowledge
and reflects a Western-centered disciplinary interest (Acharya, 2014; Tickner
2017a, 2017b; Barasuol & da Silva; Hovey; Blaney; Liu). Even critical IR
theories that supposedly address such biases – including Critical Theory,
Feminism, Post-Structuralism, and Marxism – are structured on Western
knowledge. These theories hide their own contradictions under a rhetoric of
neutrality, misleading to the universal applicability of their premises (Odoom
& Andrews). In order to overcome such limitations, there has been a con-
comitant growth in scholarship defining and re-imagining the ground rules
for creating knowledge plural IR theories (Blaney & Tickner 2017a, 2017b;
Acharya 2014).
It is important to note that our understanding of knowledge plurality is more
than just bringing ideas, values, or concepts originating in the Global South
into the existing Western theoretical canon. It also involves including the
ontologies and epistemologies from the Global South because they represent
potentially different ways of knowing and understanding IR. Thus, pluriversal
IR theory-building embraces multiple and divergent realities in which all
forms of knowing and understanding are equally present (Blaney & Tickner
2017a). Moreover, “responding effectively and respectfully to the pluriverse
presumes that we learn to bend in the face of and to walk with others in the
cosmos, thinking and being beyond the familiar” (Blaney & Tickner 2017a,
310).

Teaching IR in the Global South: views from Brazil and South Africa 41
Despite the significance of this scholarship, little consideration has been
given to the need for establishing knowledge-plural IR theory curricula, nor
has there been much reflection on the institutional implications as well as the
pedagogical choices and outcomes accompanying such initiatives. It is this
intellectual gap that our chapter seeks to make some contribution towards
filling. Thus, we argue that if our students are to study IR from Global South’s
locus of enunciation, then our curricula must not only critically engage with
Western narratives on history and theory, but also inclusive of the histories and
the knowledges – i.e., incorporating their unique ontologies and epistemolo-
gies – that elucidate the IR of the Global South.
IR THEORY CURRICULA AND KNOWLEDGE
PLURALITY
The literature on knowledge plurality within IR theory curricula is of varying
usefulness to the research we seek to undertake. Tickner (2003a) has under-
taken research into whether endogenous Latin American IR theories were
included in the curricula taught to Latin American IR students. Her findings
revealed that Western-based IR theory comprised most of the curriculum.
Critical IR theories were also largely absent. Contradictorily, she noted that
Latin American scholars were incorporating endogenous Latin American
knowledges in their research. They had also developed hybrid theories by
merging select aspects from a range of theories to either explain or analyze
their findings, as nothing suitable existed in the current cannon. Despite these
innovations, almost none of these models had found their way into Latin
American IR theory curricula.
More than a decade later Barasuol and da Silva redid Tickner’s 2003 study.
Their aim was to see if the growing demand for theoretical plurality in IR schol-
arship had led to more research either producing or utilizing Latin American
knowledges as well as whether more endogenous based scholarly knowledge
had permeated into the curricula. They concluded that Latin American scholars
are more inclined to apply Western IR concepts to their field of research to for-
mulate analytical frameworks. However, little development of theories derived
from local knowledge had occurred in the interim between the two studies.
In terms of curricula, the range of theories taught to students had expanded
to include critical Western IR theory but Latin American theories were still
absent. Both Tickner’s and Barusol and da Silva’s empirical studies suggest
that despite the existence of theories derived from Latin American endogenous
knowledges, these were still not being selected as IR theory curricula content.
Whether this situation is similar to other regions or countries located in the
Global South cannot be ascertained, as to the best of our knowledge there is
currently no published research that expressly addresses this issue. Besides

Teaching international relations
42
pointing out the problems that exposure to a limited range of Western-based
theoretical perspectives poses for students’ academic capacity (which has
numerous implications for the range of post-graduate research they would be
capable of undertaking) and their ability to understand and solve problems
related to their context, no recommendations are made for expediting knowl-
edge plurality in curricula, especially knowledge originating and developed in
the Global South.
Blaney’s (2002) and Hovey’s (2004) analysis of IR curricula at US higher
education institutions showed that content focused exclusively on the IR
of the West was counterproductive to developing awareness of IR beyond
US borders. As a consequence, IR graduates remained largely ignorant in
their knowledge of the rest of the world. Liu (2016) investigated IR theory
teaching from a Taiwanese context. Similarly to Blaney and Hovey, Liu
advocates for curricula content that is inclusive of diverse cultural contexts
given the strong representation of foreign students in Taiwanese IR courses.
Western-based IR theories have limited explanatory and analytical capacity
for the study of Taiwanese IR. They further tended to produce reductionist
solutions to problems. Hence the need to either modify the ways in which we
get students to apply these theories or to develop more suitable alternatives.
Significantly Krishna (2001) actually draws attention to how pedagogical
practices can be used to either reinforce or subvert the dominant status quo
held by Western-centric knowledges and theory. He advocates that as teachers
we should be mindful of how theoretical discourses in IR eradicate motivation
to study issues such as race and genocide, as well as the theft of territory and
culture, choosing to focus instead on combating terrorism, illegal migration,
securing state sovereignty, and the competitive nature of state interaction.
Consequently, in teaching IR theory we must disrupt this dominant discourse
by including its contrapuntal narrative.
In summary, current research primarily focuses on how limited knowledge
diversity in IR theory curricula is and how it stunts students’ capacity to
develop a rich conceptualization of the study and practice of IR. Moreover,
most argue that students only exposed to Western IR contexts fail to acquire
both the knowledge and related dispositions they require to function in a mul-
ticultural, globalized world. Additionally, these studies also focus on the
important role of curriculum content in shaping the development of student
dispositions that determine their ability to be a productive member in a glo-
balized world. However, these studies often only consider one or two elements
about the curricula or knowledge choices and do not consider larger curricula
contexts (this is probably due to most IR academics lacking the pedagogic
knowledge to engage in such debates). Those that do interrogate the issue of
the inclusion of knowledge from the Global South in curricula exclusively
examine a single country or region.

Teaching IR in the Global South: views from Brazil and South Africa 43
GLOBAL PLURIVERSAL IR IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH
CLASSROOM?
The above Global IR debate denounces the Western centrism of knowledge
and the epistemic violence it provokes when silencing other voices and cul-
tures. It highlights the need for changes to create a more inclusive field, to
make visible what has been kept invisible. However, this debate is still incipi-
ent in the IR scholarship of teaching and learning.
We propose a “global pluriversal IR” perspective to the classroom to
recognize the need to go beyond Western centrism, as there is a myriad of
ways of undertaking this exercise (Acharya 2014; Blaney & Tickner 2017a,
2017b; Escobar; Sousa Santos 2007, 2015). Acharya and Buzan (2010, 19)
argued that the problem is not that non-Western theories do not exist but that
they need wider circulation. For Buzan (2016, 156), IR goes beyond world
politics and how political science sees it, “IR is multidisciplinary, comprising,
and interweaving, the macro ends of most of the social sciences as well as
world history”. Behera makes a call for reinventing IR by ensuring that “the
singularities and universal claims of key concepts of IR must yield to diverse
notions and understandings, informed by varied geo-cultural epistemologies
derived across the globe” (2016, 154). Consequently, for us, a global pluriver-
sal IR should go beyond multidisciplinarity, in that it reflects the plurality of
worldviews, ontologies, and knowledge systems that exist. This would require
a double effort of looking both within and beyond IR into other disciplines,
other knowledge systems, and worldviews to decenter and pluralize IR.
The rationale for our approach is evident in the recently published
International Relations from the Global South. Worlds of Difference (Tickner
& Smith), For Smith and Tickner (8), there is a need to recognize the role that
the Global South has played in shaping world politics, which means recog-
nizing Global South scholarly work, and paying attention to distinct starting
points for talking about the world. Most of the book’s authors concur that
there is a “disconnect” between IR theories, concepts, categories, and themes
and their “lived realities” when teaching IR in a Global South, non-West
locale (2020, 1 and 2). This is identified consistently throughout the book as
a problem that requires immediate engagement. Thus, we need to realize that
what we teach is as important as how we teach it. Powel (2019, 9) argues that
teaching goes beyond building particular skills, in that it plays a constitutive
role in students’ understandings of a discipline. Querejazu (2016) states that
how students are introduced to IR theory particularly in terms of ontological
scope and epistemological range influences not only how they come to per-
ceive and engage with the discipline but also the type of research they will
produce. Consequently, it is essential to expose our students to a wider range

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44
of ontological and epistemological perspectives together with the different
theories they embody as possible. This is not merely a matter of “re-centering”
how we teach IR, by trying to delineate schools based on national perspectives
of IR, or by focusing only on local realities, but making our theory curricula
inclusive of a plurality of theories, concepts, and narratives, based on different
ontologies and epistemologies. The act of decentering IR involves challenging
the existence of the center that creates, defines, and polices what is deemed to
be legitimate knowledge, through questioning the politics, concepts, and prac-
tices that enable such centering of IR (Nayak and Selbin, 4; Smith and Tickner,
8). In sum, our initial call is for a global and pluriversal IR theory curricula,
de-centering conventional narratives and making many worlds visible. This is
an important first step, as theoretical education/instruction is a fundamental
element in building a field’s identity. Ideally, we should move beyond IR
theory curricula into other courses to create a global pluriversal IR classroom.
TEACHING IR IN SOUTH AFRICA AND BRAZIL:
DISSENT VOICES?
By and large, this is the ethos that fundamentally informs our approach to IR
theory curriculum design. It is not only a matter of “one world many theories”
(Walt) but “many worlds, many theories” (RBPI). Moreover, we contend
that global pluriversal IR theory curricula are inherently predisposed to
student-centric pedagogical approaches and facilitate a participatory approach
to help students become more familiar with global IR. As many chapters in this
book call for teaching innovations and approaches that are student-centered,
we argue that creating learning environments that are collaborative and
focused on dialogues between instructors and students means that we must pay
attention to context. A learning paradigm should be accompanied by changes
in curricula. Freire’s pedagogy of the oppressed departs from the students’
contexts to build knowledge in a mutual learning process. Thus, how we teach
and what we teach go hand in hand. In our diverse contexts, it is a contradiction
to focus only on histories, theories, and concepts from distant realities.
In practical terms as instructors, teaching in and from the Global South, we
face a double challenge of changing what we teach and how we teach. In the
former, we are conscious of the challenges of adding multiple voices to our
curricula. In the latter, we are aware of the transformations in higher education,
from an instructional paradigm to a learning one (Kille et al; Valença, 30–31)
and the impacts of critical pedagogy approaches (Freire). Considering our
political and social contexts, these challenges need to be addressed to provide
relevant knowledge to students.

Teaching IR in the Global South: views from Brazil and South Africa 45
Brazil
Concerning the Brazilian case, we would like to highlight two aspects of this
debate. First, Brazil’s locus of enunciation is not a clear one. Despite the recent
construction of its foreign policy based on the leadership of the Global South,
Brazilian society still has difficulties in defining its global insertion. As with
South Africa, Brazilian society is multicultural. Several social, religious, and
ethnic groups coexist, promoting their values and identities in a relatively
stable environment. Adding such diversity to the regional peculiarities results
in an eclectic and hard-to-define collective identity. However, differently from
South Africa, the relatively recent colonial past is not contested, which leads
to a mainstream reading of IR theory, aligned with the European and American
elite worldview. Thus, it is difficult to speak of a collective Brazilian identity
to embrace either the Global South or the West as a reference, but the latter
seems to predominate, especially among political elites and the wealthier
classes.
The political rhetoric of belonging to the West ends up permeating society
as a whole, although dissenting voices are more and more frequent. Still, this
image of a Western identity is strong and must take some time to be decon-
structed, impacting society in different ways, mainly in how education – espe-
cially higher education – should be offered, accessed, and understood.
By and large, higher education in Brazil has traditionally been exclusive to
elites. When accepted, poor classes and minorities were mostly limited to lower
status majors. Traditional courses, such as Law, Medicine, and Engineering,
are almost exclusively filled with students from the elite segments, as well
as majors of greater appeal, such as IR. Courses’ structure and curricula are
aligned with the idea of international and knowledge construction by this elite.
Even with the popularization of access to higher education through affirmative
action policies, this reality remains, largely due to the institutional constraints
and federal regulations themselves. This broad context influences what IR
undergraduate programs look like in Brazil.
Second, the reflection on teaching and learning of IR in Brazil is relatively
recent. Despite institutional incentives – such as the creation of working groups
and sections on teaching and learning in the two most important professional
associations of the field – and the publication of special editions focusing on
teaching IR, the research on the scholarship of teaching and learning is still
incipient and lacks empirical data beyond the experience of the authors.
The emerging active learning literature mostly describes activities con-
ducted in classes, such as games, simulations, the use of alternative texts,
and seminars, without structuring proposals or establishing pedagogical goals
(Valença and Tostes). This emerging literature, however, does not reflect
much on questions related to curriculum building. A few empirical studies like

Teaching international relations
46
Barausol and da Silva’s do indicate the lack of plurality, or how far IR under-
graduate curricula is from being more plural. Thus, considering the lack of
systematic studies, it is difficult to identify what theories, themes, and subjects
have been taught, or what should or should not constitute the core of the field
in the country.
In that sense, it is useful to point out that all IR undergraduate programs
in Brazil have to follow the 2017 National Curriculum Guidelines (NCG –
Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais in Portuguese) for IR undergraduate courses.
The NCG is the result of a debate involving civil society, universities, and
lobbying groups and presents the basic requirements for all IR curricula in
Brazil. The document mentions (Art. 2, Para. 1, XI) that IR curricula should
integrate environmental education, human rights, race, African and indigenous
histories, and cultures, and also that each program should consider its regional
context and specificities. However, little is mentioned in terms of promoting
diversity or the need to rethink what an IR major should look like. It is empha-
sized that all undergraduate programs must include security, strategic studies,
and defense, but there is a silence on human security, technological changes,
sustainability, diversity, and racism, as well as on the planetary challenges that
are to come (of which the current COVID-19 pandemic is just an illustration).
A closer look at IR theory handbooks published in Brazil replicates the
scenario described elsewhere by the literature (Hagman and Biersteker;
Wemheuer-Vogelaar et al.). The orthodox narrative about the Great Debates
and major traditions still prevails. One study that analyzed a set of undergrad-
uate IR theory syllabi from four major Brazilian universities concluded that
they replicate traditional approaches to the discipline as a way to provide epis-
temological authority and the autonomy of IR as a coherent body of knowledge
(Pini). But, what about local/regional theories, histories, perspectives, and
narratives that speak of the global/international? Are they invisible? Or are
they hidden somewhere else?
In Latin America, one may find significant contributions from Social
Sciences and History that speak of IR, but these are not recognized as IR.
These contributions range from different ontologies and epistemologies,
including the several strands of dependency theory, regionalism, and decolo-
nial perspectives. For example, Deciancio, echoing Acharya’s call, proposes
a regional research agenda for global IR. She argues that regions are central
for understanding the global IR agenda, which highlights the importance of
conceptualizing forms and functions of non-European regionalisms as well as
being more aware of local demands.
More specifically, Deciancio (2016, 107) argues that regions and regional-
ism have been central to Latin American IR, where “regionness” developed
before nations (2016, 108), and where there is a rich tradition of describing
and conceptualizing alternative forms and functions of regionalism and region-

Teaching IR in the Global South: views from Brazil and South Africa 47
alization processes. Such an agenda is connected to the various strands of
dependency thinking, and the ideas of development and autonomy, which are
important lenses through which Latin American scholars have approached the
international. In this light, regionalism can be seen as a more distinct process
than the European-led approach to regionalism (2016, 107). In another vein,
Latin American scholars (Inoue and Moreira; Inoue; Inoue et al.) have called
attention to how indigenous knowledge systems and voices can contribute to
the study of global environmental politics. However, we should note that con-
cepts like “living-well” and reciprocity or the awareness about the destruction
of the Amazon forest named as the “Falling Sky” (Kopenawa and Albert) not
only speak of different society–nature relations, but also of relations among
ourselves, and the societies in which we live. In sum, there are theories, con-
cepts, and theoretical notions that could become part of the IR theory curricula.
It is more a matter of recognition than to prove the existence.
In the Brazilian higher education system, IR is an independent – and quite
popular – major, and schools design their curricula in a multidisciplinary
fashion. Theoretical approaches to IR are underestimated, as “they would not
provide employable skills”. In that sense, IR theory tends not to feature prom-
inently in curricula and is not usually taught in stand-alone courses. However,
many of the theoretical approaches mentioned above are included in other
courses such as international political economy, Latin American studies, or
global environmental politics. These are built as stand-alone courses but do
cover concepts and theories that could potentially be IR theory curricula.
For instance, at the University of Brasília, regionalism and decolonial per-
spectives are taught in a Latin American IR course. Dependency theories, on
the other hand, are part of the International Political Economy course. Students
get to know the importance of indigenous voices when enrolled in a Global
Environmental Politics course. In this sense, one first step to pluralize the IR
theory curricula involves the recognition of these local/regional perspectives
as contributions to the field.
Currently, students are still inclined to understand the Great Debates and the
theories of IR in a linear fashion, one theory leading to another. The Debates
are inserted in a historical narrative built on a Western-focused approach.
Major events, such as the World Wars, the Cold War, or the 1970s’ Oil Crisis
seem to impact more significantly than local/regional events. Thus, and as
an attempt to build a global IR mentality, it is important to highlight the
diversity of approaches and theoretical concepts occurring concomitantly.
Our experience at the Rio de Janeiro State University and the Brazilian Naval
War College showed that teaching IR theory by exploring multiple approaches
to key concepts does break this linear perception. By realizing that multiple
theories can coexist and do not have the monopoly over a given concept, stu-
dents are able to understand how plural is the field and how their realities are

Teaching international relations
48
shaped not only by world events but by regional events, much like Deciancio
suggested.
Due to the constraints posed by the NCG, teaching IR in Brazil is
strongly limited by institutional restraints, unlike South Africa. By recogniz-
ing local/regional contributions to the field, in terms of both theoretical and
agenda-setting, it would be possible to take these discussions to universities
committees, national associations, and the federal government guidelines.
South Africa
In South Africa, there is already a growing body of literature that calls for
changes in curricula, to decolonize it or to make it include a diversity of knowl-
edges (Luckett; Matos Ala 2017) to better dialogue with students’ realities.
Nevertheless, this is usually confined to studies examining higher education
pedagogy in general and is not discipline-specific. This section will examine
my attempt to create a global knowledge plural IR theory curriculum in IR at
the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, which is the only independ-
ent IR department in the country.
Even before the rise of the “Rhodes Must Fall” and the “Fees Must Fall”
student movements at various South African universities in 2015 and 2016,
one of whose principal demands was “decolonized” or “de-Westernized”
curricula, we have been engaged in trying to de-Westernize the part of the
undergraduate theory curriculum that we have been responsible for teaching
since 2012.1 However, the strong demands by both our university as well as
broader social movements have encouraged us to be bolder in designing cur-
ricula that present a broader range of knowledges from the Global South. As
our students are located in Africa, we especially wanted a course that strongly
incorporated African knowledges relevant to the study of IR. We should also
note from our experience that creating knowledge plural theory curricula is
not merely a case of adding extra readings pertaining to the application of IR
theories in the Global South. It involves a radical re-conceptualization of the
types of knowledge that can be included when one steps out of the strictures
imposed by traditional thinking on what an IR theory course should look like.
We teach a final year undergraduate course entitled “Thinking, Theorizing,
and Researching International Relations”. A central focus of the course is
critically examining the power dynamics within IR theory that determines the
dominant narratives regarding the discipline’s ontology and epistemology. It
explicitly engages with how the theoretical narrative of the discipline has been
predicated on Western philosophies and concepts that reflect various Western
academic interests and ideologies.
In terms of the development of academic skills we felt that it was imperative
that the course develop students’ ability to critically engage with knowledge.

Teaching IR in the Global South: views from Brazil and South Africa 49
Thus, the course was structured to develop students’ critical analytical and
evaluative skills so that they will eventually develop the skill to use theory
discerningly and where necessary in innovative ways. An important skills
component was to encourage students to create or tailor the application of
a theory to suit an African context, which develops the ability to create and
synthesize. Developing students’ skills to critically analyze the efficacy of
Western IR theory for African contexts also enables them to critically engage
with the debate on what the decolonization of knowledge should entail.
The course is divided into two sections. The first is focused at
a meta-theoretical level and examines how Western derived knowledge is used
to conceive of or conceptualize the Global South resulting in it being desig-
nated the role of the “other” in IR. The aim of this section is to get students to
ask questions not presently found in any mainstream theory textbook – namely
why and how IR theories are founded on Western-based knowledges and the
implication of this for understanding and studying IR in the Global South.
A fundamental component of both sections is contextualizing the study and
theorizing IR within a Global South context. Thus, examining the IR of col-
onization is vital for understanding why there are no African theories of IR.
The first section therefore engages with the colonization of knowledge as an
integral part of the colonization process of Africa by the West. African philos-
ophies already enter IR at a disadvantage, with Africans having already been
declared by both Kant and Hegel as being devoid of the capacity for complex,
abstract, intellectual thought. Indeed, one of the expounded benefits of coloni-
zation by Western powers was bestowing modernity which encompassed more
complex ways of reasoning on colonies and which is perpetuated by dominant
Western ontological and epistemological standards into the postcolonial
period. The course, using the works of Franz Fanon, examines not only the
consequences of the continued colonization of knowledge but how the decolo-
nization of knowledge is a crucial but often overlooked part of decolonization.
As this has not occurred in IR, we have a discipline that has produced theories
that misfit, misinterpret, or misunderstand the IR of the Global South.
The second section of the course looks at African philosophies that
have explanatory potential in the realm of IR, particularly, in terms of their
usefulness in explaining and understanding African IR. The main African
philosophy we examine is Ubuntu. The course makes an important distinction
between the practice of ubuntu and the philosophy of Ubuntu. “ubuntu” has
been practiced by a wide range of ethnic groups in Southern and East Africa
dating from pre-colonial times to the present. The concept is encapsulated in
the Nguni expression “Umuntu ugumuntu ngabantu”, translated as a person
is a person through other persons (Metz & Gaie). In other words, a person’s
survival, or well-being is causally dependent on their interaction with others.
One strives to become fully human by entering more and more deeply into

Teaching international relations
50
community with others. Thus, in a metaphysical sense you do not exist outside
your community. In fact, ubuntu is not something that an infant or young child
could possess, it develops as your interactions with and obligations to your
community deepen as you progress into and through adulthood. Although
the ultimate aim of ubuntu is personal fulfillment, this must be obtained by
community immersion and engagement. It cannot be attained by selfish actions
that benefit an individual either primarily or exclusively at the expensive of
your community. The practice depicts the centering of African society within
what Patrick Chabal terms a political economy of obligation (Praeg, 45) It is
from the practice of ubuntu that a philosophy of Ubuntu has been derived. This
has seen the practice of ubuntu being abstracted and de-contextualized from
the communal environment of the ethnic group, so that it could be applied to
African liberation movements and finally the diverse ethnic populations of
African states and beyond African borders. In contrast to Western prioritizing
of individual identity Ubuntu centers on communal identity. Thus, it represents
the antithesis of humanist philosophies like neoliberalism.
The course further critically evaluates the explanatory capacity of Ubuntu
versus Western normative theories of IR. Ubuntu can elucidate many
intra-African IR practices, giving explanations for individual or collective
state behavior. As case studies we consider South Africa’s practice of “quiet
diplomacy” towards Zimbabwe during the Mbeki presidency as well as the
African Union’s refusal to enforce an International Criminal Court warrant of
arrest for former Sudanese President Bashir. From the perspective of Ubuntu
these cases reveal collective attempts of African leaders to alter the negative
behavior of a member of the group through dialogue and negotiation with
them. Ubuntu in these instances would see reconciliation and rehabilitation as
more important than punishing the wrongdoer.
Finally, the course discusses the benefits of global knowledge plurality in
equipping scholars to more fully study and understand IR. The course helps
students question the utility of Western IR theories beyond their social and his-
torical context. It also allows them to conceive of a world where knowledges
from the Global South, although ontologically and epistemologically different
from those of the West, are seen as equally intellectually valid ways of under-
standing IR. From our point of view, this is the ultimate way to decolonize
knowledge within the field of IR theory.
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
In this chapter, we discussed some of the challenges we face as academics
teaching IR in the Global South, more specifically in Brazil and South Africa.
We shared experiences and strategies based on our experiences both as
instructors and as participants in national- and international-level discussions

Teaching IR in the Global South: views from Brazil and South Africa 51
about what constitutes IR as a discipline and an academic field of inquiry and
teaching.
We advocate for a global and pluriversal IR in the classroom. This could
initially start in IR theory curricula and move beyond. A global IR de-centers
conventional narratives and makes visible the logic of “many worlds, many
theories” that goes beyond multidisciplinarity, and entails the recognition of
the plurality of worldviews, ontologies, and knowledge systems worldwide.
Moreover, we argued that “what” we teach goes hand in hand with “how” we
teach. This pedagogical approach is context-based and student-centered. As
many chapters in this book share assumptions about creating learning envi-
ronments that are collaborative and focused on dialogues between instructors
and students, we think that more plural IR context-based curricula can enhance
learning in both the Global South and North.
NOTE
1. Rhodes Must Fall and Fees Must Fall were student driven movements that
have distinct as well as overlapping demands. The focus of Rhodes Must Fall
was the decolonization of tertiary institutions. Hence their demand for the
removal of Western iconography from campuses together with the contesting
the pre-eminence given to Western knowledge in course curricula. The core
demand of Fees Must Fall was securing free education for all students from low-/
middle-income households. However, this movement also supported the decoloni-
zation of curricula knowledge.

224
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257
Index
300 133
accountability 152, 184, 201, 203, 205,
209, 212
Acharya, Amitav 31, 46
active learning 1, 3–6, 32, 45, 67–9,
77–8, 90, 117–18, 124, 130, 132,
145–6, 148, 179, 186, 189
assessment in 201–12, 214–23
renewing commitment to 35–7
trends in 4–5
activism 54
Africa Today 181
African Union 24, 50
Akbaba, Yasemin 185
Allen, Michael A. 180
Allison, Graham T. 69
Alves, Cia 220
American Association of Higher
Education 214
American Council on Education 29
American Political Science Association
5–6, 28, 36
Amnesty International 18
analytic eclecticism 132
Andersen, Espen 74
Anderson, Bret 77–8
application cards 207
Aristotle 27, 108, 111
Asal, Victor 91, 180
assessment in active learning 201–12,
214–23
Association of American Colleges &
Universities 117, 121, 218
asylum seekers 2
Auchter, Jessica 55
Avalon 114
Ba, Alice 118–19
Bachner, Jennifer 185
backward design 13, 32–3, 119–22, 150
Baranowski, Michael K. 222
Barasuol, Fernanda 41, 46
Başkan, Filiz 185
Beck, Robert 186–7
Beckham, M. 158
Behera, Navnita Chadka 43
Belarus 55
Biswas, Bidisha 206
Black Lives Matter 64
Blaney, David L. 42
blogs 8, 180, 186, 195, 218
Bloom, Benjamin 27–9, 32–3, 178
Bloom’s Taxonomy 32–3, 129–33,
138–9
Boehrer, John 64
Bolívar-Cruz, Alicia 206
Booth, Ken 61
brainstorming 78
Braskamp, Larry A. 163
Braveheart 133
Brazil 39, 45–8, 50
Brookfield, Stephen 195
Brown, Colin M. 206
Burch, Kurt 147, 151
Buzan, Barry 43
Capture the Flag 109
Carter, Ralph G. 70
cartooning 209, 211–12
Carvalho, Gustavo 93–4, 104
case studies 66–76, 108, 111
Chabal, Patrick 50
Challenge Game 220
China 2
Cho, Hoyun 211
citizenship 21, 25, 58, 60, 117, 121, 133
civil war 18, 29, 35, 66–7, 70, 162
Clausewitz, Carl Von 109
climate change 11, 162, 180
Cold War 47, 134
collaborative learning 189–99

Teaching international relations
258
colonialism 6, 21, 45, 49, 60, 62, 84, 197
comics 33
communication skills 2, 121, 127
concept mapping 130–31, 133, 209–12
conflict see war
constructivism 18, 22–3, 25, 58, 67,
96–7, 119, 128, 133, 135, 145,
177, 182
Coughlin, Richard W. 221
Council on Foreign Relations 14
COVID-19 pandemic 2, 19, 30–32, 35–6,
46, 64, 70, 176, 184, 187
Cox, Eric 94
Cox, Robert 191
Craig, John 29–30
critical theory 40, 67
critical thinking 1–2, 15, 22–3, 33–4, 67,
89, 121, 127, 130–31, 150, 170,
203, 208, 222
cross-cultural diversity see diversity
crowdsourcing 197–8
curious feminism 58
Curran, Roisin 196–7
cybersecurity 3–4, 35
da Silva, André Reis 41, 46
Dalig and Vadan game 107–9, 116
Danielson, Robert W. 132
Darby, Flower 27, 196
Davidovitch, Nitza 120
Dawson, Bryan L. 60
de Swielande, Tanguy 70
de Wit, Hans 162
debriefing questions 207–8
Deciancio, Melisa 46–8
decision-forcing cases 69–70, 72
decolonization 6–8, 33, 46–50
democratization 30, 55, 157, 165
dependency theory 46–7
Devereaux, Charan 70
Dewey, A. Gordon 28
Dewey, John 27, 30, 34–5, 146
Dillenbourg, Pierre 189
Diplomacy 106, 108, 113–14, 116
disability 56, 61, 182
distance learning 35
see also online learning
diversity 5–8, 11, 31–2, 35, 88, 160–74,
181
Dominican Republic 85
drones 3
Duck of Minerva 180
dynamic tensions 33–4
Economist, The 181
Ecuador 85
empathic scaffolding 7
engagement see student engagement
Enloe, Cynthia 27, 58
environmental issues 2, 21–2, 29, 46–7,
53, 63, 90, 98–9
see also climate change
Epley, J. 93
ethics 19
ethnicity 6–7, 25, 52–4, 83, 86, 181
European Union 18, 24, 61, 90, 221
EuroSim 221
experiential learning 77–89, 117, 208,
218
faculty-led study abroad programs 77–89
Fanon, Franz 49
feedback mechanisms 195–6, 198, 202,
204, 206–7
Fees Must Fall 48
feminism 6, 18, 22–3, 25, 40, 52–64, 67,
97, 135, 182, 190–93
fiction see film; literature
film 33, 35, 129–39, 179–80
Fisher, Kathryn 52
Fleming, Ian 134, 139
flipped classroom 30, 122–7, 186,
217–18
food security 162
foreign policy 21–2, 40, 57, 77, 90, 99,
212, 220
Forest, James J. F. 162
Forum for Education Abroad 87
fragmentation 3, 35
free markets 24
Freedom House 186
Freire, Paulo 27, 31, 33, 44, 192
Fung, Courtney J. 206
Gallup 14
game theory 156
games 45, 105–16
Gannon, Kevin 8, 181, 189, 192, 194

259
Index
gender 6–7, 19, 52–8, 60–61, 63–4, 83,
86, 110, 163, 181–2
genocide 42
Gibson, Heather 78
Giroux, Henry 191
Glazier, Rebecca A. 187
Global IR 23–4, 36, 39, 43–4, 51
Global North 5, 7, 23, 25, 38–9, 57, 171
Global South 3–4, 6–7, 23, 31, 38–51,
171
globalization 2–3, 5, 14, 18, 25, 30, 33,
35, 42, 84, 180, 185, 187
Golich, Vicki L. 68, 72, 74
González-Betancor, Sara M. 206
graphic novels 33
Great Debates 40, 46–7
Greenpeace 18
group work 84, 157, 183–4, 218–19
groupthink 99
Hakel, Milton D. 131–2
Halpern, Diane F. 131–2
Halvorson, Dan 221
Hamid, Mohsin 63–4
Hastedt, Glenn 70
Haufler, Virginia 206
Healey, M. 146
Healey, Mick 192
health 19, 35, 70, 87
see also COVID-19 pandemic
Hegel, G. W. F. 49
Hendrickson, Petra 220
Henning, Jeremiah A. 219
Hensel, N. 158
High Impact Practices 218
Hobbes, Thomas 112
Hobbes Game 108, 111–13, 116
Hoffman, Matt 118–19
Hoffman, Stanley 40
hooks, bell 192
Houghton, David P. 70
Hovey, R. 42
Howard, Kimberley 79
human rights 2–3, 11, 21–2, 24, 29, 46,
66, 157, 180, 187
human security 2, 29, 46, 56, 64
humanism 50
hybrid learning 30, 32, 186
iClickers 183
idealism 133
identity and poetry exercises 106, 108
Imamoğlu, Ektrm 172–3
immigration 19, 42, 61, 63
indigenous knowledge 47
innovation 34–5
international cooperation 21–2, 35
International Criminal Court 50
international development 21–2
international law 18, 21–2, 186–7
International Monetary Fund 18
international organizations 18, 21–2, 90,
185
international political economy 18, 21–2,
33, 40, 47, 180
International Political Education
Database 30
international relations, teaching
active learning see active learning
with case studies 66–76
collaborative learning 189–99
commitment and innovation in
pedagogy 27–37
critical time for 2–3
engaging in inquiry 145–58
engaging with diversity through
technology 160–74
essentials for introductory courses
11–25
in the Global South 38–51
intersectional pedagogy in 52–64
with the IR theory toolkit 117–28
with literature and film 129–39
more effective online learning
176–88
political violence with games and
simulations 105–16
through study abroad programs
77–89
using Statecraft 90–104
International Studies Association 5–6,
11, 31, 36, 118–19
workshops 19–23, 36, 78
internationalization 162–3
internships 218–19
intersectionality 7–8, 53–64
introductory courses to IR 11–25
IR theory toolkit 117–28
Iranian Plane simulation 220

Teaching international relations
260
Ishiyama, John 30
Ivens, Sven 205
James, Patrick 137
James, Sarah E. 206
James Bond franchise 130, 134–6, 139
Jenkins, A. 146
Jenkins, Leeroy 109
Johnston, Alastair Iain 97
Jones, Rebecca 221
journaling 84
see also learning journals
Kaftan, Joanna 94, 113
Kahoot 183
Kant, Immanuel 49
Kaussler, Bernd 133
Kehl, Jenny 30
Keller, Brian 79
Keller, Jonathan W. 93
Kille, Kent J. 5, 185
Killick, David 163
Kiltz, Linda A. 70
knowledge plurality 41–3, 46, 48
knowledge retention 3–4, 15, 35, 105,
131–2, 137, 146, 184–5, 208, 214,
217–20
Knowlton, Dave S. 177
Koomen, Jonneke 6
Krain, Matthew 5, 130, 185, 205
Krishna, Sankaran 42
Kuzma, Lynn 64
Lang, James M. 27, 196
language barrier 168–70, 173
Lantis, Jeffrey S. 5, 64, 74, 185, 205
learning goals 13–15, 19–20, 32–3, 85,
95, 120–21, 202–3, 218
Bloom’s Taxonomy 32–3, 129–33,
138–9
learning outcomes 1, 9, 24, 68, 76–7, 82,
94–5, 117, 120, 124, 145, 150–51,
155, 158, 160, 164, 173, 178, 195,
202, 214, 216, 218–19
learning journals 195–6
Learning Management System 180, 183,
186
Leunig, Johanna 205
Levin-Banchik, Luba 220
LGBTQIA+ 4, 6, 58, 61, 86, 191, 219
liberalism 18, 21–3, 25, 58, 67, 96–7,
117, 121, 131, 135, 182
lifelong learning 67, 222
Linantud, John 94, 113
Lipschutz, Ronnie D. 57
literature 33, 35, 63–4, 129–39
Liu, T. T. T. 42
living conditions 198
Lord of the Rings 130, 136–8
Lynn, Laurence E. 72, 74
Madden, Timothy M. 80
Mafia see Werewolf
Malewski, Erik 84
Marxism 18, 22–3, 40, 54, 67, 133, 135
Matrix trilogy 133
McCall, Leslie 55–6
McEachern, Susan 119
Me Too 64
Mechanical Turk 185
memoirs 33
memorization 34
mental health 86
mentoring 1, 33, 80, 148, 150, 156, 158
Michelsen, Niall 93, 95
militarism 60, 62
military 58, 66
Miller, William J. 217
Mingst, Karen A. 70
“minute” papers 207
Mislan, David B. 70
mixed-method approach 156–7, 205
Model Diplomacy 108, 113, 116
Model UN 90, 203, 219, 221
Monkey Cage, The 180
Mori, Katsuhiko 70
Morocco 85
Morreale, Joseph C. 78
motivation 13, 42, 67, 160, 170, 178,
183–5, 187, 197, 217, 219–20
movies see film
multiculturalism 45
Munich 133
National Geographic 14
nationalism 60, 62, 133
nativism 2
neoliberalism 50

261
Index
neuroscience 4
non-governmental organizations 11, 18,
61
novels see literature
Oberle, Monika 205
Oblinger, Diana 132
Oblinger, James 132
O’Byrne, Sarah 185
Ogg, Frederic 28
oil crisis 47
Olson, Christa L. 162–3
online learning 30–32, 125–7, 176–88,
208–9
open education resources 194–5
open-ended questions 75, 169, 204–5,
207–8
Orientalism 38
Osborne, Carolyn 211
outcomes see learning outcomes
pandemics 14, 86
see also COVID-19 pandemic
passive learning 67–8, 118, 122–4, 127,
132, 139, 146, 214, 217
patriarchy 62
Peace Research Institute Oslo 186
pedagogy 7, 12, 21, 25, 38, 41–2, 44–5,
87, 210, 212, 214, 216
see also individual teaching methods
commitment and innovation in
27–37
feminist interventions 52–64
see also feminism
history of pedagogical thinking
27–32
of online learning 177–8
peer learning 161, 164, 169–71
Perusall 183
Peterson, V. Spike 54
Pew Charitable Trust Foundation 29
Phillion, Joann 84
Pipitone, Jennifer M. 84
Planet Money 180
pluriversal IR 39–40, 43–4, 47–8, 51
podcasts 180–81, 186, 195
political economy 18
political science 5, 12–14, 27–9, 33, 118,
149, 216
political violence 36, 105–16
polythink 99
populism 2, 161, 165, 172
positivism 29, 191, 210
post-colonialism 4, 23, 53–5, 58, 182
post-modernism 22–3
post-structuralism 40, 54–5, 58
Powel, Brieg 43
power relations 6, 21–2, 24, 53, 64, 66,
84, 162, 192
PowerPoint 180
predation theory 138
privacy 198
problem-based learning 32, 34–5, 145–8,
150–58, 218
professionalization 29
prostitution 58
quality of life 2
Qualtrics 185
Querejazu, Amaya 43
race 6–7, 19, 25, 42, 46, 52–3, 56–7,
83–4, 110, 162, 181–2
racism 6, 61, 162–3, 182
radicalism 131
Rafshoon, Ellen G. 63
Ramsey, James D. 70
Rasmussen, Amy Cabrera 56–7, 59
Raymond, Chad 93–4
realism 6, 18, 21–3, 25, 28, 67, 95–6,
106, 112, 114, 124, 131, 133, 135,
182
Red Card game 108, 115–16
refugees 2, 66, 70
regionalism 46–7
religion 56–7, 61, 86, 161, 165
Remains of the Day 133
research-focused learning 145–6, 148–58
Resistance 114
retention of knowledge 3–4, 15, 35, 105,
131–2, 137, 146, 184–5, 208, 214,
217–20
retrospective cases 69, 71
Rhodes, Carolyn 70
Rhodes Must Fall 48
Riegg, Natalya 59
Rock Paper Scissors 112
role-playing 27, 218, 221

Teaching international relations
262
Rose, Gideon 70
Rosen, Amanda 91, 180
Ruane, Abigail E. 137
rubrics 205
Runyan, Anne Sisson 54
Russia 2
Saiya, Nilay 93–4, 113
Sanders, Tobie 211
Schiano, Bill 74
scholarship of assessment 216
scholarship of teaching and learning 4–5,
8, 30, 32, 37, 117, 127, 216
Secret Hitler 114
secularism 165
self-assessment 154, 204, 206, 208,
220–21
self-regulated learning 123, 195
service learning 5, 78, 83, 89, 189,
218–19
Seven Days in May 133
sexual orientation see LGBTQIA+
sexual violence 4, 62, 163
Shellman, Stephen M. 220
Shor, Ira 192–3
Shostya, Anna 78
Simpson, Archie W. 133
simulations 45, 105–16, 180, 189,
218–22
Statecraft 90–104, 108, 113, 116
Sinatra, Gale M. 132
Sjoberg, Laura 52, 54–5
Skype 164–72
Slavin, R. E. 164
smartphones 3, 129
Smith, Daryl 162–3
Smith, Hayden 93, 95
Smith, Heather A. 70, 190
Smith, Karen 43
Snow, Donald M. 70
social deception games 114–16
social media 3, 7, 25, 129, 179, 185
socioeconomic class 52–3
Socrates 27
Soroka, George 206
South Africa 24, 39, 45, 48–50, 59
sovereignty 3, 20, 24, 42, 59–60, 64, 135
Statecraft 90–104, 108, 113, 116
Steich, Philip 70
Stommel, Jessie 192, 196
Strange, Hannah 78
Strong, Robert A. 70
structural violence 53, 61–2
student engagement 1, 4–5, 27–37, 50,
52, 57, 66–7, 69, 94, 105, 116,
131, 145, 147, 152–5, 158, 168,
170, 181, 184–7, 193, 195, 197,
201, 204, 209, 214, 217–18
student-centered approaches 33, 120,
145, 177, 179, 214
study abroad programs 77–89
Styles, Kendall W. 70
Sunderland, Sherie 133
sustainable development 85, 90
Sweden 61
Sylvester, Christine 63
Tanzania 62
teacher training 29
teaching IR see international relations,
teaching
teaching with purpose 32–7
technology 3, 160–74
Ted Talks 180
Tedrow, Barbara 59
terrorism 2, 18, 42, 55–6, 63, 86, 98, 133,
157
Tétreault, Mary Ann 57
textbooks 15–19, 21, 25, 39, 66, 135,
194–5
Thirteen Days 133
Tickner, Arlene B. 41, 43
Tickner, J. Ann 63
Tolkien, J. R. R. 136, 138
Topping, Keith J. 164
tourism 84
transformative learning 78, 86
transgender rights 4
see also LGBTQIA+
transnationalism 18
Trump, Donald 171
Turan, Kürşad 220
Turkey 160–61, 163–5, 169–72, 185
Twitter 198
Ubuntu 49–50
United Kingdom 61
United Nations 18, 24

263
Index
United States 2, 39–40, 42, 57, 61, 70,
88, 160–61, 163, 165, 171–3, 185,
216, 218, 221
United States Military Academy 162
U.S. State Department 29
Usherwood, Simon 94
utilitarianism 108, 111
Verano-Tacoronte, Domingo 206
video conferencing 164–6
see also Skype
video games 33
virtue ethics 108, 111
war 11, 14, 18, 21–2, 24–5, 29, 33, 35,
47, 52, 55, 62, 66–8, 70, 105, 157,
162, 180, 187
war crimes 18, 66
Weapons of Mass Destruction 137–8
Weir, Kimberly A. 222
Werewolf 108, 115–16
West, Charlotte 80
West, Lucy 221
Wolfe, Angela 189
women see gender
Wong, Mary S. 162–3
workshops 19–23, 25, 36, 78
World Bank 186
World Development Indicators 186
World of Warcraft 109
World Today, The 181
World Trade Organization 135
writing skills 1–2, 20, 158, 215
Wunische, Adam 220
Yahlnaaw 197
Yates, William Butler 110
YouTube clips 179–80
Yuval-Davis, Nira 57
Zimbabwe 50
Zoom 183–5, 198
Zwingel, Susanne 54