No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Blind spots in visible learning: A critique of John Hattie as an educational theorist
Abstract
In recent years, John Hattie’s book Visible Learning (2009) has greatly influenced educational practitioners and policymakers. The visible learning approach has been deemed “the Holy Grail of teaching” (Mansell, 2008), and Hattie has been called the “messiah” of educational research (Evans, 2012). In this article, we outline some of the significant methodological problems embedded in Hattie’s work and relate them to his theoretical stance. We argue that his focus on single causal factors causes him to disregard important dimensions in educational practice. Furthermore, by analyzing parts of the primary research and the meta-analysis upon which Hattie grounds his conclusions, we find both serious methodological challenges and validity problems. We relate these problems to the technological rationality that informs Hattie’s work and implicitly constitutes his theoretical approach. Finally, we outline, among other things, how questions of human agency and intentionality for attending school become marginalized as the broader consequences of using Hattie’s approach to institutionally organize teaching processes. Another consequence of Hattie’s work is that educational research begins with questions of methods rather than research into schools’ everyday teaching practices.
... IKIP Siliwangi is a higher education institution that is committed to improving the quality of student learning. In this context, the implementation of Hattie's Visible Learning evaluation model can provide valuable insights into the factors that most influence learning (Hattie, 2008, Hattie., J. & Ziere., 2019, Nielsen & KlitmØller, 2021, Lipsch-Wijnen & Dirkx , 2022. ...
This research aims to evaluate the application of the Hattie's Visible Learning Evaluation Model in strategy learning and the publication of scientific work sat IKIP Siliwangi. Using quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods, this research analyze student responses to sixty aspects of assessment that cover various learning elements. The results of the research identified the aspects with the highest and lowest scores from each study program, namely Guidance and Counselling (BK) and Indonesian Language and Literature Education (PBSI). These results provide in-depth insight regarding significant factors in developing effective learning strategies and supporting the publication of student scientific work such as humor, teaching strategies teacher, credibility outdoor/adventure programmes, lecturer effect, lecturer subject matter knowledge, questioning, religious campus, feedback personality, mentoring computer-assisted instruction, lecturer-students relationships, drama/art programs, study skills, extra-curricular programs, dan classroom discussion. Meanwhile, less effective factors are of concern, such as parental involvement, students control over learning, boredom, gender, use of calculators, changing school calendar, lack of sleep, moving between schools, mathematics, drugs, pre-term birth weight, ability grouping, not labeling students, ability grouping for gifted students. The implications of this research finding can be the basis for improving more optimal learning strategies in higher education environments, especially IKIP Siliwangi.
... Such interpretations could be the origin of teaching myths. Unfortunately, Hattie's dimensions are not the holy grail of teaching (see Brügelmann, 2017;Nielsen and KlitmØller, 2021). The 138 dimensions he identified are not related to each other, and we do not have too many statements on how to adapt these dimensions to learners' prerequisites and needs. ...
What is good teaching? This question is as old as people have reflected on this topic, and its answers in the European context date back to antiquity. This essay elaborates on and justifies one complex answer to the question: good teaching is the adaptive balance between compulsion and freedom. The key questions addressed by the essay are as follows: (1) What arguments favor teaching within a framework of compulsion and what arguments favor teaching in a framework of freedom? (2) How can these possibilities be reconciled? (3) Does a myth of good teaching derive from these possibilities? To answer these questions, we first examine the different dimensions related to good teaching in science and other domains of life. We then develop criteria for defining compulsion and freedom in the context of teaching. This is followed by depicting arguments for organizing teaching in a framework of compulsion and those for organizing teaching in a framework of freedom. The thesis (compulsion) and antithesis (freedom) are then synthesized by constructing a concept of a balance between both positions according to the ideas of philosophy, sociology, theories of education, and learning theory. Therefore, the basic approach of this essay is dialectical. We select big ideas, confront them against each other, and attempt to find a synthesis without any claim to the historical completeness or completeness of concepts. Based on history, we emphasize the idea that, from the time of enlightment to modern learning theories, similar lines of arguments support each other.
A pedagogy of vision and seeing has a long history. Teachers’ professional vision, seeing and noticing are today regarded as important factors that affect the quality of their teaching and are considered important to develop. The article argues that there is a need to gain a deeper understanding of teachers’ professional vision, seeing and noticing and how they can be developed by creating bridges between various research traditions. Drawing on hermeneutic conversation as a method, the study addresses how two different researchers, John Hattie and Donald Schön, describe a) the purpose of teachers’ vision, seeing and noticing, b) what kind of development regarding teachers’ vision, seeing and noticing they suggest and c) where plausible similarities and/or differences between their reasoning can be found. The article’s major contribution is that it provides a metacognitive roadmap for professionals and educational researchers that both shows where Schön and Hattie intersect and where their views of teachers’ professional vision, seeing and noticing differ.
L’apprentissage de la lecture est une activité complexe qui requiert, au CP, un enseignement explicite et structuré, souvent guidé par une méthode de lecture (i.e., un ensemble d’outils pour l’enseignant et les élèves) éditée. Une équipe pluridisciplinaire, composée d’enseignants, de chercheurs et d’un éditeur (les Éditions Hatier), a choisi de proposer une nouvelle méthode de lecture pour le CP, basée sur les preuves : la méthode Lili CP. Une telle méthode se doit d’être utile (efficace) pour les apprentissages des élèves, mais elle doit aussi être utilisable (facile à prendre en main) et acceptable (compatible avec la classe) pour les enseignants et les élèves, afin de pouvoir être largement adoptée. L’objectif principal de cette thèse était d’évaluer l’utilité, l’utilisabilité et l’acceptabilité de certains outils et de certaines séquences de la méthode en cours de conception, afin d’identifier des pistes concrètes d’amélioration.Notre recherche a débuté par une analyse des pratiques des potentiels futurs utilisateurs. Un questionnaire diffusé à large échelle a mis en évidence la grande diversité des pratiques enseignantes au CP et les principaux critères de choix d’une méthode de lecture. Une étude a révélé l’excellent niveau d’utilisabilité et d’acceptabilité du matériel original d’entrainement à la combinatoire prévu dans Lili CP. Deux interfaces différentes du guide pédagogique au format web ont été comparées, en terme d’utilisabilité et d’acceptabilité également, permettant de dégager la pertinence de certains choix de présentation pour la future méthode. Dans une étude expérimentale, nous avons évalué l’efficacité d’une séquence d’enseignement explicite de la compréhension conçue pour Lili CP, sur les acquis des élèves dans ce domaine. La comparaison à un groupe contrôle actif (i.e., ayant suivi une autre séquence, plus classique, d’enseignement de la compréhension) a démontré l’intérêt de ce type de séquence pour la compétence entrainée.Enfin, deux versions (basique et gamifiée) de l’application numérique ECRIMO, développée pour Lili CP et visant à entrainer l’écriture de mots en autonomie, ont été évaluées sur les trois dimensions d’utilité, d’utilisabilité et d’acceptabilité. L’application, dans ses deux versions, obtient d’excellents scores d’utilisabilité et d’acceptabilité. Les entrainements avec ECRIMO, dans ses deux versions, se sont révélés aussi efficaces qu’un entrainement à l’encodage sous forme d’exercices classiques de dictée dirigés par l’enseignant. Dans tous les groupes entrainés, les progrès en encodage sont plus importants que dans le groupe contrôle et sont visibles surtout chez les élèves ayant déjà un bon niveau d’encodage en début de CP. Enfin, pour ces élèves, la version basique a engendré un progrès plus important que la version gamifiée.Ce travail doctoral apporte une démonstration de la possibilité et de l’intérêt de conduire une évaluation intégrée des outils éducatifs qui doivent être étudiés dans les trois dimensions d’utilité, d’utilisabilité et d’acceptabilité, avant leur diffusion à grande échelle sur le terrain. Il se conclut par la proposition d’une nouvelle démarche intégrée de conception et d’évaluation d’outils pédagogiques.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/20020317.2017.1415048
I have struggled with some very basic questions while reading ‘Visible Learning for Teachers’ in particular and while observing various forms of visible learning practices in Danish schools and municipalities. These questions relate to the meaning of the core concepts, the theoretical points of departure for visible learning and translations into teaching and political practices. Consequently, the interview given here is neither a research article nor a journalistic interview, but perhaps more of a conversation between researchers.
This paper presents a critical analysis, from the point of view of a statistician, of the methodology used by Hattie in Visible Learning, and explains why it must absolutely be called pseudoscience. We first discuss what appears to be the intentions of Hattie’s approach. Then we describe the major mistakes in Visible Learning before reviewing the set of questions a researcher should ask when investigating studies and surveys based on data analyses, including meta-analyses. We give concrete examples explaining why Cohen’s d (the measure of effect size used in Visible Learning) simply cannot be used as some sort of universal measure of impact. Finally, we propose solutions to better understand and implement studies and meta-analyses in education.
As one of the central institutions of society, schooling is subject to significant public interest and scrutiny. Fads and fashion successfully developed elsewhere are often rebadged and relaunched in education for the purpose of improvement. Such interventions are often quickly identified as intruders and frequently fade into obscurity, but what of internal interventions, the education research that becomes widely accepted and promoted? In this paper I argue that contemporary thought and analysis in Australian school leadership has submitted to the cult of the guru. Specifically, I contend that dialogue (much less debate) has settled on the work of John Hattie’s meta-meta-analysis giving rise to the Cult of Hattie. This paper is not an attack on Hattie as a person, or even his work, rather an argument about the conditions which have facilitated the rise of a guru. I argue that the uncritical acceptance and proliferation of this cult is a tragedy for Australian school leadership.
Medical research is held as a field for education to emulate. Education researchers have been urged to adopt randomized controlled trials, a more “scientific” research method believed to have resulted in the advances in medicine. But a much more important lesson education needs to borrow from medicine has been ignored. That is the study of side effects. Medical research is required to investigate both the intended effects of any medical interventions and their unintended adverse effects, or side effects. In contrast, educational research tends to focus only on proving the effectiveness of practices and policies in pursuit of “what works.” It has generally ignored the potential harms that can result from what works. This article presents evidence that shows side effects are inseparable from effects. Both are the outcomes of the same intervention. This article further argues that studying and reporting side effects as part of studying effects will help advance education by settling long fought battles over practices and policies and move beyond the vicious cycle of pendulum swings in education.
Overviews, or syntheses of research syntheses, have become a popular approach to synthesizing the rapidly expanding body of research and systematic reviews. Despite their popularity, few guidelines exist and the state of the field in education is unclear. The purpose of this study is to describe the prevalence and current state of overviews of education research and to provide further guidance for conducting overviews and advance the evolution of overview methods. A comprehensive search across multiple online databases and grey literature repositories yielded 25 total education-related overviews. Our analysis revealed that many commonly reported aspects of systematic reviews, such as the search, screen, and coding procedures, were regularly unreported. Only a handful of overview authors discussed the synthesis technique and few authors acknowledged the overlap of included systematic reviews. Suggestions and preliminary guidelines for improving the rigor and utility of overviews are provided.
Dynamic assessment is a procedure that determines whether substantive changes occur in examinee behavior if feedback is provided across an array of increasingly complex or challenging tasks. This procedure contrasts with traditional models of assessment in which there is no feedback from the examiner on student performance. This article summarizes a meta-analysis of published studies on dynamic assessment. Thirty studies, which yielded 170 effect sizes (ESs), were reviewed. An analysis of main effects showed that ESs varied significantly as a function of ability group (underachievers yielded higher and children with learning disabilities yielded lower ESs than average, hearing-impaired, and mentally retarded participants did), chronological age (younger students yield higher ESs than older students do), sample size (studies with moderate sample sizes yielded larger ESs than did studies with small or large sample sizes), and type of assessment procedure (scaffolding and general strategies yielded larger ESs than did coaching). Mixed regression modeling indicated that the magnitude of the ES was best predicted by the type of assessment (ESs are higher for general strategies than for scaffolding, and scaffolding yields higher ESs than coaching does) and assessment domain (ESs are higher on visual-spatial than on verbal measures). None of the ability group classifications predicted ES in the complete regression model. These results were discussed within the context of the assumptions related to dynamic assessment and its current limitations.
Communication skills, as defined by Burleson and Samter (1990), were examined in the teacher‐student relationship. Three questions guided this investigation: (a) with regard to effective teaching, what are students’ perceptions of the importance of communication skills and immediacy behaviors? (b) what is the relationship between students’ perceptions of teachers’ use of communication skills, immediacy behaviors, motivation and learning? and (c) do male and female students differ in their perceptions of communication skill and immediacy behaviors in regard to importance, motivation, and learning? Two studies were conducted. Study one found that students reported referential skill, ego support, and conflict management as being most important to effective teaching. Study two found referential skill, ego support, and immediacy to have a strong relationship with student learning and motivation. Some sex differences also were found and explored in both study one and two.
This meta-analysis reviews the findings of 81 studies (N=24,474) examining the relationship between teachers' verbal or nonverbal immediacy (or both) and students' learning outcomes. The cumulative evidence indicates meaningful correlations between teachers' nonverbal immediacy and student reports of perceived learning (r=.51) and affective learning (r=.49), but only a slight correlation with students' performance on cognitive learning measures (r=.17). Teachers' verbal immediacy was found to correlate with students' perceived learning (r=.49) and affective learning (r=.49), but again the relationship with performed cognitive learning was notably smaller (r=.06). Average effect sizes were generally smaller in experimental research designs than in survey-type research, and generally larger when verbal/nonverbal immediacy was measured as a single construct. The cumulative results of this meta-analysis confirm that teacher immediacy has a substantial relationship with certain attitudes and perceptions of students in relation to their learning, but a modest relationship with cognitive learning performance.
Groups of 8 Ss learned 60 German words under 4 different feedback conditions. Ss learned 20 words/day for 3 consecutive days, and then were tested for knowledge of all 60 words after the lapse of a day. In each group 4 Ss interacted in turn with E by guessing the correct answer and then were verbally reinforced for their responses. The remaining 4 Ss did not interact with E. Analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences in retention of the task under the 4 different feedback conditions. Retention was best in the case of those feedback modes which provided the greatest amount of redundant information and in which the correct answer was the last piece of information transmitted by E. An interaction failed to appear between feedback mode and extent of S involvement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Used a 3 * 2 * 2 factorial design with factors of feedback specificity (total, partial, or none), instructional strategy (mastery or nonmastery), and mental ability (high and low scores on Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test). 116 male high school students were Ss for the 5-wk study. The mastery strategy was superior in terms of immediate and delayed achievement, but Ss required 50% more time to complete instructions with no difference in attitude. Partial item feedback for unit tests was superior on both immediate achievement and attitude with no difference in retention. A mastery strategy with partial item feedback appears most desirable when time trade-off is justifiable. (26 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Since the beginning of the century, feedback interventions (FIs) produced negative--but largely ignored--effects on performance. A meta-analysis (607 effect sizes; 23,663 observations) suggests that FIs improved performance on average (
d = .41) but that over one-third of the FIs decreased performance. This finding cannot be explained by sampling error, feedback sign, or existing theories. The authors proposed a preliminary FI theory (FIT) and tested it with moderator analyses. The central assumption of FIT is that FIs change the locus of attention among 3 general and hierarchically organized levels of control: task learning, task motivation, and meta-tasks (including self-related) processes. The results suggest that FI effectiveness decreases as attention moves up the hierarchy closer to the self and away from the task. These findings are further moderated by task characteristics that are still poorly understood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper reviews the corpus of research on feedback, with a particular focus on formative feedback—defined as information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify the learner's thinking or behavior for the purpose of improving learning. According to researchers in the area, formative feedback should be multidimensional, nonevaluative, supportive, timely, specific, credible, infrequent, and genuine (e.g., Brophy, 1981; Schwartz & White, 2000). Formative feedback is usually presented as information to a learner in response to some action on the learner's part. It comes in a variety of types (e.g., verification of response accuracy, explanation of the correct answer, hints, worked examples) and can be administered at various times during the learning process (e.g., immediately following an answer, after some period of time has elapsed). Finally, there are a number of variables that have been shown to interact with formative feedback's success at promoting learning (e.g., individual characteristics of the learner and aspects of the task). All of these issues will be discussed in this paper. This review concludes with a set of guidelines for generating formative feedback.
The intense argument over class size has been about associations with pupil academic outcomes. Often overlooked is the way class size affects teachers’ classroom management of learning in groups. As part of a large scale multi-method project that tracked pupils’ educational progress from 5 to 11 years, data were collected on teachers’ experiences through annually administered questionnaires at Y4,5 and 6 (n = 486) and interviews with teachers as part of detailed case studies (n = 10 schools). Results show that class size does not directly impact on attainment, but works through the many ongoing difficult decisions teachers have to make about how best to manage and teach pupils in groups. A strategic approach is needed to teaching groups and collaborative learning in groups.
Much of the evidential basis for recent policy decisions is grounded in effect size: the standardised mean difference in outcome scores between a study's intervention and comparison groups. This is interpreted as measuring educational influence, importance or effectiveness of the intervention. This article shows this is a category error at two levels. At the individual study level, the intervention plays only a partial role in effect size, so treating effect size as a measure of the intervention is a mistake. At the meta‐analytic level, the assumptions needed for a valid comparison of the relative effectiveness of interventions on the basis of relative effect size are absurd. While effect size continues to have a role in research design, as a measure of the clarity of a study, policy makers should recognise the lack of a valid role for it in practical decision‐making.
In this paper, I work out a five-stringed criticism of John Hattie’s theory of Visible Learning. First, I argue that the theory is a theory of evaluation that denies education as such. Second, I show that there are problems with the dependent variable, learning, i.e. the effect of a given intervention. Thirdly, I show that Hattie's theory belongs to the radical constructivist paradigm. Thus, the problems of constructivism, i.e. problems of normativity and the outside world, walks directly into Hattie’s concept of teaching, resulting in a double breakdown of the essence of teaching. Fourth, I argue that Hattie’s concept of feedback has a centralizing trend which ultimately has the potential to transform the country’s educational activities into a big hierarchical and data-driven organism. Finally, I show that Hattie’s reference to Karl Popper’s theory of “three worlds” is based on a highly problematic reading, where Popper’s objective world is reduced to a subset of a radical subjectivity.
In response to the increasing emphasis on ‘evidence‐based teaching’, this article examines the privileging of randomised controlled trials and their statistical synthesis (meta‐analysis). It also pays particular attention to two third‐level statistical syntheses: John Hattie's Visible learning project and the EEF's Teaching and learning toolkit. The article examines some of the technical shortcomings, philosophical implications and ideological effects of this approach to ‘evidence’, at all these three levels. At various points in the article, aspects of critical realism are referenced in order to highlight ontological and epistemological shortcomings of ‘evidence‐based teaching’ and its implicit empiricism. Given the invocation of the medical field in this debate, it points to critiques within that field, including the need to pay attention to professional experience and clinical diagnosis in specific situations. Finally, it briefly locates the appeal to ‘evidence’ within a neoliberal policy framework.
Increased attention on ‘what works’ in education has led to an emphasis on developing policy from evidence based on comparing and combining a particular statistical summary of intervention studies: the standardised effect size. It is assumed that this statistical summary provides an estimate of the educational impact of interventions and combining these through meta-analyses and meta-meta-analyses results in more precise estimates of this impact which can then be ranked. From these, it is claimed, educational policy decisions can be driven. This paper will demonstrate that these assumptions are false: standardised effect size is open to researcher manipulations which violate the assumptions required for legitimately comparing and combining studies in all but the most restricted circumstances. League tables of types of intervention, which governments point to as an evidence base for effective practice may, instead, be hierarchies of openness to research design manipulations. The paper concludes that public policy and resources are in danger of being misdirected.
On publication in 2009 John Hattie’s Visible Learning presented the biggest ever collection of research into what actually work in schools to improve children’s learning. Not what was fashionable, not what political and educational vested interests wanted to champion, but what actually produced the best results in terms of improving learning and educational outcomes. It became an instant bestseller and was described by the TES as revealing education’s ‘holy grail’.
During the 1920s and the 1930s, the notion of reification brought about recurring themes that concerned social and cultural critique. This term was used to describe the increasing level of unemployment, the economic crisis, and other such historical events that characterized the Weimar Republic. By combining concepts adapted from prominent philosophers such as Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Georg Simmel, George Lukács was able to come up with a three-part dissertation-"Reification and the Consciousness of the Proletariat" which prompted that the forms of life in such circumstances be examined as a consequence of social reification. This chapter illustrates four indicators which demonstrate how the term reification has veered away from the definition it acquired from the Weimar Republic and has moved toward a more theoretical discourse. © 2008 by The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
Accession Number: 2012-07127-000. Partial author list: First Author & Affiliation: Hattie, John; Melbourne Education Research Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia. Release Date: 20120611. Publication Type: Book (0200). Format Covered: Print. ISBN: 978-0-415-69014-0, Hardcover; 978-0-415-69015-7, Paperback; 978-0-203-18152-2, Electronic. Language: English. Major Descriptor: Academic Achievement; Learning; School Based Intervention; Teachers; Teaching Methods. Minor Descriptor: Classroom Management; Meta Analysis; Preservice Teachers; Student Teachers. Classification: Curriculum & Programs & Teaching Methods (3530). Population: Human (10). Age Group: Childhood (birth-12 yrs) (100); Adolescence (13-17 yrs) (200); Adulthood (18 yrs & older) (300). Intended Audience: Psychology: Professional & Research (PS). References Available: Y. Page Count: 269.
This unique and ground-breaking book is the result of 15 years research and synthesises over 800 meta-analyses on the influences on achievement in school-aged students. It builds a story about the power of teachers, feedback, and a model of learning and understanding. The research involves many millions of students and represents the largest ever evidence based research into what actually works in schools to improve learning. Areas covered include the influence of the student, home, school, curricula, teacher, and teaching strategies. A model of teaching and learning is developed based on the notion of visible teaching and visible learning. A major message is that what works best for students is similar to what works best for teachers - an attention to setting challenging learning intentions, being clear about what success means, and an attention to learning strategies for developing conceptual understanding about what teachers and students know and understand. Although the current evidence based fad has turned into a debate about test scores, this book is about using evidence to build and defend a model of teaching and learning. A major contribution is a fascinating benchmark/dashboard for comparing many innovations in teaching and schools.
IntroductionIndividual studiesThe summary effectHeterogeneity of effect sizesSummary points
Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mentioned in articles about learning and teaching, but surprisingly few recent studies have systematically investigated its meaning. This article provides a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviews the evidence related to its impact on learning and achievement. This evidence shows that although feedback is among the major influences, the type of feedback and the way it is given can be differentially effective. A model of feedback is then proposed that identifies the particular properties and circumstances that make it effective, and some typically thorny issues are discussed, including the timing of feedback and the effects of positive and negative feedback. Finally, this analysis is used to suggest ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness in classrooms.
This study examines the relationships among receiver apprehension, teacher clarity, and teacher immediacy in the instructional context. The relationships between state receiver apprehension and student motivation, affect, and cognitive learning are examined, as are the relationships of teacher clarity and immediacy with receiver apprehension. Analyses reveal that, although state receiver apprehension is significantly related to negative instructional outcomes, clear and immediate teaching may be able to negate this relationship. The importance of being both a clear and immediate teacher are discussed in terms of state receiver apprehension and other instructional outcomes.
This study investigated teachers' use of humor in relationship to immediacy and learning. The amount and type of humor recorded by 206 students as observations of things teachers did to show “a sense of humor” were analyzed and correlated with overall immediacy and perceived cognitive and affective learning outcomes. The results indicated that amount and type of humor influenced learning, that students were particularly aware of tendentious humor, and that an overdependence on tendentious humor diminished affect. The effects of humor were more pronounced for male students and male teachers; however, indications of previous research that humor use negatively influenced evaluations of female teachers and that female teachers' humor was largely different than male teachers' humor were not supported.
An examination of problems inherent to class size concepts suggests possible arrangements, given limited resources, for providing optimal classroom environments. Among the problems in determining class size are ambiguous definitions, measurement problems, and contradictory research findings. Traditional definitions of class size ignore such practices as team teaching, volunteers, and ability grouping. Class size measurement problems arise when researchers use such inconsistent measures as pupil-teacher ratio, averages, teacher contact hours, or teacher load. These measures tend to obscure qualitative differences. Class size research falls into three general categories: academic achievement, process variables (teacher innovation, teaching styles, and teacher load), and financial dimensions. Academic achievement and process variables research produce contradictory results; research on costs, however, uniformly concurs that smaller classes cost more than larger ones. Given these problems, the study proposes building-level committees composed of the principal, several teachers, and parents who would focus on individual classes and contexts at the start of the academic year rather than on district-wide determinations of class size. Adjustment strategies available to such committees include modifying the distribution of instructional staff, altering instructional methods, altering the distribution of students, and eliminating negative factors such as the presence of disturbed children in large classes. (PB)
Incl. bibl., index. It is argued that professional education should be centered on enhancing the professional person's ability for "reflection-in-action," which is learning by doing and developing the ability for continued learned throughout the professional's career. Examples are drawn from an architectural design studio and the arts to demonstrate how reflection-in-action can be fostered in students and therefore in professionals in all areas. The approach involves active coaching by a master teacher, including giving students practice facing real problems, testing solutions, making mistakes, seeking help, and refining approaches. Extensive dialogues between teachers and students illustrate how reflection-in-action works, what encourages it, and behavior or attitudes that can prevent the development of reflectiveness. [ERIC]
He is not the messiah. Times Education Supplement
- D Evans
Evans, D. (2012, September 14). He is not the messiah. Times Education Supplement.
Research reveals teaching’s Holy Grail. Times Education Supplement
- W Mansell
Mansell, W. (2008, November 21). Research reveals teaching's Holy Grail. Times Education Supplement.
The effectiveness of class size reduction
- W J Mathis
Mathis, W. J. (2017). The effectiveness of class size reduction. Psychosociological Issues in Human
Resource Management, 5(1), 176-183.
Baggrund for og diskussion af visible learning med saerligt henblik på laerings- og vidensbegrebet [The background for and a discussion of visible learning with a special focus on its concept of learning and knowledge
- L Qvortrup
Qvortrup, L. (2015). Baggrund for og diskussion af visible learning med saerligt henblik på laerings-og
vidensbegrebet [The background for and a discussion of visible learning with a special focus on its
concept of learning and knowledge].
Hatties brug af effect size som rangordning af paedagogiske indsatser [Hattie’s use of effect sizes as ranking educational interventions
- P Allerup
Allerup, P. (2015). Hatties brug af effect size som rangordning af paedagogiske indsatser [Hattie's use of
effect sizes as ranking educational interventions]. Paideia: Tidsskrift for Professionel Paedagogisk
Praksis, 9, 42-51.
Feedback and student learning-A critical review of research
- S Ekecrantz
Ekecrantz, S. (2015). Feedback and student learning-A critical review of research. Utbilding & L€ arande,
9(2), 15-34.
Commentary on being a “critic and conscience of society”: The role of the education academic in public debates
- J Hattie
Kan vi stole på statistikkbruken i utdanningsforskinga? [Can we trust the use of statistic in educational research
- A K Topphol