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DESTRUCTION OF COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND THE VICIOUS CYCLE OF POVERTY IN NIGER DELTA REGION
Abstract
Niger Delta region is a region blessed with God given natural resources to make exploit and live a poverty free life and the mainstay of Nigeria's economy. Unfortunately, the region is experiencing a high level of poverty, which is sometimes attributed to the various natural and human activities. It was therefore on this premise that this theoretical paper is focused. Its basic focus is on investigating the destruction of coastal ecosystems in relation to the vicious cycle of poverty in the Niger Delta region. It was discovered that the region includes coastal barrier islands, mangroves, freshwater swamp forest, and lowland rainforests, among other natural zones. The region's beaches absorb sand from coastal rivers, which is redistributed by longshore currents and is of tremendous use to the residents in terms of salt pond supply and economic gain (coconut, banana plantation, tidal framing, center of tourist attraction, etc.). The paper further expressed that in spite of the rich natural resources of the region, the people live below poverty level and experience vicious circle of poverty as a result of the degradation of marine ecosystems, habitat loss, pollution, overfishing, damaging fishing methods, and global warming being substantial contributors to the deterioration of coastal resources. The review concluded that destruction of the coastal ecosystem has an adverse effect on the people of Niger Delta and it was recommended that there is need to increase savings and investments, in addition to barring humans from overfishing and using destructive fishing practices like, dynamites or cyanides, control and drastically reduce pollution of the water, land, and air. The government also needs to formulate and implement environmental conservation policies as to control destruction of the coastal ecosystem, industrialization and waste disposal in other to solve the problem of vicious circle of poverty in the Niger Delta region.
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The Dasgupta Review is an independent, global review on the Economics of Biodiversity led by Professor Sir Partha Dasgupta (Frank Ramsey Professor Emeritus, University of Cambridge). The Review was commissioned in 2019 by HM Treasury and has been supported by an Advisory Panel drawn from public policy, science, economics, finance and business.
The Review calls for changes in how we think, act and measure economic success to protect and enhance our prosperity and the natural world. Grounded in a deep understanding of ecosystem processes and how they are affected by economic activity, the new framework presented by the Review sets out how we should account for Nature in economics and decision-making.
The final Review comprises the Full Report, an Abridged Version and the Headline Messages.
In this article we reviewed bio-conservation degradation in our ecosystem and its importance for sustainable agriculture in the tropical rainforest zone of Nigeria. Books, journals and newspapers were used. Our findings showed that the conservation of biodiversity degradation in our ecosystem is essentially important since mankind depends largely on livelihood derived from the natural resources such as land, forest, water and air. Also agricultural system functioning and sustainability depend greatly on it.
Reduction in social benefits in form of fishery stock depletion has some fishing
techniques seriously fingered as low economic performance among fisher folks is
leading to low revenue and unemployment in Mangrove Swamp Zone (MSZ) of Nigeria.
Data were obtained from a two-stage sampling technique from 206 artisanal fishermen
in two states within MSZ. Data on fisher folks’ socioeconomic features, adoption level of
environmental sustainable fishing techniques (ESFT), quantity and unit selling prices of
species of catch as well as inputs were elicited using a well-structured questionnaire
and analyzed using both descriptive and budgetary tools. Majority (68.9% and 64.2%)
of fishing activities are done with dugout canoes with only a few (16.0% and 16.7%)
motorized vessels that goes further off-shore in Bayelsa and Rivers State respectively.
Adption level of ESFT of 26.1% and 24.1% for Bayelsa and River State respectively is
low. Nematopalaemon hastatis recorded the highest (46.6%) returns of USD
345.77/fisherman, as fleet dominated sea-shore for it. Though artisanal fishing in MSZ
seems economically sustainable with benefit-cost across different adopters greater
than unity and rate of returns to investment ratio of 1.37, ranging from 1.33 in Rivers to
1.44 in Bayelsa State, but poses a high marginal social cost to the breeding areas as
catch is very concentrated at the sea shore of less than 5nm. There is a low catch of
some pelagic species (Etamopterus penyl). The study recommends a persuasive
extension demonstartion, litigation and the use water poilce to enforce strict
adherence to principles ESFT for sustainable artisanal fishing activities in the
mangrove region of Niger Delta.
Some biodiversity of global importance are found in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The biodiversity resources of the Niger Delta comprises of several species of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, avian fauna, microorganisms, fisheries (animals), and mosses, liverworts, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, chlamydosperms, monocotyledons, dicotyledons etc (plants). The region is hotspots of several endemic species. In recent times, the biodiversity distribution with regard to abundance and diversity appears to be on the decline trend. Hence, this study assessed the factors leading to decline of biodiversity resources in the Niger Delta. The study found that excessive exploitation, urbanization/industrialization, deforestation/habitat destruction, bush burning, soil erosion and pollution, climate change are the leading cause of loss of biodiversity. The loss of biodiversity affects its roles including source of medicinal plants, shelters, habitats, raw materials for several art and construction works (plants), nutrient mineralization through biogeochemical cycles, loss of animal protein and species of global importance. The paper concludes by suggesting full implementation and enforcement of several environmental conventions, laws and legislations geared towards protection of biodiversity at both international and national level of which Nigeria is part of. Furthermore, outlining biodiversity conservation strategies in curriculum of school is another potential option for conserving biodiversity.
Mangrove forests provide critical services around the globe to both human populations and the ecosystems they occupy. However, losses of mangrove habitat of more than 50% have been recorded in some parts of the world, and these losses are largely attributable to human activities. The importance of mangroves and the threats to their persistence have long been recognized, leading to actions taken locally, by national governments, and through international agreements for their protection. In this review, we explore the status of mangrove forests as well as efforts to protect them. We examine threats to the persistence of mangroves, consequences, and potential solutions for effective conservation. We present case studies from disparate regions of the world, showing that the integration of human livelihood needs in a manner that balances conservation goals can present solutions that could lead to long-term sustainability of mangrove forests throughout the world.
Objective: To investigate the level of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Fe Mn Ni, Pb and Cd) in muscles, gills and liver tissue of Croaker fish from oil spilled rivers of Bonny and Finima, Niger Delta region, Nigeria.
Methods: Twenty four Croacker fishes (Genyonemus lineatus) weighing between 250 and 260 g and 24–26 cm length were collected from each sampling sites (Bonny and finima rivers). The frozen fishes were thawed and dried at 105 °C until they reach a constant weight. The dried samples were homogenized and digested with 10 ml tri-acid mixture (HNO3: HClO4:H2SO4), and then the digested samples were diluted to 100 ml with deionized water. Heavy metals (Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb, Mn, Iron Fe, and Cd) concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer.
Results: Our results revealed that concentrations and distribution patterns of all heavy metals studied varied significantly (P
Sites affected by petroleum hydrocarbons from oil exploitation activities have been identified as a major environmental and socio-economic problem in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The current Nigerian regulatory instruments to manage these contaminated sites are fragmented and the roles and responsibilities of government agencies, such as the Department for Petroleum Resources (DPR), and the National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA), are not well defined. This lack of coordination has led to ineffective land contamination policy and poor enforcement more generally. Appropriate, risk-based policy instruments are needed to improve regulatory capacity, and to enhance the regulator’s ability to manage new and existing petroleum hydrocarbons contaminated sites. Lessons can be learned from countries like the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States America (USA) that have experience with the management and clean up of historically contaminated land. In this paper, we review the status of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated sites management in Nigeria and identify the gaps in existing policy and regulation. We review the contaminated
land policies and regulation from the UK and the USA, and identify lessons that could be transferred to the Nigerian system. Finally, we provide a series of recommendations (e.g. source – pathway-receptor approach, soil screening criteria, clean-up funding, liability) that could enhance contaminated land legislation in Nigeria.
Seaweed aquaculture technologies have developed dramatically over the past 70 years mostly in Asia and more recently in Americas and Europe. However, there are still many challenges to overcome with respect to the science and to social acceptability. The challenges include the development of strains with thermo-tolerance, disease resistance, fast growth, high concentration of desired molecules, the reduction of fouling organisms and the development of more robust and cost efficient farm systems that can withstand storm events in offshore environments. It is also important to note that seaweed aquaculture provides ecosystem services, which improve conditions of the coastal waters for the benefit of other living organisms and the environment. The ecosystem services role of seaweed aquaculture and its economic value will also be quantitatively estimated in this review.
Contamination of the total environment (air, soil, water and biota) by crude oil has become a paramount interest in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Studies have revealed variable impacts of oil toxicity on the environment and exposed populations. The revelation gained much international attention in 2011 with the release of Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland report by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). This has up scaled local and international pressures for urgent clean-up and restoration of degraded bio-resource rich environments of the Niger Delta, starting from Ogoniland. Previous remediation attempts in the area had failed due to erroneous operational conclusions (such as conclusions by oil industry operators that the Niger Delta soil is covered by a layer of clay and as such oil percolation remains within the top soil and makes remediation by enhanced natural attenuation (RENA) suitable for the region) and the adoption of incompatible and ineffective approaches (i.e. RENA) for the complex and dynamic environments. Perennial conflicts, poor regulatory oversights and incoherent standards are also challenges. Following UNEP recommendations, the Federal Government of Nigeria recently commissioned the clean-up and remediation of Ogoniland project; it would be novel and trend setting. While UNEP outlined some measures of contaminated land remediation, no specific approach was identified to be most effective for the Niger Delta region. Resolving the technical dilemma and identified social impediments is the key success driver of the above project. In this paper, we reviewed the socio-economic and ecological impacts of contaminated land in the Niger Delta region and the global state-of-the-art remediation approaches. We use coastal environment clean-up case studies to demonstrate the effectiveness of bioremediation (sometimes in combination with other technologies) for remediating most of the polluted sites in the Niger Delta. Bioremediation should primarily be the preferred option considering its low greenhouse gas and environmental footprints, and low-cost burden on the weak and overstretched economy of Nigeria.
This paper tells the stories based on empirical evidence in Niger delta. It reveals the process and structure of the conflict which started from the rights to self-determination and resource control by ‘militant groups’ in that region. We examine the narratives around this aspect in the words of dominant elites and ‘militia activists’, to argue that ‘militia actions’ that appear to challenge the legitimacy and authority of the Nigerian state over control of natural resource (Oil), is embedded in complex web and porous boundary of informal and formal interactions with politicians and ‘military’ leaders. These provided the opportunity for the elites to maintain their control over oil and for some ‘militia leaders’ to bargain and negotiate with the authority often motivated by self-interest.
This paper intends to examine peace building efforts in post-conflict Niger Delta. The conflict which has affected oil production in Nigeria. This is also because oil is the main stay and a major source of energy in Nigeria. The study tends to look at the method, causes and assessment of the amnesty programme. The study covers a time frame between 2009 to 2015. The qualitative method is adopted and the use of secondary data will be employed for data generation and analysis as well. This study will reveal individual or group involved in the conflict. It will further proved that persistent neglect, deprivation and marginalization without development or compensation, high level of unemployment, environment degradation, uneven resource distribution and lack of basic amnesty. It was these problems that led to the emergence of militancy in the region for the past years. The study also reveal an attempt made by successive Nigeria Government to establish different commission to look into the Niger Delta issue, the DDR programme, security implications and its challenges in the Niger Delta clearly indicate that until the root cause of the region is achieved there will not be enduring peace, security and stability in the environment.
DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n6s1p349
Our original study (1) used visual inspection as well as biological and geochemical analyses of corals and the surrounding sediment to provide complementary and compelling evidence linking the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill to the presence of damaged deep-water corals and brittle stars 11 km from the site of the leaking oil.
Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems (PAGE): Coastal Ecosystems analyzes quantitative and qualitative information and develops selected indicators of the condition of the world's coastal ecosystems and marine fisheries. Specifically the study looks at measures that show the degree of human modification of coastal zone and what we know concerning five important goods and services provided by coastal ecosystems: filtering water, food, biodiversity, shoreline stabilization, and tourism. Results from the PAGE analysis show that human activities have extensively altered coastal ecosystems worldwide. Nearly 30 percent of the land area in the world's coastal ecosystems had already been extensively altered or destroyed by growing demand for housing, industry, and recreation. Globally, the number of people living within 100 km of the coast increased from roughly 2 billion in 1990 to 2.2 billion in 1995—four out of every ten people in the world. As coastal and inland populations continue to grow, their impacts—in terms of pollutant loads and the development and conversion of coastal habitats—can be expected to grow as well. Nutrient pollution has increased dramatically this century due to greater use of fertilizers, growth in quantities of domestic and industrial sewage, and increased aquaculture, which releases considerable amounts of waste directly into the water. Increasing fishing pressure have left many major fish stocks depleted or in decline. Global climate change may compound other pressures on coastal ecosystems through the additional effects of warmer ocean temperatures, altered ocean circulation patterns, changing storm frequency, and rising sea levels.
The global decline in estuarine and coastal ecosystems (ECEs) is affecting a number of critical benefits, or ecosystem services. We review the main ecological services across a variety of ECEs, including marshes, mangroves, nearshore coral reefs, seagrass beds, and sand beaches and dunes. Where possible, we indicate estimates of the key economic values arising from these services, and discuss how the natural variability of ECEs impacts their benefits, the synergistic relationships of ECEs across seascapes, and management implications. Although reliable valuation estimates are beginning to emerge for the key services of some ECEs, such as coral reefs, salt marshes, and mangroves, many of the important benefits of seagrass beds and sand dunes and beaches have not been assessed properly. Even for coral reefs, marshes, and mangroves, important ecological services have yet to be valued reliably, such as cross-ecosystem nutrient transfer (coral reefs), erosion control (marshes), and pollution control (mangroves). An important issue for valuing certain ECE services, such as coastal protection and habitat–fishery linkages, is that the ecological functions underlying these services vary spatially and temporally. Allowing for the connectivity between ECE habitats also may have important implications for assessing the ecological functions underlying key ecosystems services, such coastal protection, control of erosion, and habitat–fishery linkages. Finally, we conclude by suggesting an action plan for protecting and/or enhancing the immediate and longer-term values of ECE services. Because the connectivity of ECEs across land–sea gradients also influences the provision of certain ecosystem services, management of the entire seascape will be necessary to preserve such synergistic effects. Other key elements of an action plan include further ecological and economic collaborative research on valuing ECE services, improving institutional and legal frameworks for management, controlling and regulating destructive economic activities, and developing ecological restoration options.
The Niger Delta region of Nigeria is one of the most crude oil impacted deltas globally. The region has experienced over five decades of oil related contamination of the total environment (air, soil, water and biota). In 2011, UNEP released a seminal report on oil impact on Ogoniland environments, which up scaled demands for urgent clean up and restoration of degraded bio-resource rich environments of the Niger Delta, starting from Ogoniland. The Nigerian Government demonstrated renewed political will to remediate contaminated sites in Ogoniland with a launch of the clean-up exercise in June 2016. Stakeholders’ expectations from the clean-up include not only environmental remediation but also restoration and creation of sustainable livelihood opportunities to reduce poverty in the region. Most studies have focused on the environmental restoration aspect and identified bioremediation as the likely appropriate remediation approach for Ogoniland, given its low environmental footprints, and low-cost burden on the weak and overstretched economy of Nigeria. This study mapped opportunities for sustainable livelihood creation during the Ogoniland remediation and restoration exercise. Given the value chain of bioremediation and its ancillary activities, the study analysed opportunities and mechanisms for skilled and unskilled job creation and prospects for sustainable livelihoods and knock-on effects. It is anticipated that the clean-up process would lead to economic prosperity and mitigate resource-driven conflicts in the Niger Delta. The study provides an exemplar for waste-to-wealth transformation in regions where natural resource mining has impacted communities, and has dislocated local economies and age-old livelihood structures.
Commercial exploitation of Nigerian oil and gas reserves began in 1956, shortly after the discovery of oil at Oloibiri in Bayelsa State. The export of the crude oil accounts for 90% of the country's foreign exchange earnings and more than 70% of its total budget expenditure. Over the years, what seems to be a blessing has constituted a nuisance, leading to environmental degradation, loss of farmlands, loss of fishing grounds, communal clashes, militancy, cultism, and the total breakdown of moral values in the Niger Delta region. These calamities were totally avoidable had successive governments utilized the wealth of the region in developing it. The total neglect of the region as a result of poor governance and corruption provided the platform for the twin problems of oil theft for export and illegal refining. It is estimated that the government is losing approximately $1.7 billion a month, although others speculate much more than this figure. Artisanal refining has exacerbated the already degraded environment by oil spills and industrial discharges. The art of this oil theft is an organized crime with local and international participants, including International Oil Company (IOC) staff, government officials, security personnel, local leaders, and sundry. Of course, stolen oil is sold to countries such as the United States, China, Brazil, Singapore, and other West African countries, among others. This scourge has led to environmental degradation, huge economic losses, and social vices, and it must be stopped now. The government needs to team up with well-meaning international governments to employ the recommendations preferred in this report.
Mangroves are known as natural carbon sinks, taking CO2 out of the atmosphere and store it in their biomass for many years. This study aimed to investigate the capacity of world's largest mangrove, the Sundarbans (Indian part) to sequester anthropogenic CO2 emitted from the proximate coal-based thermal power plant in Kolaghat (∼100 km away from mangrove site). Study also includes Kolkata, one of the largest metropolises of India (∼150 km away from mangrove site) for comparing micrometeorological parameters, biosphere-atmosphere CO2 exchange fluxes and atmospheric pollutants between three distinct environments: mangrove-power plant-metropolis. Hourly sampling of atmospheric CO2 in all three sites (late December 2011 and early January 2012) revealed that CO2 concentrations and emission fluxes were maximum around the power plant (360–621 ppmv, 5.6–56.7 mg m−2s−1 respectively) followed by the metropolis (383–459 ppmv, 3.8–20.4 mg m−2s−1 respectively) and mangroves (277–408 ppmv, −8.9–11.4 mg m−2s−1, respectively). Monthly coal consumption rates (41–57, in 104 ton month−1) were converted to CO2 suggesting that 2.83 Tg C was added to the atmosphere in 2011 for the generation of 7469732 MW energy from the power plant. Indian Sundarbans (4264 km2) sequestered total of 2.79 Tg C which was 0.64% of the annual fossil fuel emission from India in the same time period. Based on these data from 2010 to 2011, it is calculated that about 4328 km2 mangrove forest coverage is needed to sequester all CO2 emitted from the Kolaghat power plant.
Nigeria is richly endowed with crude oil and natural gas deposits, which are the country's main source of energy and foreign exchange earnings. These deposits are concentrated at the Niger Delta region which has attracted the presence of multinational oil/gas companies to the area. This paper analyses the impact of oil and gas development on the rich biological diversity of the region and its consequences on the development of the region and the nation at large. The paper further reviews the abject poverty of the oil/gas producing communities whose source of livelihoods, fisheries resources, agricultural soils/farmlands, forests, clean water, fresh air and housing are being destroyed due to poor energy resource management. The magnitude of destruction and frustration is reflected in unending conflict and insecurity in the region leading to many shut-in productions which pose a governance challenge as the country's economy and development is heavily dependent on oil and gas production.
Coastal regions, at the interface between terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems, play an important role in global biogeochemical cycles. This chapter reviews the climate regulation services of estuarine and coastal ecosystems (ECEs) including tidal salt marshes, mangroves, seagrass beds, macroalgal forests, coral reefs, and coastal shelf ecosystems. ECEs regulate global and regional climates by sequestering or releasing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (GHGs). ECEs are extremely productive biologically, with net primary production rates per unit area among the highest of any ecosystem. Consequently, ECEs play a globally significant role as carbon sinks, with carbon storage rates per unit area of many habitats far exceeding that of land habitats at the rate of about 10 times that of temperate terrestrial forests and 50 times that of tropical forests. Furthermore, sedimentation does not reach an equilibrium carbon balance as occurs in terrestrial systems, whose sequestration capacity is forecasted to decrease this century. Conversely, they are large potential sources of GHG’s if disturbed or mismanaged. Critically, carbon sequestration in many coastal habitats is superior to that of terrestrial habitats, as carbon is generally stored over long time frames (thousands of years) as a consequence of the large belowground biomass and the absence of fire threat. Furthermore, carbon is generally broken down anaerobically; hence, emissions of other potent GHGs such as methane and nitrous oxide are negligible. A review of literature provided sequestration rates for various coastal habitats. Using these in combination with global extent of selected habitats, this chapter finds that GHGs worldwide, mangroves, seagrass beds, and salt marshes combine to sequester a minimum of 136 000 tonnes C annually into long-term carbon storage. Assuming prices of CO2e from 90 per tonne, the value of the annual sequestration is $5 –45 billion. This is an underestimate due to data gaps and, the limited assessment of the area of these three coastal ecosystem habitats, and relates only to long-term storage. The figures do not include short-term carbon storage in biomass, and further unaccounted for carbon sequestration occurs in kelp forests, estuaries, and coastal shelf seas. Many ECEs are under threat globally from sea-level rise, coastal development, pollution, and other anthropogenic stressors, and protection and restoration of ECEs may be an important tool for mitigating climate change. Currently, these habitats are not included in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) carbon accounting frameworks, and therefore are excluded from incentive schemes such as carbon markets and other incentive programs, but their inclusion deserves consideration due to their potential for mitigating global climate change. The global distribution of C sequestration in ECEs reveals that large areas of the tropics are home to the highest sequestration rates and occur in developing countries, which also have the highest rates of coastal habitat degradation. Schemes such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) may bring revenues and added benefits to developing countries for instigating projects and marine protected areas for conservation. Many small island nations and developing countries in the tropics are particularly vulnerable to climate change and contain large swathes of seagrasses and mangroves compared to overall land area, but do not contain large areas of forests or grasslands, which would apply to REDD in its current form. Coastal habitats thus not only present an untapped potential for inclusion in climate change mitigation schemes, but also present a little-recognized risk of loss of large carbon stocks if their degradation and destruction are not reduced or halted.
On April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil drilling rig was destroyed by an explosion and fire, and the oil well began releasing oil into the Gulf of Mexico. The oil spill caused significant economic harm to the Gulf fishing industry because of fishery closures and consumer concerns related to the safety of Gulf seafood. Intermediate and long-term concerns are related to impacts on marine populations and degradation of fisheries habitat necessary for spawning, development of early life stages, and growth. The closing and opening of fishing grounds has involved a tradeoff between ensuring public safety and providing fishing opportunities to recreational and commercial fishermen. In addition to public health concerns, uncertainties related to Gulf seafood safety could further compromise the reputation of Gulf seafood. Most areas have been reopened and landings of commercial and recreational species are recovering. For Gulf waters re-opened through November 15, 2010, sensory analyses of seafood samples have found no detectable oil or dispersant odors or flavors, and results of chemical analyses have been well below levels of concern. However, some scientists and the public remain skeptical of claims that Gulf seafood is safe. This may inhibit the recovery of Gulf recreational and commercial fisheries. Under the Oil Pollution Act (OPA), harmed individuals and businesses may make claims for economic injuries to the responsible party, in this case BP. Although many in the fishing industry have benefited from their damage claims and associated payments, ongoing issues include the legitimacy of some claims, lack of transparency in the claims review process, eligibility to make a claim, and level of payments. Other assistance to the fishing industry includes BP grants to states, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) fishery disaster assistance, the BP Vessels of Opportunity Program, and Small Business Administration efforts. Environmental restoration of fisheries habitat and Gulf ecosystems would support the long-term recovery and productivity of Gulf fisheries. The federal government's role in restoration is defined in statute by OPA and in NOAA regulations, which require development of a Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA). NRDA restoration plans are currently being developed by state and federal trustees. The Obama Administration also has committed to developing a separate long-term Gulf of Mexico plan to restore the environment, economy, and public health of residents. Implementation of the plan will require sustained funding and a governance structure to oversee and coordinate restoration efforts. The 112th Congress may continue to conduct oversight of efforts to promote fishing industry recovery, adequate compensation to fishermen and businesses, and Gulf restoration. Ongoing efforts by federal agencies and states to ensure seafood safety and to regain and maintain the reputation of Gulf seafood are the most immediate challenges currently faced by the fishing industry. As the NRDA process moves from the planning to restoration phase, questions may arise regarding the level of the potential settlement and the types of restoration activities identified by the trustees. In contrast to NRDA, three bills have been introduced in the 112th Congress to address elements of the Administration's restoration plan. All three bills would establish a Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Fund and require 80% of any amounts collected by the United States as penalties, settlements, or fines under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act to be deposited into the fund. They would also establish a governing body to distribute funding and coordinate restoration efforts. Potential issues involve the allocation of funds, focus of restoration projects, and coordination with other restoration efforts.
Changes in water temperature can have important consequences for aquatic ecosystems, with some species being sensitive even to small shifts in temperature during some or all of their life cycle. While many studies report increasing regional and global air temperatures, evidence of changes in river water temperature has, thus far, been site specific and often from sites heavily influenced by human activities that themselves could lead to warming. Here we present a tiered assessment of changing river water temperature covering England and Wales with data from 2773 locations. We use novel statistical approaches to detect trends in irregularly sampled spot measurements taken between 1990 and 2006. During this 17-year period, on average, mean water temperature increased by 0.03 °C per year (±0.002 °C), and positive changes in water temperature were observed at 2385 (86%) sites. Examination of catchments where there has been limited human influence on hydrological response shows that changes in river flow have had little influence on these water temperature trends. In the absence of other systematic influences on water temperature, it is inferred that anthropogenically driven climate change is driving some of this trend in water temperature.
Oil tanker accidents resulting in large quantities of oil spills and severe pollution have occurred in the past, leading to major public attention and an international focus on finding solutions for minimising the risks related to such events. This paper proposes a novel approach for evaluating measures for prevention and control of marine oil spills, based on considerations of oil spill risk and cost effectiveness. A cost model that incorporates all costs of a shipping accident has been established and oil tanker spill accidents have been further elaborated as a special case of such accidents. Utilising this model, novel implementation criteria, in terms of the Cost of Averting a Tonne of oil Spilt (CATS), for risk control options aiming at mitigating the environmental risk of accidental oil spills, are proposed. The paper presents a review of previous studies on the costs associated with oil spills from shipping, which is a function of many factors such as location of spill, spill amount, type of oil, etc. However, ships are designed for global trade, transporting different oil qualities. Therefore, globally applicable criteria must average over most of these factors, and the spill amount is the remaining factor that will be used to measure cost effectiveness against. A weighted, global average cleanup cost of USD 16,000/tonne of oil spilt has been calculated, considering the distribution of oil tanker traffic densities. Finally, the criteria are compared with some existing regulations for oil spill prevention, response and compensation (OPA 90).
This paper reports on recent analysis of oil spill cost data assembled by the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund (IOPCF). Regression analyses of clean-up costs and total costs have been carried out, after taking care to convert to current prices and remove outliers. In the first place, the results of this analysis have been useful in the context of the ongoing discussion within the International Maritime Organization (IMO) on environmental risk evaluation criteria. Furthermore, these results can be useful in estimating the benefit of regulations that deal with the protection of marine environment and oil pollution prevention.
A frame survey of fishing communities was carried out, employing the complete census technique, to assess the artisanal fisheries characteristics of the fresh water reaches of lower nun river for a period of two year, Eleven Community lie along the stretch of the study area. The total number of 4718 fishers with 1645 canoe units employing various fishing gear resulted to a fishers density of 3 fishers per canoe unit. A total of 29 fin fish families were recorded. Seasonally occurring fresh water crustacean. Attaya gaboneensis and palacemon paucidens were present. Etheria elliptica , an oyster was also present. A specie of fresh water clam, Galacea Paradoxa from the family Donacidae was present. Trichechus senegelensis (Manattee) was occasionally captured by local hunter during the flood period. Hippopotamus amphibious (Hippopotamus) was reported from isolated places but they were rare. A specie of Otta, Lutra macullicolis was present. Three species of crocodiles, Crococdylus niloticus Crocodylus cataphractus (Alligator) and Osteolaemus tetraspsis were also present. The Nile monitor, Veramus niloticus and the aquatic snake, Anoscopus sp. And three species of water turtle, Kimxy erosa , Pelumedusa sp and Peliosus sp were also present. The commonest fishing method employed was local fishponds (50.8%) and the least was gill nets (1.6%). Drift net caught the highest fish (8.01kg) per gear, while local fishponds was the least 0.25 kg. The annual catch per canoe was recorded for local fishponds (167. 84kg), while the lowest was assorted traps (14.7kg). Drift not recorded the highest annual for local fishponds. The mean biomass of 25.04 of fish catch of 20.2kg per fisher and the lowest value (4.53kg) was recorded per boat, total catch of 37903. 6kg, annual producing estimate of 434.81 tonnes, standing struck of 2.27 km-2 and of twenty two million, seven hundred and forty two thousand one hundred and sixty naira (N22742160) was estimated. The reduced annual income per fisher in the study was four thousand, eight hundred and twenty naira, thirty kobo. There is therefore the, urgent need for effective management of the Nun river fisheries, to improve on the living standard of the people.
Ragnar Nurkse was one the pioneers in development economics. This paper celebrates the hundredth anniversary of his birth with a critical retrospective of his overall contribution to the field, in particular his views on the importance of employment policy in mobilizing domestic resources and the difficulties surrounding the use of external resources to finance development. It also demonstrates the affinity between Nurkse’s theory of mobilizing domestic resources and employer-of-last-resort proposals.
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