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Algae as food and food supplements in Europe
Abstract
The use of algae biomass in food applications is still a growing market in Europe. One key consideration is the regulatory status of algae items potentially used as food and food supplements. In the European Union, foods classified as novel are subject to the pre-market authorisation requirements of the novel food regulation (EU) 2015/2283 before they can be freely placed in the European market without the need for pre-market novel food authorisation. In addition, novel and non-novel foods placed on the European market are subject to the requirements of all applicable food safety related EU Legislation. This technical report presents a comparative list of algae items (sensu lato) referred on the novel food catalogue, the Union list of authorized novel foods and official Member States’ lists of food and food supplements. Additionally, other algae food and food supplement items referred in available non-official lists are included. A final table merging all the information included in the official lists is presented following the most updated species taxonomic designation.
... Macroalgae have been wildly applied in food (Araújo & Peteiro, 2021), pharmaceutical (Padam et al., 2023), cosmetics (Jesumani et al., 2019), and fertilizer (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021) industries. Regarding halophytes, applications include the production of industrialized food (Li et al., 2020), medicinal products (Jdey et al., 2017), and oils used in biofuels and engine lubricants (Zheng et al., 2021). ...
... Halophytes can also be a valuable source of healthy omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly alpha-linolenic acid (Patel et al., 2019). Thus, due to their high nutritional value (Banach et al., 2020;Jiménez-Escrig et al., 2011;Li et al., 2020;Stévant et al., 2017, growing trends in healthy food choices, and the increasing search for sustainable food sources (Araújo & Peteiro, 2021), macroalgae and halophytes have become a global hit garnish in modern cuisine. Several reports emphasize the benefits of macroalgae consumption (Cherry et al., 2019;Lafarge et al., 2020;Padam et al., 2023), and thus, its global production experienced a significant surge, rising from 11 million tonnes in 2000 to 35 million tonnes in 2019 (FAO & WHO, 2022). ...
... Several reports emphasize the benefits of macroalgae consumption (Cherry et al., 2019;Lafarge et al., 2020;Padam et al., 2023), and thus, its global production experienced a significant surge, rising from 11 million tonnes in 2000 to 35 million tonnes in 2019 (FAO & WHO, 2022). In the upcoming years, the growth of macroalgae production is expected to continue, primarily driven by the projected increase in global human population (estimated at 9 billion by 2050) (Mendes et al., 2022), and the consequent need for protein-rich food sources (Araújo & Peteiro, 2021;Banach et al., 2020). In addition, the increased interest in Asian dishes in Western countries potentiates the search for seaweed-based recipes and locally available natural products (Sá Monteiro et al., 2019). ...
... Compiled based on MS feedback, it identifies the current status of the product (novel, not novel, not novel to food supplements, or ongoing enquiry process) and if the case falls under the scope of the NFR. However, if a microalgae-based product is not on the NFC, it does not mean it is novel; instead, it can mean that its status is not yet addressed, or that an enquiry was not requested under Art. 4 of NFR 2015 [29]. Microalgae-based products that were significantly consumed within the EU before 1997 are not subject to NFR 2015 (see Table 1). ...
... The JRC technical report on algae as food and food supplements in Europe provided a comparative list of microalgae-based products within the NFC, the Union list of authorized novel foods and official MS for food and food supplements, aiming to reduce ambiguity among species allowed. This work highlighted repetitive entries and limitations on the taxonomic designations of certain microalgae, and an update on the NFC for the categories of food and/or food supplements is proposed [29]. As an example, the commercial name of "Spirulina" overlaps with genus of Spirulina and Arthrospira. ...
... Although Arthrospira platensis (included on NFC) is regarded as frequent food item, recent revisions have found evidence of a history of consumption in Europe of Limnospira maxima and Limnospira fusiformis. On one hand, official lists of France, Italy, and Belgium include Limnospira maxima, while on the other hand Limnospira indica and Spirulina major are only included in French records [29]. Thus, this report is of extreme relevance to the algae sector, and indicates that taxonomic updates and unspecified species of certain genus are constraining the use of microalgae as food and food supplements. ...
The interest in microalgae as food in Europe is growing due to its remarkable features that can foster a sustainable economy. The lack of tradition on their use among Europeans is changing and a demand for more sustainable products is increasing. The legal framework from the microalgae stakeholders’ point of view has been consistently identified as a bottleneck, regardless of its nutritional value and potential to provide added-value metabolites. Microalgae-based products have been mostly consumed as food supplements, which are characterized by some general uncertainty with regards to food security of products sourced from non-European countries. The novel foods regulation is a landmark in Europe’s food law defining the conditions in which a new type of food can be commercialized. Currently, a more simplified and centralized version is in place, and around eleven microalgae-based products are on the market; however, more than half are represented by Schizochytrium sp. derived products (DHA-rich oil). Microalgae have immense potential as a sustainable food source; nonetheless, there is limited experience in assessing the safety of these microorganisms, considering the uncertainty around undesirable substances present in the way they are produced and their diverse metabolites. Here, we overview the regulatory use of microalgae as food in Europe with a focus on market introduction, highlighting the administrative procedures and scientific requirements to assess food safety. We also discuss the implications of the Transparency regulation related to microalgae as novel foods and provide considerations for a more solid interaction between academia and industry.
... The inflexible nature of the current systems does not reflect the inherently dynamic nature of the marine environment nor does it support the sector's capacity to become more sustainable and resilient [141]. Moving forward, particularly as sustainability and future-proofing sectors such as the aquaculture industry becomes imperative to preparing for future global challenges, regulatory systems should evolve [144][145][146][147]. and the EU TAPAS project which aims to develop accessible management tools and practices [150]. ...
... Therefore, it is important to incentivise product desirability and shift social perceptions to integrate these products [157]. A significant step towards this was the addition of further algae species to the EU Novel Food Status Catalogue, which identifies which foods and ingredients can be sold in the EU and which require Novel Food Regulation authorisation [144,145]. This is particularly relevant to future food security and climate change mitigation, as seaweed offers a low-carbon alternative that avoids future challenges faced by the agriculture industry [146]. ...
Blue carbon habitats, which exhibit high rates of natural carbon sequestration, typically refer to salt marshes, seagrass meadows, and mangrove forests. Recent studies, however, have argued for the inclusion of seaweed‐dominated habitats, like kelp forests, into blue carbon frameworks. Farmed seaweed may also function as a blue carbon habitat, with large‐scale seaweed aquaculture suggested as a climate change mitigation strategy, but the evidence base remains limited. Here, existing knowledge on the mechanisms influencing carbon uptake, release, transport, and storage from kelp farms was synthesised, and a literature review was conducted to quantify associated rates of carbon sequestration. We identified strong geographical and methodological biases in the literature, with the majority of studies conducted in Asia and focusing on primary production rates as a proxy for carbon sequestration potential. Estimates of carbon release and storage rates were highly variable across locations, species, and approaches, and a scarcity of research on dissolved organic carbon, sedimentary carbon, and net ecosystem productivity was identified. Although the European kelp farming industry is in its infancy, it is predicted to expand to meet increasing demand for seaweed biomass. This is incentivised by perceived associated ecosystem service benefits such as enhanced carbon sequestration. However, multiple factors including environmental concerns, a lack of quantitative evidence, operational challenges, and regulatory complexities hinder industry expansion. Based on both the synthesised empirical evidence and an examination of key barriers and knowledge gaps, we identify future challenges and research priorities needed to assess the role of seaweed farming for climate change mitigation.
... Also, France and Spain rank first in producing microalgae. Additionally, more than 60% of the Mediterranean region's Spirulina-producing businesses are based in France [127]. ...
The study promotes the adoption of algae farming by industries, scientists, and local communities as a pragmatic and economical approach to meet sustainable development goals (SDGs). Algae biomass production is one of the most promising sectors of the blue economy due to their ability to absorb significant amounts of CO2 emissions, provide clean energy, ensure food security, fight malnutrition, treat wastewater, create jobs, and stimulate economic growth in the oceans. The seaweed market is currently increasing within the framework of the blue economy and SDGs, which promote the establishment of businesses and start-ups that adopt a blue and circular economy. Algal biorefineries are considered a key component of the blue economy to potentially decrease negative environmental impacts by sequestering CO2 and producing high-value products. An ecosystem service (ES) documented by the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) gives a comprehensive examination of ecosystem services offered by seaweeds. Life cycle assessment (LCA) provides a systematic evaluation of the environmental performance of seaweed production and consumption. Fisher Information Theory as a measure of sustainability taking into account equity in society, the environment, and the economy is highlighted. To maximize the use of aquatic resources, an assessment indicator (cascade model) has been implemented. This review examines the fundamental principles of the circular economy with a focus on Africa. Further investigation is necessary to pinpoint the constraints and challenges on the growth of algal cultures and to deliberate on potential strategies for boosting production.
... P. tricornutum is used for the production of fucoxanthin and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Additionally, both P. tricornutum extract and EPA-rich oil extract have been submitted for approval as novel foods by the European Union, with evaluations still underway [79]. The species has gained prominence in biotechnology for a range of applications, including as a host for recombinant protein expression, thanks to its biosynthetic abilities, resilient adaptation to a wide range of culture media, and rapid growth rates [80]. ...
Microalgae represent a promising platform for the synthesis of recombinant proteins, particularly in the context of biopharmaceutical applications. Their unique combination of eukaryotic cellular machinery and prokaryotic-like simplicity offers several advantages, including the ability to perform complex post-translational modifications, rapid growth rates, and cost-effective culture conditions. Advances in genome sequencing, genetic engineering tools, and omics technologies have significantly enhanced the feasibility and efficiency of using microalgae for therapeutic protein production. These advancements, coupled with the development of well-established transformation methods and optimized vectors, have enabled the successful expression of various biopharmaceuticals, ranging from vaccines to enzymes. Here, the main stages and current status of the production of exogenic recombinant proteins dedicated to human therapy are presented.
... There is a report presenting a comparative list of algae items referred to in the novel food catalogue, the European Union list of authorized novel foods and official Member States' lists of food and food supplements (Araujo and Peteiro 2021). This report gathers information about the novel food status of different algae species according to their inclusion in national or European level lists of authorised food and food supplements. ...
Consumer perception of algae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria varies widely depending on factors such as education, cultural background, and exposure to information. Generally, there is a growing interest and acceptance of these organisms due to their potential health benefits and sustainability aspects. However, some consumers may still associate algae with negative connotations, such as the presence of toxins or unpalatable taste. Efforts to educate consumers about the nutritional value, safety, and ecological advantages of algae-based products can help improve their perception and increase market acceptance. This chapter provides an overview of the history of algae consumption, types, nutritional characteristics, and benefits, as well as opportunities for consumer perceptions of algae, microalgae-based products, and cyanobacteria. It also offers a glimpse into the future outlook for these organisms, exploring potential advancements in their utilization, public perception, and market growth.
... Seaweed is a type of macroalgae that includes both cultivated and wild types. It is divided into three groups: brown algae (Phaeophyta), green algae (Chlorophyta), and red algae (Rhodophyta) (Araujo & Peteiro, 2021). Brown and red algae are frequently utilised as food sources, being rich in carbohydrates and low in fat, akin to vegetables like lettuce and celery, and serving as effective roughage agents (Peñalver et al., 2020). ...
Kappaphycus alvarezii (Doty) Doty ex Silva, commonly known as red algae, holds economic significance as a primary source of κ-carrageenan, which exhibits promising medicinal and therapeutic properties. This study aims to assess the antioxidant potential as well as hepatoprotective activity of the ethanolic extract of K. alvarezii (EEKA). The assays utilised to determine the antioxidant properties of EEKA were total phenolic content (TPC) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging. In addition, the ability of EEKA to ameliorate experimentally induced liver injury in Sprague-Dawley rats caused by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) was evaluated. The biochemical assays involved measuring liver marker enzymes (AST and ALT) in serum as well as determining the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), lipid peroxidation (LPO) via malondialdehyde, catalase (CAT), and glutathione S-transferase (GST) in liver homogenates. The TPC and DPPH radical scavenging activity of EEKA demonstrated relatively low antioxidant properties compared to standard references. However, CCl4-induced groups exhibited significantly increased levels of AST and ALT, along with depletion of antioxidant status (GSH, CAT, and GST) indicated by LPO. Pretreatment with EEKA resulted in slightly decreased liver marker enzyme activity and LPO, coupled with an increase in antioxidant status. These findings suggest that EEKA contains active principles capable of counteracting the hepatotoxic effects induced by CCl4.
... Ulva spp. are listed in the NFC and the European Union list of Novel Food (ULNF) [120]. The genus Ulva contains a high content of proteins, carbohydrates, polysaccharides, minerals and lipids that make it suitable as food, but the economic viability of large-scale cultivation is still questionable [117]. ...
Macroalgae are beneficial for consumers and producers due to their high productivity, their chemical composition and their efficient cultivation without additional feed. Asia dominates global macroalgae production, while European production is still marginal and mainly based on wild harvesting in the North Atlantic. The European Commission has launched initiatives to promote the sustainable production, safe consumption and innovative use of macroalgae products in European regional seas, including the Mediterranean Sea. A variety of coastal and seabed types and a wide range of environmental conditions make the Mediterranean a hotspot of marine biodiversity while providing good conditions for the cultivation of macroalgae. The aim of this paper is to compare the global macroalgae production and macroalgae production in the Mediterranean Sea, focussing on the cultivation of edible macroalgae. The paper also discusses the limitations and possibilities of macroalgae production in the region. Macroalgae production is one of the most promising sectors of the blue economy in the Mediterranean. The production of edible macroalgae suitable for human consumption has great potential, considering future population growth and related food security and health issues, as well as the additional ecosystem benefits of macroalgae production.
... Microalgae are rich sources of bioactive molecules, encompassing macronutrients such as proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids, as well as micronutrients like vitamins and pigments, rendering them highly desirable for applications in food and health (Ferreira de Oliveira and Bragotto, 2022;Wong et al., 2022). Currently, two primary modalities exist for the commercialization of microalgae: the first involves the distribution of whole microalgae in a dehydrated state, while the latter entails extracts with targeted molecules of interest (Araujo and Peteiro, 2021). Regarding the consumption of whole biomass in Europe, the legislative framework is governed by the European Community Regulation on Food Safety, promulgated in 2002 in the Official Journal of the European Communities (Directive 2002/46/CE, n.d.) ...
Microalgae appear as a sustainable source of biomass with relevant nutritional qualities. Still, regulatory restrictions currently limit the use of eukaryotic microalgae for human consumption to a short list of species dominated by Chlorella spp. Chlorella biomass contains valuable proteins but also interesting lipids, including polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) ω3 and ω6. The amount of PUFA and the ω6/ω3 ratio vary significantly depending on the species and cultivation trophic mode. While the lipid profils of in-lab produced Chlorella has been widely studied, the variability of lipid content in commercial biomasses is barely described. Here, lipid classes and fatty acid profiles of six commercial biomasses of Chlorella spp. as well as those of lab-produced C. sorokiniana grown in photo-autotrophy and in four mixotrophy conditions were characterized. Results showed significant lipid composition variations between the biomasses, such as the triacylglycerols/glycolipids and ω6/ω3 contents. The ω6/ω3 ratios were lower in photo-autotrophic mode (2.5) while they ranged between 1.3 and 8.9 in commercial biomasses. The free fatty acids level was also variable (1.4% to 17.9% of total lipids). As a consequence, Chlorella lipid content and quality differed significantly, impacting the potential nutritional benefits of the consumption of commercial biomass. Processing and post-processing conditions should therefore be carefully controlled to optimize lipid profiles.
... Tale Algae Initiative, parte del progetto EU "Blue Bioeconomy", "mirerà a sbloccare il potenziale delle alghe in Europa, aumentando la produzione sostenibile, garantendo un consumo sicuro e stimolando l'uso innovativo delle alghe e dei prodotti a base di alghe" (EU, 2022, p. 4). Le macroalghe sono principalmente prodotte in Francia, Irlanda e Spagna, le microalghe in Germania, Spagna e Italia, mentre i produttori di spirulina si trovano prevalentemente in Francia, Italia, Germania e Spagna (Araújo et al., 2021). ...
Anche se i sistemi alimentari sono responsabili di un terzo delle emissioni globali di gas serra antropogenici, nelle politiche per la transizione ecologica l'alimentazione viene spesso relegata in una posizione marginale. Anche quando se ne parla, il tema principale sembra essere quello relativo alla riduzione delle emissioni di gas serra, in relazione ai consumi energetici, mentre ha un peso ‘climatico' decisamente elevato anche ciò che si mangia, e in particolare l'alimentazione a base di carne. Il paper si propone di indagare come la cultura alimentare si articoli in relazione al cambiamento climatico, domandandosi in particolare se i sostituti della carne e l'introduzione di alimenti ‘nuovi' (insetti, alghe) debbano diventare ‘normali' per ridurre l'impatto climatico delle abitudini alimentari convenzionali. Le conseguenze economiche e occupazionali, oltre che paesistiche, di questa transizione proteica e, quindi, dell'abbandono dell'allevamento e del mutamento delle colture rimangono ancora tutte da investigare.
... In Asian and Pacific Island countries, the tradition is to consume seaweeds as raw or cooked sea vegetables ("limu") (Abbott, 1996;Mumford & Miura, 1988). In Western countries, in contrast, the principal use of seaweeds has been as a source of phycocolloids (alginates, carrageenans, and agars), which are structural, thickening, and gelling agents for various industrial applications, including uses in textile, paper, processed food, toothpastes, shampoos, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries (Araujo & Peteiro, 2021;Bixler & Porse, 2011;McHugh, 2003). The work by Mouritsen et al. (2021) and elsewhere in this book presents a good review of the history of human interaction with various seaweeds, showing how humankind recurrently turns its attention to seaweeds in times of need. ...
Definition of the subject and its importance The production of seaweeds for human food, in land-based aquaculture is an activity still poorly presented by the scientific community. Of the thousands of seaweed species identified (over 11,000 are currently cataloged at the algaebase.org), a remarkably small subset is farmed in the marine environment (i.e., open water) and even fewer are grown in land-based aquaculture systems. Of those that are used in land-based systems, most are monocultures grown for specific, high-value uses. For instance, Chondrus crispus (C. crispus), Palmaria palmata, Devaleraea mollis, Gracilaria spp., and Ulva spp. are grown for human consumption ; Asparagopsis for cosmetics and as supplements for cattle feed; and Gracilaria spp., and Ulva spp. as feed for abalone. In clear contrast with the many centuries of terrestrial production of land plants for human and animal feed crops and the tremendous efforts given over to the selection and cross-breeding of these plants, the selection and improvement of seaweed crops are very much in their infancy. Of all the relatively small number of seaweeds that are domesticated for open-water cultivation, even fewer species have been tested in land-based culture systems at relevant scales. This is in part due to the lack of reliable, domesticated species and their respective selected strains, suitable for the rigors of land-based cultivation, and in part due also to the complexities of life histories and the lack of understanding of the environmental regulation of growth. There is, therefore, an increasing need to test and domes-ticate additional species, since open water systems may not be appropriate for some species with particular morphologies and product applications requiring high standards of control and costs of production.
... The addition of spirulina biomass to food products was authorized by the FDA in 2002, due to its GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) approval. Furthermore, in the EU, spirulina has been recognized as a novel food [8] and in the US the extract from dried biomass has been included in the list of additives exempt from batch certification [9]. Many examples have been reported in literature regarding the addition of C-PC in dairy products [10], isotonic and tonic beverages [11], snacks [12], pasta [13], as well as in the formulation of vegan food such as vegan biscuits [14]. ...
In the last few decades, the recovery of high-added value compounds with high food potential using microalgae as feedstock has been one of the main challenges for both research and industry. This study provides a simple, affordable, and cost-saving approach for the selective recovery of C-phycocyanin (C-PC), chlorophyll a and carotenoids from Spirulina platensis biomass by using biocompatible and industrially approved solvents (such as CaCl2 and ethanol). The concentration and yield of each pigment in the liquid extract have been spectrophotometrically detected, whereas the decolorized protein-rich biomass has been analyzed by CIELab parameters. The most concentrated (566.4 μg/mL) and food-grade C-PC extract (purity index 0.7) was obtained by applying a biomass/solvent ratio (1:10) for the first round of extraction (20 min), followed by a second round at 1:5 using CaCl2 1.5% (w/v) aqueous solution. Additionally, the same trial enabled the production of the brightest decolorized protein-rich biomass (L* = 46.2), characterized by a yellow-orange tonality (h° values = 81.3°).
... In Europe, interest in seaweeds has increased exponentially over the last years and, although their exploitation is still limited, several initiatives are currently ongoing. Seaweeds used as food and food supplements and classified as novel are subject to the pre-market authorization requirements of the novel food regulation (EU) 2015/2283 [12] before they can be freely placed in the European market without the need for pre-market novel food authorization [13]. ...
The search for new sources of antimicrobial compounds has become an urgent need, due to the threat that the spread of bacterial resistance represents for global health and food safety. Brown macroalgae have been proposed as a great reservoir in the search for novel antimicrobial compounds. In this study, mid-polarity extracts were performed with a selection of 20 brown macroalgae species from northern Spain. The total polyphenol, carbohydrate and protein contents were quantified by spectrophotometry. The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of whole macroalgae were also studied as a biomarker of their metabolic state in the representative species of the tested families by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The antimicrobial potential of the extracts was assessed by a disk diffusion assay against 20 target bacteria and further determinations of the minimum inhibitory (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) were performed by a microdilution assay for the active extracts. Ericaria selaginoides, Bifurcaria bifurcata and Dictyota dichotoma showed an antimicrobial effect against six Gram-positive strains: Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Geobacillus stearothermophilus, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus haemolyticus. The phenolic content was generally higher in the extracts that showed antimicrobial activity, followed by carbohydrates and low contents of proteins. The results obtained in this study reveal the potential of brown macroalgae as a promising alternative source of antimicrobial compounds as functional ingredients for the application in industrial fields.
... On the other hand, there are different eating habits of Asian people; some citizens who live in Western countries have a particular fondness for Irish algae (Irish moss) and Palmaria palmata (dulse) as their food and food supplement. According to a study in Europe in 2021, the researchers found that dulse is also widely used locally as a heavy source of food and medicine [33]. ...
With the rapid development of the economy and productivity, an increasing number of citizens are not only concerned about the nutritional value of algae as a potential new food resource but are also, in particular, paying more attention to the safety of its consumption. Many studies and reports pointed out that analyzing and solving seaweed food safety issues requires holistic and systematic consideration. The three main factors that have been found to affect the food safety of algal are physical, chemical, and microbiological hazards. At the same time, although food safety awareness among food producers and consumers has increased, foodborne diseases caused by algal food safety incidents occur frequently. It threatens the health and lives of consumers and may cause irreversible harm if treatment is not done promptly. A series of studies have also proved the idea that microbial contamination of algae is the main cause of this problem. Therefore, the rapid and efficient detection of toxic and pathogenic microbial contamination in algal products is an urgent issue that needs to be addressed. At the same time, two other factors, such as physical and chemical hazards, cannot be ignored. Nowadays, the detection techniques are mainly focused on three major hazards in traditional methods. However, especially for food microorganisms, the use of traditional microbiological control techniques is time-consuming and has limitations in terms of accuracy. In recent years, these two evaluations of microbial foodborne pathogens monitoring in the farm-to-table chain have shown more importance, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Meanwhile, there are also many new developments in the monitoring of heavy metals, algal toxins, and other pollutants. In the future, algal food safety risk assessment will not only focus on convenient, rapid, low-cost and high-accuracy detection but also be connected with some novel technologies, such as the Internet of Things (artificial intelligence, machine learning), biosensor, and molecular biology, to reach the purpose of simultaneous detection.
... Other seaweed species are accepted as food under the NFR because of the history of safe food use for at least 25 years in third countries. Globally, approximately 145 species of seaweed are being used for food (Monagail et al., 2019), while only 27 seaweed species are accepted as food in the EEA (Araujo & Peteiro, 2021). Introducing new seaweed species and seaweed derived products on the EEA market encounters problems and challenges regarding EU regulation as seaweed producers are obliged to follow the NFR pre-market authorisation, which is time consuming (at least 2 years) and too high of an investment and therefore could limit further seaweed exploitation. ...
Seafood safety regulation within the European Economic Area has been strongly harmonised, including uniformisation of maximum levels on contaminants and toxins in seafood. Nevertheless, individual countries still have national limit values for different contaminant groups. This publication summarizes currently existing maximum levels on environmental chemical contaminants in seafood and seaweed that are established within the European Economic Area at international or national level. Maximum levels are compared to legal thresholds in other North Atlantic countries that are member of the International Council for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES), i.e. US, Canada and Russia, as well as the international food standards of the Codex Alimentarius. The identification of seafood safety regulatory differences allows to identify current challenges, associated to different topics: (1) contaminants in seafood, (2) contaminants in seaweed and (3) natural aquatic toxins. It can be concluded that increased harmonisation within and between geographical regions e.g. on seaweed regulations, can be beneficial from both a health and economic perspective. Constantly evolving knowledge on contaminants of emerging concern and new or emerging toxins triggers a continuous process of updating seafood regulations. Due to the health benefits of seafood consumption, a balance between risks and benefits is essential, as considered in EFSA seafood consumption advice.
Dunaliella salina, a halophilic unicellular chlorophyte, produces bioactive compounds and biofuels applicable to various industries. Despite its industrial significance, comprehensive studies on the morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of the genus Dunaliella remain challenging. In this study, we characterized an axenically isolated green alga from a salt pond in Taean, Republic of Korea, and assessed its industrially relevant traits. The morphological characteristics were typical of D. salina, and molecular phylogenetic analysis of the SSU, ITS1-5.8S-ITS, LSU regions of rDNA, and rbcL gene confirmed the isolate as D. salina strain DSTA20. The optimal temperature, salinity, and photon flux density required for its growth were determined to be 21 °C, 0.5 M NaCl, and 88 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively. Dried biomass analysis revealed 42.87% total lipids, with major fatty acids, including α-linolenic acid (31.55%) and palmitic acid (21.06%). The alga produced high-value carotenoids, including β-carotene (2.47 mg g⁻¹ dry weight (DW)) and lutein (1.39 mg g⁻¹ DW), with peak levels at 0.25 M salinity. Glucose (195.5 mg g⁻¹ DW) was the predominant monosaccharide. These findings highlight the potential of D. salina DSTA20 for biodiesel production and as a source of ω-3 fatty acids, carotenoids, and glucose. Morphological traits provide insights relevant to the industrial potential of the species.
Nutrient rich foods are promising. One of the solutions to the problem of achieving nutritious food is actually based on a method applied years ago; seaweed consumption. Since seaweeds can survive by being exposed to very different and challenging conditions such as temperature, depth, salinity, light intensities, pressure, they have a wide variety of functional compounds compared to terrestrial organisms. Their biological structure, various organic and inorganic compounds make seaweeds useful for foods, nutraceuticals, biotechnology, cosmetics, and pharmacology. Many species of seaweed are collected from different locations, commercialized, cultured, and consumed in all over the world.
Algae are a large and diverse group of autotrophic photosynthetic organisms in the aquatic environment that includes eukaryotic multicellular algae and unicellular prokaryotic cyanobacteria. Algae comprise proteins, amino acids, fatty acids (PUFA), vitamins, polysaccharides, pigments, and other secondary metabolites. Algae are considered as suitable vegetable-like food sources and are also used as supplements for healthy food. The presence of bioactive metabolites and beneficial compounds in some macro- and microalgae can be an active ingredient for various nutraceuticals and healthcare medicines. Algae also represent a valuable source of minerals, antioxidants, and natural colorants; hence, the whole algae biomass and the extracted compounds have used as active food and feed supplements for infant food and specialist food for some diseased patients. This chapter outlines the food, feed, nutrient, and nutraceutical uses of macro- and microalgae and their health benefits along with special function food formulations.
На сьогоднішній день загострюється необхідність у досліджені природніх ресурсів та впровадженні їх у харчову індустрію. На це впливає стрімке збільшення чисельності населення, погіршення якості харчової сировини та нестача в ній мікронутрієнтів. Обізнаність споживачів щодо якості раціону та прихильників здорового способу життя вказує на потребу розробки продуктів харчування нового покоління. Завдяки високій харчовій цінності, зниженому впливу на навколишнє середовище та економічній стійкості, мікроводорості як функціональні інгредієнти використовуються для покращення характеристик широкого спектру харчових продуктів. Поєднання різних форм біомаси водоростей з традиційними продуктами харчування дозволить не тільки розширити виробництво зовсім нових продуктів, а й залучити до технологічного процесу новий для України сегмент сировини, який є звичним для країн Сходу та Європи. Комерційний та промисловий інтерес до цих організмів набирає обертів в багатьох країнах світу. Виробники продуктів та напоїв розширюють використання мікроводоростей в харчовій індустрії для задоволення попиту споживачів у органічних продуктах, пристосованих до нових дієт та харчових звичок населення світу. Зелені мікроводорості користуються найбільшою популярністю в якості інгредієнтів та біологічно активних добавок. Їх збалансований амінокислотний склад, багатий вміст вітамінів, макро- мікроелементів, жирних кислот, пігментів надає цим мікроорганізмам переваг щодо заповнення дефіциту організму в есенціальних речовинах. Це підкреслює важливість проведення досліджень, впровадження розробок та інновацій щодо вживання мікроводоростей суспільством.
The worldwide prevalence of obesity impacts more than 600 million adults. Successfully managing weight is effective in reducing the risk of chronic diseases, but sustaining long-term weight loss remains a challenge. Although there are supplements based on algae that claim to aid in weight loss, there is a notable scarcity of scientific evidence supporting their effectiveness, and their regular consumption safety remains inadequately addressed. In this work, commercially available Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis Gomont and/or Fucus vesiculosus L. supplements showed moderate capacity to inhibit the activity of carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes, and to scavenge biologically relevant reactive species. IC25 values varying between 4.54 ± 0.81 and 66.73 ± 5.91 µg of dry extract/mL and between 53.74 ± 8.42 and 1737.96 ± 98.26 µg of dry extract/mL were obtained for α-glucosidase and aldose reductase, respectively. A weaker effect towards α-amylase activity was observed, with a maximum activity of the extracts not going beyond 33%, at the highest concentrations tested. Spirulina extracts showed generally better effects than those from F. vesiculosus. Similar results were observed concerning the antiradical capacity. In a general way, the extracts were able to intercept the in vitro-generated reactive species nitric oxide (•NO) and superoxide anion (O2•−) radicals, with better results for O2•−scavenging with the spirulina samples (IC25 values of 67.16 and 122.84 µg of dry extract/mL). Chemically, similar pigment profiles were observed between spirulina supplements and the authenticated counterpart. However, fucoxanthin, the chemotaxonomic marker of brown seaweeds, was not found in F. vesiculosus samples, pointing to the occurrence of a degradation phenomenon before, during, or after raw material processing. Our findings can contribute to providing data to allow regulatory entities (e.g., EFSA and FDA) to better rule these products in a way that can benefit society.
Photoautotrophic microbes are distributed globally and have been here since long (3.5 billion years). These are among the early organisms which included cyanobacteria and various types of algae. These organisms have been found to be rich in important components of food and nutraceuticals which are being probed further and used globally, in addition, for many new applications for human beings. These vary from prokaryotic to eukaryotic in their cell structure and may or may not have chloroplasts and mitochondria enclosed in a membrane in all of these organisms. These are rich in protein, vitamins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, iron, beta-carotene, and antioxidants due to which the World Health Organisation labelled them as the super health food on this planet. These have been found to be hepatoprotectant and anticancerous too. Apart from this, their role from quenching the carbon dioxide respired out to providing oxygen for our survival will also be discussed briefly.
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an invalidating chronic autoimmune disorder characterized by joint inflammation and progressive bone damage. Dietary intervention is an important component in the treatment of RA to mitigate oxidative stress, a major pathogenic driver of the disease. Alongside traditional sources of antioxidants, microalgae—a diverse group of photosynthetic prokaryotes and eukaryotes—are emerging as anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory food supplements. Several species accumulate therapeutic metabolites—mainly lipids and pigments—which interfere in the pro-inflammatory pathways involved in RA and other chronic inflammatory conditions. The advancement of the clinical uses of microalgae requires the continuous exploration of phytoplankton biodiversity and chemodiversity, followed by the domestication of wild strains into reliable producers of said metabolites. In addition, the tractability of microalgal genomes offers unprecedented possibilities to establish photosynthetic microbes as light-driven biofactories of heterologous immunotherapeutics. Here, we review the evidence-based anti-inflammatory mechanisms of microalgal metabolites and provide a detailed coverage of the genetic engineering strategies to enhance the yields of endogenous compounds and to develop innovative bioproducts.
The clean label approach is behind the development of the new concept, coloring food, in contrast to regulated food colorants, although few data are available regarding its composition. Consequently, twenty-six commercial green foods (including novel foods) have been analyzed to investigate the authentic composition behind the different labels. It has been identified by HPLC-ESI/APCI-hrTOF-MS2 the complete array of chlorophylls in the regulated green food colorants, several of them identified for the first time in foods. The coloring food alternative is based on mixing blue (such as spirulina) and yellow (such as safflower) hues. Our data suggest that in the analyzed samples, spirulina is water or solvent extracted before being added to the food. The obtained results showed for the first time, the authentic data on the chemical composition of the new green foods.
Seaweed is in the spotlight as a promising source of nutrition for humans as the search for sustainable food production systems continues. Seaweed has a well-documented rich nutritional profile containing compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids and polysaccharides as well as proteins, fatty acids and minerals. Seaweed processing for the extraction of functional ingredients such as alginate, agar, and carrageenan is well-established. Novel pretreatments such as ultrasound assisted extraction or high-pressure processing can be incorporated to more efficiently extract these targeted ingredients. The scope of products that can be created using seaweed are wide ranging: from bread and noodles to yoghurt and milk and even as an ingredient to enhance the nutritional profile and stability of meat products. There are opportunities for food producers in this area to develop novel food products using seaweed. This review paper discusses the unique properties of seaweed as a food, the processes involved in seaweed aquaculture, and the products that can be developed from this marine biomass. Challenges facing the industry such as consumer hesitation around seaweed products, the safety of seaweed, and processing hurdles will also be discussed.
Abstract EFSA assessed the relevance of seaweed and halophyte consumption to the dietary exposure to heavy metals (arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury) and the iodine intake in the European population. Based on sampling years 2011–2021, there were 2,093 analytical data available on cadmium, 1,988 on lead, 1,934 on total arsenic, 920 on inorganic arsenic (iAs), 1,499 on total mercury and 1,002 on iodine. A total of 697 eating occasions on halophytes, seaweeds and seaweed‐related products were identified in the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database (468 subjects, 19 European countries). From seaweed consumption, exposure estimates for cadmium in adult ‘consumers only’ are within the range of previous exposure estimates considering the whole diet, while for iAs and lead the exposure estimates represent between 10% and 30% of previous exposures from the whole diet for the adult population. Seaweeds were also identified as important sources of total arsenic that mainly refers, with some exceptions, to organic arsenic. As regards iodine, from seaweed consumption, mean intakes above 20 μg/kg body weight per day were identified among ‘consumers only’ of Kombu and Laver algae. The impact of a future increase in seaweed consumption (‘per capita’) on the dietary exposure to heavy metals and on iodine intake will strongly depend on the seaweeds consumed. The exposure estimates of heavy metals and iodine intakes in ‘consumers only’ of seaweeds were similar to those estimated in a replacement scenario with selected seaweed‐based foods in the whole population. These results underline the relevance of the current consumption of seaweeds in the overall exposure to different heavy metals and in the intake of iodine. Recommendations are provided for further work needed on different areas to better understand the relationship between seaweed consumption and exposure to heavy metals and iodine intake.
Cyanobacterial pigments have an evolving market demand as natural colorants with numerous health benefits and diversified applications. Nevertheless, scaling up cyanobacterial pigment production to meet the market demand is economically unsustainable due to the high upstream processing costs, notably associated with the supply of nutrients during cyanobacteria cultivation. Thus, utilization of wastewater as alternative nutrient sources for cultivation is a potential method to enhance the economic viability and sustainability of pigment production. In wastewater-integrated cyanobacteria cultivation, nutrients are assimilated to produce biomass simultaneous to bioremediation. Nonetheless, the toxic heavy metals present in wastewater may accumulate in cyanobacteria and adversely affect biomass valorization. Therefore, the use of suitable heavy metal removal techniques is essential prior to integration of wastewater with the upstream process of cyanobacterial pigment production in view of improving product safety. Accordingly, the current review discusses primary literature on pigment biosynthesis and heavy metal accumulation in cyanobacteria cultured in wastewater and details physicochemical, electrochemical, and biological treatment methods available for heavy metal removal from wastewater prior to cyanobacteria cultivation. The suitability of heavy metal removal methods is analyzed with respect to various technical and economic aspects, including selective heavy metal removal, minimizing nutrient loss, and incremental capital/operating costs. Moreover, future perspectives in the research domain are discussed, with emphasis on the requirement for techno-economic assessments, life cycle analysis, product safety assessment, and public perception. Thus, the current review comprehensively analyses strategies for heavy metal removal from wastewater prior to its integration with the upstream process of cyanobacterial pigment production.
For centuries, macroalgae, or seaweeds, have been a significant part of East Asian diets. In Europe, seaweeds are not considered traditional foods, even though they are increasingly popular in Western diets in human food applications. In this study, a biological processing method based on semi-solid fermentation was optimized for the treatment of the seaweed Gracilaria gracilis. For the first time, selected lactic acid bacteria and non-conventional coagulase-negative staphylococci were used as starter preparations for driving a bio-processing and bio-stabilization of raw macroalga material to obtain new seaweed-based food prototypes for human consumption. Definite food safety and process hygiene criteria were identified and successfully applied. The obtained fermented products did not show any presence of pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms, thereby indicating safety and good shelf life. Lactobacillus acidophilus-treated seaweeds revealed higher α-amylase, protease, lipase, endo-cellulase, and endo-xylanase activity than in the untreated sample. This fermented sample showed a balanced n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio. SBM-11 (Lactobacillus sakei, Staphylococcus carnosus and Staphylococcus xylosus) and PROMIX 1 (Staphylococcus xylosus) treated samples showed fatty acid compositions that were considered of good nutritional quality and contained relevant amounts of isoprenoids (vitamin E and A). All the starters improved the nutritional value of the seaweeds by significantly reducing the insoluble indigestible fractions. Preliminary data were obtained on the cytocompatibility of G. gracilis fermented products by in vitro tests. This approach served as a valid strategy for the easy bio-stabilization of this valuable but perishable food resource and could boost its employment for newly designed seaweed-based food products.
Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes whose taxonomy follows the same rules of a code (the International Botanical Nomenclature Code, IBNC) built for eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms. Hence, names of cyanobacteria follow the same rules and are assigned to biological entities (species) that should correspond to eukaryotic species. The main difficulty in the current situation is that the species concept in eukaryotes is based theoretically mainly on the biological species concept, that is centered on genetic exchange through sexual reproduction or lack of them. However, as shown, this difference is important from a theoretical point of view, but also in eukaryotes, the boundaries between different species are very rarely checked experimentally by direct observation of sexual barriers and hybridization events. The main concept for species delimitation is hence that related to morphology and, more recently and always in relation to morphology, DNA sequences. The introduction of distances obtained from matrixes of aligned sequences in the framework of a barcoding project provides a quantitative interpretation of species delimitation in relation to genetic distance that can be used both in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. However, the introduction of quantitative criteria needs the definition of distance thresholds to identify the boundaries between different species and, for doing that, it is necessary to test the distance thresholds in models of traditionally defined and recognized species. An alternative approach may be the comparison of the molecular distance (quantitative approach) to data about the capability of strains/species to exchange genetic information. Unfortunately data about this last question is still scarce. The adoption of molecular criteria to check species boundaries based on morphological characters has proved particularly challenging in cyanobacteria: a known example is provided. In conclusion, the only possible approach appears to be the association of molecular data to the increase of available data about the cell structure and the variation thereof in different physiological situations, particularly at the ultrastructural level. A further necessity is the check of the typus for a large number of cyanobacteria species, often based on old basionyms. In many of these cases the typus is often a drawing and more rarely a herbarium specimen or a microscope slide. In many cases an epitypification or a neotypification appears to be necessary.
Safe drinking-water is of paramount importance for human health. Among the hazards considered in the Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, infectious microorganisms are the most significant causes of mortality on a global scale, causing a substantial burden of disease via diarrhoeal illnesses such as cholera, cryptosporidiosis or retroviral enteritis. Cyanobacteria have been present in natural ecosystems since the Precambrian Era, some 2 billion years ago, and the production of cyanotoxins is probably an equally ancient characteristic. This health hazard most probably will gain growing importance as cyanobacterial blooms are expected to increase at the scale at which eutrophication is expected to increasingly occur in many regions of the world. Epidemiological studies have looked for chronic effects in human populations exposed to toxic cyanobacteria, and indeed, a number of studies since the mid-19th century associate symptoms with cyanotoxin exposure. The chapter also presents an overview of the key concepts discussed in this book.
Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on the safety of Schizochytrium sp. oil as a novel food (NF) pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. Schizochytrium sp. is a single-cell microalga. The strain FCC-3204, used by the applicant (Fermentalg), belongs to the species Schizochytrium limacinum. The NF, an oil rich in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is obtained from microalgae after enzymatic lysis. The applicant proposed to increase the use level of the NF as a food supplement, from 250 mg DHA/day (currently authorised for the general population, excluding pregnant and lactating women) to 3 g DHA/day for adults, excluding pregnant and lactating women. S. limacinum was attributed the qualified presumption of safety (QPS) status with the qualification 'for production purposes only'. Data provided by the applicant demonstrated the absence of viable cells in the NF. No toxicological studies were performed with the NF. However, based on the available toxicological data on oils derived from Schizochytrium sp., the QPS status of the source of the NF, the production process, the composition of the NF and the absence of viable cells in the NF, the Panel considers there are no concerns with regard to toxicity of the NF. The Panel considers that the data provided by the applicant are not sufficient to conclude on the safety of the NF at the proposed uses (3 g DHA/day as a food supplement) in adults. However, in 2012, the Panel concluded that supplemental intakes of DHA alone up to about 1 g/day do not raise safety concerns for the general population. The Panel concludes that the NF is safe for the use in food supplements at the maximum intake level of 1 g DHA/day for the target population (adults, excluding pregnant and lactating women).
The EU Bioeconomy Strategy aims to support the sustainable growth and development of the EU bio-based sectors while creating jobs, innovation and services. Despite the recognized potential of the algae biomass value chain, significant knowledge gaps still exist regarding the dimension, capability, organization and structure of the algae production in Europe. This study presents and analyses the results of a comprehensive mapping and detailed characterization of the algae production at the European scale, encompassing macroalgae, microalgae, and the cyanobacteria Spirulina. This work mapped 447 algae and Spirulina production units spread between 23 countries, which represents an important addition to the reported number of algae producing countries. More than 50% of these companies produce microalgae and/or Spirulina. Macroalgae production is still depending on harvesting from wild stocks (68% of the macroalgae producing units) but macroalgae aquaculture (land-based and at sea) is developing in several countries in Europe currently representing 32% of the macroalgae production units. France, Ireland, and Spain are the top 3 countries in number of macroalgae production units while Germany, Spain, and Italy stand for the top 3 for microalgae. Spirulina producers are predominantly located in France, Italy, Germany, and Spain. Algae and Spirulina biomass is directed primarily for food and food-related applications including the extraction of high-value products for food supplements and nutraceuticals. Algae production in Europe remains limited by a series of technological, regulatory and market-related barriers. Yet, the results of this study emphasize that the European algae sector has a considerable potential for sustainable development as long as the acknowledged economic, social and environmental challenges are addressed.
Ascophyllum nodosum is a large and common brown alga. The fronds are olive-brown but can appear yellowish when stressed. It is a common, intertidal species around the periphery of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is particularly common on the northwestern coast of Europe (from Svalbard to Portugal), including east Greenland, Iceland and the NE coast of N America (from New York to Newfoundland). This intertidal fucoid has long fronds with large egg-shaped airbladders. The fronds can reach 2 m (extremes of 5-7 m) in length. Depending on nutrient availability, the fronds are yellow, and at low tide, they can form extensive beds appearing to be monospecific to the casual observer. This seaweed is long lived and can be a dominant, climax community species of the middle shore. Ascophyllum nodosum is very effective at accumulating nutrients and minerals from the surrounding seawater. Due to the presence of many bioactive components, its harvested biomass is a valuable resource for human enterprise. This species is exploited for use in products such as food, fertiliser, soil conditioners, biostimulants (for phyco-elicitors), animal feed, skin and hair care products, cleaners, de-greasers, equestrian products and nutritional supplements. It is also a popular ingredient in cosmetology and thalassotherapy.
Foliose Ulva spp. have become increasingly important worldwide for their environmental and financial impacts. A large number of such Ulva species have rapid reproduction and proliferation habits, which explains why they are responsible for Ulva blooms, known as “green tides”, having dramatic negative effects on coastal ecosystems, but also making them attractive for aquaculture applications. Despite the increasing interest in the genus Ulva, particularly on the larger foliose species for aquaculture, their inter‐ and intra‐ specific genetic diversity is still poorly described. We compared the cytoplasmic genome (chloroplast and mitochondrion) of 110 strains of large distromatic foliose Ulva from Ireland, Brittany (France), the Netherlands and Portugal. We found six different species, with high levels of inter‐specific genetic diversity, despite highly similar or overlapping morphologies. Genetic variation was as high as 82 SNPs/kb between Ulva rotundata and U. laetevirens, indicating considerable genetic diversity. On the other hand, intra‐specific genetic diversity was relatively low, with only 36 variant sites (0.03 SNPs/kb) in the mitochondrial genome of the 29 Ulva rigida individuals found in this study, despite different geographical origins. The use of next generation sequencing allowed for the detection of a single inter‐species hybrid between two genetically closely related species, U. laetevirens, and U. rigida, among the 110 strains analyzed in this study. Altogether, this study represents an important advance in our understanding of Ulva biology, and provides genetic information for genomic selection of large foliose strains in aquaculture.
The genus Durvillaea includes six currently accepted species, as well as two newly proposed species. Durvillaea spp. have a diplontic life cycle, lack a free-living gametophyte and have oogamous reproduction. All Durvillaea species require rocky substrate for attachment and wave-exposed environments. These “southern bull kelps” occur exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere and are important foundation species, in most cases controlling local community structure, influencing biodiversity, and providing food and habitat for other culturally and economically important species. Most species are non-buoyant and these have restricted geographic ranges, in some cases endemic to small oceanic islands. Buoyant members of the genus are more widespread, with one species (Durvillaea antarctica) found throughout the subantarctic, Chile, and New Zealand. This chapter summarizes the taxonomy, biology, and economic importance of Durvillaea species, with a focus on aspects relevant to their availability and productivity as crop plants. Systematics, distribution, ecology, life histories, population status, harvesting times, protection, management and chemical composition are covered. Much of the available data are for the species Durvillaea antarctica, D. willana, and D. potatorum. The techniques used in harvesting and the human uses of Durvillaea spp. (e.g., as food) are described, along with recommendations for harvest timing and methods.
DNA barcoding analysis, using tufA, revealed considerable differences between the expected and observed species inventory of
Ulva sensu lato in the Baltic and North Sea areas of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Of 20 observed genetic entities, at
least four (U. australis, U. californica, U. gigantea and Umbraulva dangeardii) had been introduced recently, whereas three
others (one Ulva sp. and two Blidingia spp.) could not be identified at the species level and could also represent recently
introduced species. In addition, the observed distributions of Kornmannia leptoderma and U. rigida were much more
extensive than indicated by historical records, whereas Blidingia minima and Gayralia oxysperma were absent or much less
common than expected. Barcoding analysis also revealed that both U. tenera (type material) and U. pseudocurvata (historical
vouchers) from Helgoland, an off-shore island in the North Sea, actually belong to U. lactuca, a species that appears to be
restricted to this island. Furthermore, past morphological descriptions of U. intestinalis and U. compressa have apparently
been too restrictive and have been responsible for numerous misidentifications. The same is true for U. linza, which, in
northern Germany, clusters into two genetically closely related but morphologically indistinguishable entities. One of these
entities is present on Helgoland, while the second is present on North Sea and Baltic Sea mainland coasts.
The Gracilariales is a red macroalgal order and the main global source of the economically important agar, a marine phycocolloid. Independent comparative morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies over the last 20 years have revealed the existence of seven major clades recognizable as distinct genera. Of these major clades only four free-living genera have been widely accepted taxonomically: Curdiea, Melanthalia, Gracilariopsis, and Gracilaria. Three other clades comprise the reinstatement of the genus Hydropuntia and the proposal of two new genera, Agarophyton and Crassa, described herein. Based on new rbcL DNA sequences, and along with a reassessment of published comparative morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies, we argue that the latter three genera represent distinct evolutionary lineages in the Gracilariaceae, and propose a new classification for the order Gracilariales. Our new proposal incorporates the most current understanding of the evolutionary history of the order, establishes a natural and stable classification system, and provides the basis for the recognization of intra-family ranks. Our classification scheme reconciles all molecular phylogenetic studies published to date.
This revision of the classification of eukaryotes follows that of Adl et al., 2012 [J. Euk. Microbiol. 59(5)] and retains an emphasis on protists. Changes since have improved the resolution of many nodes in phylogenetic analyses. For some clades even families are being clearly resolved. As we had predicted, environmental sampling in the intervening years has massively increased the genetic information at hand. Consequently, we have discovered novel clades, exciting new genera, and uncovered a massive species level diversity beyond the morphological species descriptions. Several clades known from environmental samples only have found their home. Sampling soils, deeper marine waters, and the deep sea will continue to fill us with surprises. The main changes in this revision are the confirmation that eukaryotes form at least two domains, the loss of monophyly in the Exavata, robust support for the Haptista and Cryptista. We provide suggested primer sets for DNA sequences from environmental samples that are effective for each clade. We have provided a guide to trophic functional guilds in an appendix, to facilitate the interpretation of environmental samples.
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Thraustochytrids, a heterotrophic fungus-like clade of Stramenopiles, are becoming an increasingly important source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) for biotechnological industries. PUFA rich oils from these organisms are subsequently referred to in some literature and marketing sources as being derived from “algae”, in spite of their non-photosynthetic source organism. In this review, we attempt to disentangle the evolutionary relationship of the Thraustochytrids from other Protists, demonstrating that there is no scientific basis for the aforementioned misnomer. Some research has previously suggested that the ancestor of the Stramenopiles may have been photosynthetic, and subsequently lost their plastids in multiple lineages. The placement of the Thraustochytrids within the Stramenopiles and their possible plastid loss may have been a source of obfuscation. It is becoming increasingly evident that the common ancestor of the Stramenopiles was not photosynthetic, and that only the Ochrophyte lineage later engulfed a plastid via higher order endosymbiosis. Because all basal lineages of Stramenopiles are non-plastidial heterotrophs, including the Thraustochytrids, there remains no phylogenetic, biological, or ecological justification for the term “algae” to be applied to Thraustochytrids or their products.
The cyanobacterium
Arthrospira
is among the most well-known food supplements worldwide known as “Spirulina.” While it is a widely recognized health-promoting natural product, there are no reports on the molecular diversity of commercially available brands of “Spirulina” supplements and the occurrence of other cyanobacterial and heterotrophic bacterial microorganisms in these products. In this study, 454-pyrosequencing analysis of the total bacterial occurrence in 31 brands of “Spirulina” dietary supplements from the Greek market was applied for the first time. In all samples, operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of
Arthrospira platensis
were the predominant cyanobacteria. Some products contained additional cyanobacterial OTUs including a few known potentially toxic taxa. Moreover, 469 OTUs were detected in all 31 products collectively, with most of them being related to the Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Verrucomicrobia. All samples included heterotrophic bacterial OTUs, ranging from 9–157 per product. Among the most common OTUs were ones closely related to taxa known for causing health issues (i.e.,
Pseudomonas
,
Flavobacterium
,
Vibrio
,
Aeromonas
,
Clostridium
,
Bacillus
,
Fusobacterium
,
Enterococcus
). The observed high cyanobacterial and heterotrophic bacterial OTUs richness in the final product is a point for further research on the growth and processing of
Arthrospira
biomass for commercial purposes.
Since the discovery of the type species Chlorella vulgaris in 1890 by Beijerinck, a large number of coccoid green algae have been isolated and assigned to the genus Chlorella Beij. primarily on the basis of morphologic similarities. Based on literature review and a survey of curators of algae culture collections, our study aims to review and organize the taxonomy of Chlorella to correlate with the commercial names currently in use in Europe for food products. In particular, an inventory of the specific species or strains of Chlorella traditionally consumed in Europe is made. Chlorella pyrenoidosa, C. vulgaris, and Chlorella luteoviridis are the three species of Chlorella listed in the Novel Food Catalogue as having been on the market and consumed before 15 May 1997, and hence not subject to the Novel Food Regulation. However, as a consequence of revisions of the systematics of Chlorella, it appears that these names are not always in conformance with the current taxonomy. This is the case for the taxon C. luteoviridis which is no longer valid as it has been renamed as Heterochlorella luteoviridis. Furthermore, the review of revisions operated in algal culture collections shows that some strains had been incorrectly identified as C. pyrenoidosa or C. vulgaris. This result suggests that other species, which were known as C. pyrenoidosa or C. vulgaris at that time, might have been consumed in Europe before 1997. Therefore, the list of Chlorella species not subject to the Novel Food Regulation could possibly be extended to additional species not only strictly related to "true" Chlorella genus.
After the description of Chlorella vulgaris by Beijerinck, 120 years ago, members of the genus Chlorella belong to the best studied green algae worldwide. However, numerous open questions remained regarding their systematics. Recent molecular studies showed the polyphyly of the genus within the Chlorophyceae and Trebouxiophyceae. Chlorella–species were traditionally characterized by spherical to oval cell shape, solitary life– form and the absence of mucilaginous envelopes. The challenge in the past was how to distinguish species due to their high phylogenetic diversity combined with a limited amount of morphological characters. Using a polyphasic approach of SSU– and ITS rDNA phylogeny, secondary structure of the ITS and light microscopic observations, we were able to detect six lineages with Dictyosphaerium–like strains in close relationship to C. vulgaris, here described or combined newly as C. coloniales sp. nov., C. pituita sp. nov., C. pulchelloides sp. nov., C. singularis sp. nov., C. elongata comb. nov. and C. chlorelloides comb. nov. Furthermore, three new species without mucilage were described as C. lewinii sp. nov., C. rotunda sp. nov. and C. volutis sp. nov. Using the 5.8S rRNA and part of the ITS–2 as molecular signature (barcode), we were able to distinguish not only the five already known species of Chlorella, C. vulgaris, C. sorokiniana, C. heliozoae, C. lobophora and C. variabilis but the seven new species and two new combinations as well. CBCs and hemi–CBCs within the secondary structure of the ITS–2 confirmed the separation of the species. Our study led to a new understanding of the evolution of morphology within the genus Chlorella and to an emendation of the generic description.
Greenland is a continental island in the northern part of the North Atlantic where the foliose Bangiales flora is poorly known. It is an important area for the study of algal biogeography because of the region’s glacial history, in which Greenland has been alternately exposed to or isolated from the North Pacific via the Bering Strait. A molecular study using 3′ rbcL + 5′ rbcL–S sequences was undertaken to assess the diversity of foliose Bangiales on the west coast of Greenland and rbcL sequences were used to study the Greenland flora in a larger phylogenetic and floristic context. New and historic collections document seven species in four genera from the west coast of Greenland. All species had a close link to North Pacific species, being either conspecific with them or North Atlantic–North Pacific vicariant counterparts.
Ulva, one of the first Linnaean genera, was later circumscribed to consist of green seaweeds with distromatic blades, and Enteromorpha Link was established for tubular forms. Although several lines of evidence suggest that these generic constructs are artificial, Ulva and Enteromorpha have been maintained as separate genera. Our aims were to determine phylogenetic relationships among taxa currently attributed to Ulva, Enteromorpha, Umbraulva Bae et I.K. Lee and the monotypic genus Chloropelta C.E. Tanner, and to make any nomenclatural changes justified by our findings. Analyses of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer DNA (ITS nrONA) (29 ingroup taxa including the type species of Ulva and Enteromorphat, the chloroplast-encoded rbcL gene (for a subset of taxa) and a combined data set were carried out. All trees had a strongly supported clade consisting of all Ulva, Enteromorpha and Chloropelta species, but Ulva and Enteromorpha were not monophyletic. The recent removal of Vmbraulva olivascens (PJ.L. Dangeard) Bae et I.K. Lee from Ulvu is supported, although the relationship of the segregate genus Umhraulva to Ulvaria requires further investigation. These results, combined with earlier molecular and culture data, provide strong evidence that Ulva, Enteromorpha and Chloropelta are not distinct evolutionary entities and should not be recognized as separate genera. A comparison of traits for surveyed species revealed few synapomorphies. Because Ulva is the oldest name, Enteromorpha and Chloropclta are here reduced to synonymy with Ulva, and new combinations are made where necessary.
Thraustochytrids have the capability to recycle refractory organic matter, with a resulting impact on carbon cycling in coastal and open seawaters. The abundance of thraustochytrids has traditionally been estimated by acriflavine direct counting. However, this technique may lead to over- or underestimation. To accurately quantify the abundance of thraustochytrids, we developed a quantitative PCR (qPCR) system using 7 genus-specific primer sets targeting 7 genera (Aurantiochytrium, Botryochytrium, Oblongichytrium, Parietichytrium, Schizochytrium, Sicyoidochytrium, andUlkenia) from the family Thraustochytriaceae. The high specificity was verified in silico and with culture strains of each genus. In addition, we applied this qPCR assay to test for the presence of thraustochytrids in coastal and open seawaters around Japan. We successfully detected the presence of Aurantiochytrium (in the range of 1.12 × 104 to 1.31 × 104 cells l−1) and Oblongichytrium(in the range of 1.02 × 104 to 3.14 × 104cells l−1) in 8 surface water samples from around Satsuma-Iwojima (western Japan) and off the Karakuwa in Sanriku (eastern Japan). We obtained higher estimates using qPCR than the traditional acriflavine method in all cases, with a weak positive correlation between the 2 methods (r2=0.495). Interestingly, we quantified thraustochytrids in 104 additional samples by direct count, but not by qPCR, possibly because of inhibition of the qPCR reaction and/or the presence of novel thraustochytrid groups. Although these trials are preliminary, our approach can provide the genus-specific value of abundance in the environment. It will also promote further advances in our understanding of thraustochytrid diversity.
Recent molecular and morphological research has demonstrated that the southern bull-kelp genus Durvillaea includes multiple as-yet-unnamed phylogenetic species. One of these, which has previously been recognised as genetically, morphologically and ecologically distinct (the 'cape' lineage of D. antarctica, endemic to the New Zealand region), is here described, and named Durvillaea poha sp. nov. Additional molecular analyses (28S sequence data) support the distinct status of this divergent lineage. No evidence of hybridisation among sympatric D. polio and D. antarctica has been observed.
Molecular markers belonging to the three different genomes, mitochondrial (cox2-cox3 spacer), plastid (rbcL), and nuclear (internal transcribed spacer [ITS] 2 region), were used to compare samples of the two morphologically related species Gracilaria gracilis (Stackh.) Steentoft, L. M. Irvine et Farnham and G. dura (C. Agardh) J. Agardh collected along Atlantic coasts. In northern Europe, the distinction between these two species is ambiguous, and they are currently recognized under the single name of G. gracilis. The low but congruent patterns of genetic divergence observed for markers of the three genomic compartments highly suggest that these two taxa correspond effectively to two different genetic entities as previously described 200 years ago, based on morphological traits. However, thanks to the combination of different DNA markers, occurrence of “incongruent” cytotypes (i.e., mitotypes of G. dura associated with chlorotypes of G. gracilis) in individuals collected from Brittany, suggests interspecific hybridization between the two sibling species studied.
Gene flow among hybridizing species with incomplete reproductive barriers blurs species boundaries, while selection under heterogeneous local ecological conditions or along strong gradients may counteract this tendency. Congeneric, externally-fertilizing fucoid brown algae occur as distinct morphotypes along intertidal exposure gradients despite gene flow. Combining analyses of genetic and phenotypic traits, we investigate the potential for physiological resilience to emersion stressors to act as an isolating mechanism in the face of gene flow. Along vertical exposure gradients in the intertidal zone of Northern Portugal and Northwest France, the mid-low shore species Fucus vesiculosus, the upper shore species Fucus spiralis, and an intermediate distinctive morphotype of F. spiralis var. platycarpus were morphologically characterized. Two diagnostic microsatellite loci recovered 3 genetic clusters consistent with prior morphological assignment. Phylogenetic analysis based on single nucleotide polymorphisms in 14 protein coding regions unambiguously resolved 3 clades; sympatric F. vesiculosus, F. spiralis, and the allopatric (in southern Iberia) population of F. spiralis var. platycarpus. In contrast, the sympatric F. spiralis var. platycarpus (from Northern Portugal) was distributed across the 3 clades, strongly suggesting hybridization/introgression with both other entities. Common garden experiments showed that physiological resilience following exposure to desiccation/heat stress differed significantly between the 3 sympatric genetic taxa; consistent with their respective vertical distribution on steep environmental clines in exposure time. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that F. spiralis var. platycarpus is a distinct entity in allopatry, but that extensive gene flow occurs with both higher and lower shore species in sympatry. Experimental results suggest that strong selection on physiological traits across steep intertidal exposure gradients acts to maintain the 3 distinct genetic and morphological taxa within their preferred vertical distribution ranges. On the strength of distributional, genetic, physiological and morphological differences, we propose elevation of F. spiralis var. platycarpus from variety to species level, as F. guiryi.
Seaweeds are increasingly used in European cuisine. Until the recent use of molecular techniques, species identification was solely based on morphology which cannot easily discriminate morphologically simple but phenotypically plastic taxa such as the green algal genus Ulva. For example, current taxonomic protocol effectively reassigned the previously known European ʻUlva lactuca L.’ under the name Ulva fenestrata Postels & Ruprecht. Also, the presumptive Ulva lactuca approved by the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM, Joint Research Center, European Commission) as Certified Reference Material (CRM) for analytical quality assurance was genetically identified as U. rigida C.Agardh. It is very likely that different Ulva species under various names have been consumed as food not only in Europe, but also worldwide. In this regard, when chemical composition and nutritional quality of different seaweed species meet a set of food standard criteria, and food safety hazards are mitigated, they should be endorsed for consumption. In the case of Ulva, we propose that different bladed and tubular species should generally be accepted for food consumption in Europe.
Current usage of the name Ulva lactuca, the generitype of Ulva, remains uncertain. Genetic analyses were performed on the U. lactuca Linnaean holotype, the U. fasciata epitype, the U. fenestrata holotype, the U. lobata lectotype, and the U. stipitata lectotype. The U. lactuca holotype is nearly identical in rbcL sequence to the U. fasciata epitype, a warm temperate to tropical species, rather than the cold temperate species to which the name U. lactuca has generally been applied. We hypothesize that the holotype specimen of U. lactuca came from the Indo‐Pacific rather than northern Europe. Our analyses indicate that U. fasciata and U. lobata are heterotypic synonyms of U. lactuca. Ulva fenestrata is the earliest name for northern hemisphere, cold temperate Atlantic and Pacific species, with U. stipitata a junior synonym. DNA sequences from type specimens provide an unequivocal method for applying names to Ulva species.
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The cultivation of red seaweeds for food (nori), agar and carrageenans is the basis of a valuable industry. However, taxonomic knowledge of these cultivated seaweeds and their wild relatives has not kept pace with advances in molecular systematics despite the fundamental importance of being able to identify commercially important species and strains, discover cryptic and endemic taxa and recognize non-native species with potentially damaging diseases and epiphytes. This review focuses on molecular taxonomic advances in the cultivated red algae with the highest commercial value globally: Eucheuma and Kappaphycus, Porphyra sensu lato and Gracilaria. All three groups are similarly taxonomically challenging: speciose, morphologically plastic, with poorly resolved species boundaries. Eucheuma and Kappaphycus are frequently misidentified and the molecular markers cox2-3 spacer, cox1 and RuBisCO spacer have helped in understanding phylogenetic relationships and identifying new species and haplotypes. In Porphyra sensu lato (Bangiales) species identification and phylogenetic relationships were highly problematic until a taxonomic revision based on a two-gene phylogeny (18S and rbcL) resulted in nine genera of bladed species. Pyropia, with at least 89 species, three in nori cultivation, has potential for new commercial evaluation. In Gracilaria sensu lato, earlier efforts to resolve species-level taxonomy and generic descriptions were superseded by application of molecular tools, including DNA sequences of the RuBisCO spacer, rbcL gene, 18S and the ITS region. Studies of these cultivated red algal genera highlight the need for a robust taxonomy, a more standardized approach to the molecular markers used and a comprehensive dataset for each representative species. Current work on DNA-based species delimitation, the emergence of high throughput sequencing, multi-gene phylogenies, publication of whole genomes (e.g. Porphyra umbilicalis) and genomes in the pipeline (e.g. Gracilaria) are increasingly improving our understanding of phylogenomic relationships and species relationships. This knowledge, in turn, can then be applied to improving red seaweed aquaculture.
The species name is a shorthand identifier for a taxonomic entity and provides an important information retrieval tool, even more so in this age of electronic on-line searching and large-scale databases. However, the species name also has limitations. Firstly, the species must have been correctly identified and the correct name applied. Secondly, because of new insights and data on species, there may be a reappraisal of the species and its relationship to other taxa leading to possible changes in the name. One needs to be aware of these changes if one wishes to retrieve all the information available on the organism. For microalgae provision of the species name (binomial) alone in a publication is not sufficient. For effective and accurate data retrieval and communication the strain designator (strain number) is also extremely important. Two strains may initially have been identified as the same species, but later studies may show them to belong to different species or, even if they are the same species, to show some genetic and important phenotypic differences in physiology, some of which may have arisen in culture over time. For a number of algae species the name and its phylogenetic placement have undergone changes over the years. In this book considerable effort has gone into ensuring, as far as possible, that the currently accepted names for algae species are used and, in order to assist in reconciling species names and to find the taxonomic affiliation of species this chapter lists all the species names used in the book and also provides information on the name changes of the major species.
Two terete species of gracilarioid algae are described for the British Isles. Gracilaria gracilis comb. nov. and Gracilariopsis longissima comb. nov. (Gracilariopsis verrucosa nom. rej. prop.) are superficially similar species long confused under the name Gracilaria verrucosa (Hudson) Papenfuss (= G. confervoides (Stackhouse) Greville), until recently regarded as the type species of the genus Gracilaria Greville. They occur regularly on southern British coasts, often in the same locality, both inter- and subtidally. Gracilariopsis longissima is also recorded for the first time from France and Spain. A lectotype is selected for Gracilaria gracilis, Gracilariopsis longissima is neotypified, and new descriptions are given, including field characters and new details of vegetative and cystocarp structure obtained by sectioning in standard planes, using metachromatic dyes. The British record for Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis (Bory) Dawson, Acleto et Foldvik is not confirmed. Revision of those definitions of agar which include an incorrect specific name is recommended.
Two terete species of gracilarioid algae are described for the British Isles. Gracilaria gracilis comb. nov. and Gracilariopsis longissima comb. nov. (Gracilariopsis verrucosa nom. rej. prop.) are superficially similar species long confused under the name Gracilaria verrucosa (Hudson) Papenfuss (= G. confervoides (Stackhouse) Greville), until recently regarded as the type species of the genus Gracilaria Greville. They occur regularly on southern British coasts, often in the same locality, both inter- and subtidally. Gracilariopsis longissima is also recorded for the first time from France and Spain. A lectotype is selected for Gracilaria gracilis, Gracilariopsis longissima is neotypified, and new descriptions are given, including field characters and new details of vegetative and cystocarp structure obtained by sectioning in standard planes, using metachromatic dyes. The British record for Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis (Bory) Dawson, Acleto et Foldvik is not confirmed. Revision of those definitions of agar which include an incorrect specific name is recommended.
Ulva Linnaeus (Ulvophyceae, Ulvales) is a genus
of green algae widespread in different aquatic
environments. Members of this genus show a
very simple morphology and a certain degree
of phenotypic plasticity, heavily influenced by
environmental conditions, making difficult the
delineation of species by morphological features
alone. Most studies dealing with Ulva biodiversity in
Mediterranean waters have been based only on
morphological characters and a modern taxonomic
revision of this genus in the Mediterranean is not
available. We report here the results of an
investigation on the diversity of Ulva in the North
Adriatic Sea based on molecular analyses.
Collections from three areas, two of which subject
to intense shipping traffic, were examined, as well
as historical collections of Ulva stored in the
Herbarium Patavinum of the University of Padova,
Italy. Molecular analyses based on partial sequences
of the rbcL and tufA genes revealed the presence of
six different species, often with overlapping
morphologies: U. californica Wille, U. flexuosa
Wulfen, U. rigida C. Agardh, U. compressa Linnaeus,
U. pertusa Kjellman, and one probable new taxon.
U. californica is a new record for the Mediterranean
and U. pertusa is a new record for the Adriatic.
Partial sequences obtained from historical
collections show that most of the old specimens are
referable to U. rigida. No specimens referable to
the two alien species were found among the old
herbarium specimens. The results indicate that the
number of introduced seaweed species and their
impact on Mediterranean communities have been
underestimated, due to the difficulties in species
identification of morphologically simple taxa as
Ulva.
Pyropia suborbiculata is a bladed Bangiales originally reported from Asia that has also been recorded as an introduction in Atlantic USA, New Zealand, Vietnam, Canary Islands and Brazil. Here we report for the first time the expansion of its distribution to Europe (Northeastern Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts) on the basis of collections from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal). Comparison of morphological and molecular data of our specimens with those of Py. suborbiculata confirms conspecificity and allowes us to differentiate it from other similar species traditionally reported in this area. Its extensive distribution in the Iberian Peninsula and identical rbcL sequences with native and introduced strains suggests a recent introduction probably from the NW Pacific following the example of a lot of exotic seaweeds introduced in Europe. Although this is the first report in Europe of this taxon, it could have been easily overlooked until now because of its small thalli
In non-Western civilizations, cyanobacteria have been part of the human diet for centuries. Today, microalgae and cyanobacteria are either produced in controlled cultivation processes or harvested from the natural habitats and marketed as food supplements around the world. Cyanobacteria produce a vast array of different biologically active compounds, some of which are expected to be used in drug development. The fact that some of the active components from cyanobacteria potentially have anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and other effects is being used for marketing purposes. However, introduction of these products in the form of whole biomass for alimentary purposes raises concerns regarding the potential toxicity and long-term effects on human health. Here, we review data on the use of cyanobacteria and microalgae in human nutrition and searched for available information on legislature that regulates the use of these products. We have found that, although the quality control of these products is most often self-regulated by the manufacturers, different governmental agencies are introducing strict regulations for placing novel products, such as algae and cyanobacteria, on the market. The existing regulations require these products to be tested for the presence of toxins, such as microcystin; however, other, sometimes novel, toxins remain undetected, and their long-term effects on human health remain unknown.
The genus Schizochytrium sensu lato has been characterized by successive binary division of its vegetative cells. However, the molecular phylogeny
strongly suggests that this genus is not a natural taxon, because the original and recorded strains that have been identified
as Schizochytrium spp. separately form three well-supported monophyletic groups in the 18S rRNA gene tree. These three groups are clearly distinguishable
by their combined morphological characteristics and the profiles of the polyunsaturated fatty acids and carotenoid pigments
they contain, although these are hard to distinguish using only a single feature. Therefore, three different genera are proposed
to accommodate these three groups, i.e., Schizochytrium sensu stricto, Aurantiochytrium, and Oblongichytrium gen. nov.
The genus Ulkenia is characterized by the naked protoplast stage within its life cycle. However, the 18S rRNA gene tree clearly shows that
this genus is not a natural taxon, because our own isolates and reported strains separately form four well-supported monophyletic
groups. These four groups are clearly distinguishable by their profiles of polyunsaturated fatty acids and carotenoid pigments
and cell and colony morphology, e.g., persistence of sporangial wall, manner of the cell cleavage at the zoospore formation,
and development of the ectoplasmic nets. Therefore, the four groups are assigned to four genera including three new genera,
i.e., Ulkenia sensu stricto, Botryochytrium, Parietichytrium, and Sicyoidochytrium gen. nov.
Rhodophyta: Bangiophycidae) in Europe
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Avis du 9 janvier 1990 du Conseil Supérieur d'Hygiène Publique de France (CSHPF) (section de l'alimentation) -demande d'autorisation d'algues en alimentation humaine
- Index Cabi
- Fungorum
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Courrier de la Direction générale de la concurrence, de la consommation et de la répression des fraudes (DGCCRF) du 17 avril 2009 à l'attention du CEVA -liste des algues présentant un historique de consommation dans l'Union européenne depuis une date antérieure à
- Dgccrf
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du 17 avril 2009 à l'attention du CEVA -liste des algues présentant un historique de consommation dans l'Union européenne
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- Dgccrf
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Regulation (EC) No 258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 1997 concerning novel foods and novel food ingredients
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amending Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Regulation (EC) No
258/97 of the European Parliament and of the Council and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1852/2001', Official Journal of
the European Union, No L 327, 2015.
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in accordance with Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council on novel foods', Official
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process for determination of novel food status in accordance with Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament
and of the Council on novel foods', Official Journal of the European Union, No L 77, 2018.
World-wide electronic publication
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Food in England: A complete guide to the food that makes us who we are
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Arrêté du 24 juin 2014 établissant la liste des plantes, autres que les champignons, autorisées dans les compléments alimentaires et les conditions de leur emploi
JOFR, 'Arrêté du 24 juin 2014 établissant la liste des plantes, autres que les champignons, autorisées dans les compléments
alimentaires et les conditions de leur emploi', Journal officiel de la république Française (JOFR), No. 163, 2014.
Review of the cyanobacterial genera implying planktic species after recent taxonomic revisions according to polyphasic methods: state as of
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Arrêté royal du 24 janvier 2017 modifiant l'arrêté royal du 29 août 1997 relatif à la fabrication
- Mb
MB, 'Arrêté royal du 24 janvier 2017 modifiant l'arrêté royal du 29 août 1997 relatif à la fabrication et au commerce de
denrées alimentaires composées ou contenant des plantes ou préparations de plantes (texte consolidé)', Moniteur Belge
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Index nominum algarum, bibliographia phycologica universalis
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Berkeley, 2021, Retrieved from: http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/INA.html
Safety of Schizochytrium sp
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Pelaez, C., Pentieva, K., Siani, A., Thies, F., Tsabouri, S., Vinceti, M., Cubadda, F., Engel, K. H., Frenzel, T., Heinonen, M., Marchelli,
R., Neuhauser-Berthold, M., Poulsen, M., Sanz, Y., Schlatter, J. R., van Loveren, H., Ferreira, L., Knutsen, H. K. and A, E. P. N. N.
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International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants
- N J Turland
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Marhold, K., May, T. W., McNeill, J., Monro, A. M., Prado, J., Price, M. J. and Smith, G. F., International Code of Nomenclature for
algae, fungi, and plants (Shenzhen Code), Koeltz Botanical Books, Glashuẗten, Germany, 2018, doi:10.12705/Code.2018.