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Teaching academics in higher education: resisting teaching at the expense of research
Abstract
The experiences of academics caught up in the rise of teaching academic (TA) (teaching-only) roles in Australia, the UK, the USA, and Canada, are not well documented in the literature. This paper describes a recent university restructure that resulted in a significant increase in teaching-only positions being created. Despite the claims by the university that teaching-only roles demonstrate excellence and innovation in teaching, the actual experiences of TA in the last few years have highlighted a common finding of “the perceived low value of the TA role and confusion about what the role entails” (Bennett et al., 75:271–286, 2018, p. 271). We use a more local conception of regime of truth as a tool (Gore, 1993) for reflecting on possibilities for resistance and re-imagining how we might think about ourselves beyond ‘second tier’. By understanding that a reconceptualisation of ourselves is simultaneously within a given regime but also outside of it, allowing for reading the regime and thinking about the production of that regime in ways that open up possibilities for creating a space for talking and sharing both research and teaching, which is also within the ‘cultural web’ of the university.
... Australia's lag behind the UK in this area has been attributed to negative perceptions associated with the teaching-focused role and poor promotion prospects (Bennett et al., 2018;Probert, 2013). Nonetheless, Australian university workforce data show that teaching-only fulltime equivalent (FTE) staff quadrupled in the decade 2010-2019 (Rogers & Swain, 2021). By 2021, teaching-only academics comprised more than 17 percent in the reported academic teaching workforce data and made up about 8 percent of all full-time and fractional full-time university staff in academic organisational units in Australia (DESE, 2022). ...
... In particular, female academics in teaching-focused roles still face systemic barriers to progression (Konjarski et al., 2022). Finally, when teaching-focused roles are offered on a temporary basis, the transition (back) to teaching and research is considered unlikely to occur (Bennett et al., 2018;Brennan et al., 2020;Rogers & Swain, 2021). At this stage there is little in the way of data on teaching-focused career pathways in Australia. ...
... The evaluation of teaching-focused roles will remain a crucial research activity for as long as their function and design remain contested and without cross-sectoral consensus. Areas for further research identified by the literature include the need for deeper investigation into teaching-focused academic identity (Flecknoe et al., 2017), as well as the experience of academics who have transitioned from teaching and research positions to teaching-focused roles (Rogers & Swain, 2021). Probert's call from 2013 for "further research at the institutional level on innovative and strategic approaches to the use of teaching focused appointments to improve teaching and learning" (p. ...
Teaching-focused roles provide an ideal opportunity to improve the quality of teaching in higher education. However, such roles are commonly presented as pragmatic solutions for academics not fulfilling research expectations rather than quality improvement interventions. Workload allocations can be shifted to ensure that unproductive researchers are not counted as research-active in university ranking assessments and, at the same time, help balance salary budgets. These measures to address underperforming researchers have shifted focus from the potential to improve teaching quality that teaching-focused roles promised. We argue that a successful implementation of a supported approach for teaching-focused academics can help to foster a culture of excellence in teaching that should deliver career development and associated benefits for those in teaching-focused roles. This paper discusses a considered approach to improving teaching in higher education by supporting teaching-focused roles in an Australian university. Strategies to raise the profile of teaching-focused academics included a high-level champion, a merit-based application process, and a development program. These strategies aimed to address mis-focused perceptions and stigma related to teaching-focused positions and contribute to a culture of excellence in teaching. We put this approach forward as a model for institutions wanting to improve teaching quality, implement or enhance teaching-focused career paths or review existing models.
... Despite their novitiate status, ECRs in the employ of university contexts are required to meet amplified research expectations alongside their more experienced colleagues, while concurrently navigating the complexities of academic life that often includes substantial teaching workloads, building research capacities (Zipin & Nuttall, 2016) and importantly, continuing the journey of researcher identity development . Regional university settings, and particular disciplines such as education, have been identified as conspicuous sites of rapidly escalated research performance expectations in a bid to remain competitive (Rogers & Swain, 2021). ...
... Regional universities, in particular, have been significantly impacted by this Report (Aprile et al., 2020). With many traditionally less competitive in research than their top tier counterparts (Diezmann, 2018), and in some cases known more predominantly as teaching universities (Rogers & Swain, 2021), many regional universities immediately began to amplify performative policy around research productivity in a bid to improve their measurable research outputs. As warned by Dougherty and Natow (2020, p. 465), under this metric-based regimen, universities are at risk of being seen as "winners or losers, leaders or laggards", meaning that regional universities, regardless of potential financial, geographical, demographic or axiomatic differences, are forced to compete with elite institutions. ...
... One of the immediate challenges facing ECRs as they transition from their doctoral research status is the procurement of secure employment, whether within or outside of the Academy (Rogers & Swain, 2021). Significantly however, even where ECRs hold academic positions within the Academy, studies have reported concerns about excessive workloads, with ECRs required to "do more and run faster" (Peterson, 2011, p. 36), and a lack of quality support offered to achieve this (Locke et al., 2016). ...
Across the world, many university-based early career researchers (ECRs) are experiencing an unprecedented intensification of research expectations on transition from doctoral research to academic life. Countries such as Australia have put into place national frameworks of research excellence to remain globally competitive. Pressure on universities to elevate global research rankings has soared, with many regional universities and disciplines such as education responding with a rapid escalation of research performance expectations for academics. Consequently, concerns have been raised for ECRs embroiled in intensified research agendas in these contexts. Framed by concepts of liminality and identity construction, we argue that intensified expectations do not take account of liminality experienced by ECRs during times of transition, compromising perceived academic progress. We report on the identity journeys of ECRs in a School of Education at one regional Australian university. Data was collected from nine ECRs using online focus groups and analysed using a hybrid thematic approach. Key findings indicate that ECRs transition into the Academy post-doctorate with varying experiences of identity liminality that impact their capacity to manage research expectations. ECRs experiencing shorter periods of liminality are best positioned to manage the intensified expectations of academic life while ECRs experiencing persistent liminality and identity ‘struggle’ are more likely to perceive a diminished sense of achievement and support. These findings have significant implications for university leadership and research supervisors, in Australia and globally, regarding the ways they support ECRs to productively navigate the hyper-invigilated audit cultures of what we have termed the neo-academy.
... In Australia, a PhD graduate can follow two main academic career routes: the lecturer pathway (teaching and research positions) and the postdoctoral pathway (research-only positions) (Rogers & Swain, 2022). Both routes have equivalent academic titles, which are ranked from levels A to E. Table 1 shows the titles used in most Australian universities. ...
... Alarmingly, there is an increase in the number of teaching-only staff, considered "second class", accounting for around 80% of the casual academic workforce because they are loaded with heavy teaching and do not often have opportunities, time, and support to conduct research (Bennett et al., 2018, p. 282). Without strong track records in research, they are unlikely to be offered a long-term employment contract (Rogers & Swain, 2022). The time taken to obtain one can extend to 10 years or more after the completion of doctoral study (Nadolny & Ryan, 2015). ...
Despite limited opportunities for tenured academic positions, the number of PhD graduates in Social Sciences has steadily risen in countries with developed research systems. The current literature predominantly portrays PhD graduates as victims, either of the higher education system or of their own optimism in pursuing an academic career. This paper takes an alternative stance by spotlighting the agency exhibited by PhD graduates in Social Sciences as they deftly navigate their career pathways amid the constrained academic job market. Specifically, we adopt an ecological perspective of agency to explore how PhD graduates in Social Sciences exercise their agency in navigating their career from the beginning of their PhD candidature until up to 5 years after graduation. We employ a narrative approach to delve into the employment journeys of twenty-three PhD graduates. Within this cohort, we select to report four participants from four Australian universities, each possessing distinct career trajectories. Our analysis highlights agency as the link between various personal and institutional factors that shape our participants’ career trajectories. Based on this finding, we offer recommendations for practice and policy changes that appreciate PhD graduates’ agency.
... We therefore believe that an educational development focus potentially contributes to a fragmentation of the roles traditionally occupied by academics, insofar as educational development "often failed to attend to these other aspects of academic work and how they might complement or disrupt teaching" (McAlpine et al., 2009, p. 274). Despite the growth of teaching academics positions (teaching-only) (Rogers and Swain, 2022), professors remain the most common position within universities, involving research, teaching as well as university and community service. To this end, it might be favorable to consider a more holistic approach to academics' development (Sutherland, 2018). ...
This article presents the results of a scoping review designed to explore the current state of knowledge about the educational development of university teachers. More specifically, the study examined the definitions attributed to educational development, its aims, the factors that foster it and the variables studied in this field. A thematic analysis was conducted on 98 scholarly documents published between 2000 and 2022. The results indicate that the field of educational development is mainly characterized by ideological and political rather than scientific dimensions. Consequently, the focus is on desired changes in educational development, reflecting a high degree of desirability. Furthermore, the results highlight the individualistic nature of the starting point of professional learning process, suggesting that institutional conditions and resources should be adapted to accommodate the diversity of learning trajectories. This study contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the complex landscape surrounding the educational development of university teachers, highlighting the need for nuanced approaches to promote teaching quality and professional development in the context of higher education.
... Data from the Department of Education, according to Bennett et al. (2018, p. 272), suggest a rapid growth of teaching-or education-focused academics in Australia: 339 per cent from 2007 to 2016. Rogers andSwain (2022, p. 1048), based on more recent data from the Department of Education, reported that "the number of full-time and fractional full-time teaching-only positions increased from 1163 to 4988 FTE … In the same period, the number of research-only positions increased by 2449 FTE," while the number of positions that combine research and teaching increased from 26,840 to 27,507. The data suggest that the rise of the "educationfocused" academic role has been going on for quite some time. ...
... This does not mean that the nuances and requirements of pedagogy are ignored, as they also form part of the argument [11]. Rather, university teaching is contextualized and theorized within a larger university-wide context [12], whereas other agendas, most notably for this paper, such as the impact agenda, represent fundamental issues for the very framing and purpose of Higher Education in the first place [13]. Specifically, this conceptual paper theorizes the influence of the impact agenda on a systematic level [14], with a focus on Higher Education [15]. ...
1) Background: This conceptual paper departs from the background of how Higher Education represents a critical component of the continuation of Western civilisation and culture. Specifically, the paper addresses the knowledge gap of what an emphasis on the outcome/impact does to pedagogy at Western universities. (2) Methods: Methodologically the paper subdivides the educational process into four discrete phases as to reflect upon whom and on what premises the pedagogy happens (teaching, research, funding, and curriculum formation). (3) Research findings: The presented argument suggests that universities can focus on educating students for its own sake or as means to an end. The current impact agenda prioritizes achieving specific goals at the expense of exploratory research, leading to a different definition of research success. This could result in only end-goal-focused individuals being successful and the curriculum being changed to align with their impact ambitions, the unintended consequence being that Higher Education stops being a genuine mechanism for education and instead becomes inadvertent indoctrination. (4) Conclusions: Only by having student benefit as the primary focus of pedagogy (process view) can the inter-generational feedback loop be safeguarded, regardless of how noble other sentiments may appear to be for related practical purposes (end-product view).
... One such example is at the second author's institution, which enlisted governance strategies to change culture related to the status and importance afforded to quality L&T. Traditionally, research is valorised above teaching and service in universities, both in Australia and overseas (Rogers & Swain, 2021). This is a longstanding and often unquestioned status hierarchy. ...
Responses to COVID-19 impacts have shown how quickly universities can change, given the impetus. However, global disruptions to university learning and teaching have not yet been matched by any significant change to university leadership. Taking gender equity as our focus, we argue that pedagogical disruption should extend beyond the classroom to reshape academic leadership. In this commentary we critically reflect on the question ‘How can university leaders share power to nurture caring and ethical academic leadership’? Taking some cues from disruptions to university learning and teaching, we call on the work of bell hooks to propose a holistic vision of university leadership as a form of critical pedagogy — ‘engaged pedagogy’. We draw on combined experience in professional and academic roles at six universities in Australia and Aotearoa New Zealand to share composite vignettes of holistic leadership practices grounded in integrity, collaboration and personal wellbeing. Our commentary concludes with practical suggestions for changing university governance in a time of disruption so that leadership as engaged pedagogy can be practised more widely.
As travel costs fall with new capacity, the quantity of travel increases. This concept—induced travel—has profound implications but remains unevenly embraced in practice. Do instructors teach it in transportation engineering classrooms? What explains their pedagogical decisions? Interviews with university instructors revealed remarkable variation. Whereas some featured induced travel as a key takeaway, others omitted the idea entirely. Instructors also varied in their willingness to critique standard engineering practices; some were largely uncritical while others sought to “counteract conventional wisdom.” In justifying their choices, instructors offered a range of overlapping concerns. Those who “believed” in induced travel but did not teach it often lacked expertise in the area and were uneasy teaching “soft” concepts. Because teaching was seen as a lower priority than conducting research, instructors had little motivation to overcome those challenges. Instructors also advanced pragmatic concerns about the need to prepare students for the Fundamentals of Engineering exam and their careers. Instructors who were more skeptical of induced travel wondered whether seemingly new travel was instead shifted or previously suppressed. Some of these instructors argued that even if new travel was indeed induced, engineers still had a responsibility to accommodate it. Finally, the contested language of induced travel can lead parties to talk past each other. “Believers” and “skeptics” sometimes have more in common than initially thought. However, there are still profound disagreements—about induced travel, standard engineering practices, and indeed the very purpose of engineering. In these debates it will be essential to operate from a shared vocabulary.
During a period of massive upheaval to the higher education sector, the traditional academic role has undergone considerable change. One element of these changes has been the broad introduction of Education-Focused (EF) or equivalent academic positions, which focus on educational excellence, with a requirement for high quality teaching and associated scholarly research. This paper reports on the reflections of a group of bioscience academics as they transitioned from a traditional teaching and research position to an EF academic position at a research-intensive Australian university. Through analysis of written narratives, the insights of these academics, including their concerns and potential opportunities, were explored. Given the global trend toward EF and similar positions, this study provides valuable insights into the evolving nature of academic identity, and in particular the role of EF academics in enhancing curricula and in providing educational leadership. Additionally, this study provides perspective for universities to plan optimally for future introduction of EF positions. Facilitating opportunities for support, mentorship and career progression of EF staff will promote best practice in teaching and learning.
This research paper was reviewed using a double blind peer review process that meets DIISR requirements. Two reviewers were appointed on the basis of their independence and they reviewed the full paper devoid of the authors' names and institutions in order to ensure objectivity and anonymity. Papers were reviewed according to specified criteria, including relevance to the conference theme and audience, soundness of the research methods and critical analysis, originality and contri bution to scholarship, and clear and coherent presentation of the argument. Following review and acceptance, this full paper was presented at the international conference. Abstract By February 2018, almost 700 positions for a new type of academic, the 'Scholarly Teaching Fellow' (STF), had been created (NTEU 2018). The creation of STFs reflects a shift in priorities, both for universities and for staff as represented through the sector's lead trade union, the NTEU. There is growing pressure from universities to promote teaching-intensive academic careers, mainly to strengthen teaching capacity in the context of rising enrolments. There is also new recognition from the NTEU that continuing teaching-intensive positions can offer a means of reducing academic casualization. The resulting convergence in priorities has led to the creation of this new category of employment in the academic workforce. Drawing from in-depth interviews conducted for an Office of Learning and Teaching Project about STFs, this paper reflects on the implementation and experience of these positions from the perspective of academics and managers. A collective narrative analysis of the purpose of the positions and the varied experience of academics in the roles will be used to draw out the impact of these changes on workloads, job security, professional identity and personal life.
In this paper, I offer an overview of the ways in which Foucault defines and uses the concept of 'regime of truth' in his works between 1975 and 1980, focusing especially on his lectures at the Collège de France 'On the Government of the Living'. There, I argue, a substantial shift takes place, which corresponds to the emergence of the dimension of subjectivity at the heart of the concept of regime of truth itself. This shift bears witness to Foucault's elaboration of a new critical project, namely that of a genealogy of our contemporary regime of truth 'indexed to subjectivity'.
Despite the rise of teaching academic (teaching only) roles in Australia, the UK, the USA, and Canada, the experiences of teaching academics are not well documented in the literature. This article reports from a university-wide study that responded to the introduction of teaching academic roles during a major restructure of academic staff. Thirteen focus groups involving 115 academic staff employed in a range of roles were held approximately 12 months after teaching academic roles were introduced. In conveying the results, we first report on the teaching academic experience, highlighting the perceived low value of the teaching academic (TA) role and confusion about what the role entails. We then focus on teaching academic career pathways. The findings highlight the uncertainty surrounding career paths for teaching academics, who noted the absence of career or promotion scripts. Respondents noted also an absence of role models within the professoriate. They expressed widespread concerns about developing the traditional academic skill set required to transition between roles and institutions, with many TAs finding themselves in boundaried careers with an uncertain future. The construct of career or promotion scripts is used to examine multiple perceptions of career pathways for teaching academics. The findings highlight the importance of systematic change management processes when new academic roles are introduced within the context of university-wide academic restructure, and the critical role of human resources in designing and implementing the same.
In the 1979 lectures, Foucault was already moving toward an account and analysis of subjectivity that ultimately only came into its full understanding in the final years of his life. I argue here that a key influence in this move can be seen, in particular, in the neo-liberal theories of human capital put forth by the American school of neoliberalism. By tracing out the striking parallel between Foucault’s account of neo-liberal human capital theory and his history of practices of care of the self, we can come to see his turn to ethics as a sympathetic but ultimately critical response to the emergence of neo-liberal subjectivity, governmentally, and biopower. To put it differently, by giving an account of human capital theory, we can ask better if Foucault’s turn to antiquity is, in part, a subtle but radical response to the rise of neo-liberal subjectivity. My intervention here is in part to put aside the question of Foucault’s own liberalism in favor of asking what role his interest in liberalism plays in understanding the trajectory of his thought.
There has been significant interest in developing academics through Teaching Scholar Development Programs across the USA, Canada, the UK, and more recently in Australia. At their core, such programs develop academics across teaching scholarship, leadership, promotion, and award opportunities, where universities reap the benefits of developing such a cadre of leaders. This paper pays witness to one such a program in an Australian university to highlight enactments of caring passionately. We use qualitative survey evaluation data, metaphor analysis and reflective practice to nuance the pleasures, passions and challenges of the lived experiences using phenomenological and metaphor lenses to describe our experiences. Metaphors provide powerful insights into the dimensions of experience as they open up how programs are perceived and experienced. Our paper disrupts traditional linear writing through rhizomatic, multivocal and multitextual encounters to challenge dominant authorial voicing. The academic identity work and emotional work required in the program is unfolded through evolving, experiencing and reflecting on the program to inform design and highlight what we have come to (re)value in our academic work when we come together to learn, share, and lead. We forge ways to be and become with and against neoliberal agendas that have choked the soul of ‘the university’ to evolve rich spaces and practices of/for reciprocity and kindness where not only learning can thrive, but where love acts – a much needed revolutionary praxis for our time.
Coll. « New Politics of Autonomy »
This book considers Foucault as educator in three main ways. First, through some consideration of what his work says about education as a social and political practice. That is, education as a form of what Allen (2014) calls benign violence – which operates through mundane, quotidian disciplinary technologies and expert knowledges which together construct a ‘pedagogical machine’. Second, through an exploration of his ‘method’ as a form of critique. That is, as a way of showing that things are ‘not as necessary as all that’, a way of addressing what is intolerable. This suggests that critique is education of a kind. Third, through a discussion of some of Foucault's later work on subjectivity and in particular on ‘the care of the self’ or what we might call ‘a pedagogy of the self’. Each chapter introduces and discusses some relevant examples from educational settings to illustrate and enact Foucault’s analytics.
The idea of the research/teaching nexus has become of increasing importance in thinking about higher education over the last three decades. In essence, this idea recognizes the two key functions of higher education – teaching and research – and argues that they are, or should be, closely linked. This article explores the derivation and development of this idea, and considers its application and critique, through a systematic review of the literature. It concludes that, while there is clearly a linkage between research and teaching at a global level, it needs nurturing locally. We might do well to limit the emotional commitment often embodied in thinking about the association between research and teaching, and do more to explore in detail what actually happens in practice.
In his 1979 lectures, Foucault took particular interest in the reconfiguration of quotidian practices under neo-liberal human capital theory, re-describing all persons as entre-preneurs of the self. By the early 1980s, Foucault had begun to articulate a theory of ethical conduct driven not by the logic of investment, but of artistic development and self-care. This article uses Foucault's account of human capital as a basis to explore the meaning and limits of Foucault's final published works and argues for two interrelated genealogical projects focused on the ethics of economic activity.
We live in ‘a world of clashing interests’ [Zinn, H. (1991). Declarations of independence: Cross-examining American ideology. Toronto: Harper Collins, p. xx]. In a grapple for survival, universities choose to spend less money and time on teaching and learning, less time on robust evaluation of student learning and concomitantly less active support for collaborative reflective practice. However, the situation is even more dire than that outlined above because university management seeks to portray its focus on teaching and learning as genuine and a priority. Considerable effort is spent on encouraging teachers to compete for teaching excellence awards at the same time as universities push academics harder and harder into ‘real research’, that is, research that is not about teaching and learning. This is further exacerbated by the use of teaching quality instruments which have been criticised as unreliable indicators of student learning. This paper argues that individual reflective practitioners collecting and collaborating together can advocate for teaching in the current higher education environment but the outreach of this advocacy is likely to be limited when the advocacy remains within ‘pockets of resistance’. To further promote change from within the institution and extend the breadth and depth of an individual's influence beyond the pockets of resistance, we suggest that individuals use collaborative reflective practice-based strategies aligned with each of the dimensions of the institution's ‘cultural web’. Collaborative reflective practice has the potential to advocate for teaching beyond small groups of enthusiasts because it taps into the often hidden but heart-felt passion and commitment to teaching held by many academics.
Education has been powerfully affected by the rise of a neoliberal political, economic and cultural agenda. The Australian experience since the 1980s is outlined. Educators need to understand neoliberalism, and also to think about the nature of education itself, as a social process of nurturing capacities for practice. Education itself cannot be commodified; but access to education can be. Markets require a rationing of education, and the creation of hierarchies and mechanisms of competition. Hence, the redefinition of schools and universities as firms, and the striking revival of competitive testing, as well as the expansion of public funding of private schools. Teachers are placed under performative pressures that tend to narrow the curriculum in schools, and make the sector's workforce more insecure. Even the knowledge base of education is impacted, with technicization of professional knowledge and a growth of cultural fakery around education. Bases for alternatives exist, but have not yet found institutional articulation.
What it is like to be an academic working in a ‘new’ university in the 2000s depends upon specific contexts and individual biographies. Even so, it is the case that change, contingent upon local and national policy initiatives, is endemic in the higher education sector and has had some impact upon most people working there. This article explores some of the work‐related perceptions and experiences of a group of staff working in a School of Education at a ‘new’ university with a view to gaining a sense of their understanding of what being an academic means to them. These people, who had, initially, been hired essentially as lecturers, were facing increased demands to become ‘research active’. Not only did these demands lead to increased workloads, they also had implications for professional and personal identities, and, consequently, for how people felt about, and undertook, their work.
One of the few areas of consensus in the literature of higher education concerns the status of teaching. Unanimously, writers report the low status which higher education institutions give to teaching as an activity. This article draws on research investigating activities and perceptions of staff in a single discipline: social policy. The question on rewards for effort in improving teaching provoked more strength of feeling and a greater degree of consensus than any other in the interviews. With similar unanimity to that found in the secondary sources, the respondents perceived teaching to be accorded low status, with rewards of tenure and promotion accruing to research or administration. The article suggests that the impact of new developments to enhance teaching and learning are undermined by the persistent low status accorded to teaching.
Although there is a popular conception that research enhances teaching, evidence of such synergistic relationships is inconclusive. Recent research, undertaken as part of the Higher Education Funding Council for England's (HEFCE) fundamental review of research policy and funding, indicated that there are a range of relationships – both positive and negative – between teaching and research. While the ideal relationship might be perceived by many academics to be a positive one, there are a number of factors that shape the ways in which teaching and research can have a negative influence on each other, or even be driven apart. These factors include pressures to compartmentalize teaching and research through accountability and funding mechanisms, management strategies of academic staff time that treat teaching and research separately, and the competition for scarce resources. If teaching and research are to complement each other, new ways of managing the teaching and research relationship need to be considered.
Teaching, research and service are the three conventional elements of academic practice, recognised on an international basis. However, evidence suggests that academic practice is rapidly disaggregating, or ‘unbundling’, as a result of a variety of forces including the massification of national systems, the application of technology in teaching and increasing specialisation of academic roles to support a more centralised and performative culture. This article will present an analysis of these changes linked to the emergence of the ‘para-academic’: staff who specialise in one element of academic practice. This includes the ‘up-skilling’ of professional support staff and the ‘deskilling’ of academic staff. The implications of this change for the quality of the student experience and the sustainablity of academic citizenship are considered.
Without access to Michel Foucault's courses, it was extremely difficult to understand his reorientation from an analysis of the strategies and tactics of power immanent in the modern discourse on sexuality (1976) to an analysis of the ancient forms and modalities of relation to oneself by which one constituted oneself as a moral subject of sexual conduct (1984). In short, Foucault's passage from the political to the ethical dimension of sexuality seemed sudden and inexplicable. Moreover, it was clear from his published essays and interviews that this displacement of focus had consequences far beyond the specific domain of the history of sexuality. "Security, Territory, Population" (Foucault, 2007) contains a conceptual hinge, a key concept, that allows us to link together the political and ethical axes of Foucault's thought. Indeed, it is Foucault's analysis of the notions of conduct and counter-conduct in his lecture of 1 March 1978 that seems to me to constitute one of the richest and most brilliant moments in the entire course. Is is astonishing, and of profound significance, that the autonomous sphere of conduct has been more or less invisible in the history of modern (as opposed to ancient) moral and political philosophy. This article argues that a new attention should be given to this notion, both in Foucault's work and more generally.
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