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*Corresponding Author: pitogo.kiermitchel@gmail.com
Amphibians and Reptiles of Mount Busa,
Sarangani Province: a Glimpse of the Herpetological
Community of Southern Mindanao, Philippines
Kier Mitchel E. Pitogo1,2*, Aljohn Jay L. Saavedra2, and Leticia E. Afuang1
1Animal Biology Division, Institute of Biological Sciences
University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna 4031 Philippines
2Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office South Cotabato
Block 1 Martinez Subdivision, Koronadal City 9506 Philippines
The herpetological knowledge of southern Mindanao is one of the largest gaps in Philippine
herpetology. To augment this, we generated a comprehensive list of amphibians and reptiles
found along the southern slope of Mount Busa in Sarangani Province, Philippines between
June 2018 and August 2020 using opportunistic sampling in various microhabitats across
different forest types. We recorded at least 68 species of herpetofauna, of which 28 species were
amphibians and 40 species were reptiles. Around 65% of the species recorded are endemic to
the Philippines. Mount Busa appears to harbor a relatively rich herpetological diversity that is
needing conservation and scientific attention. Our study provides a glimpse of the herpetological
diversity of southern Mindanao, but we emphasized that more field-based research is needed
in nearby areas to improve our understanding of the herpetological community in the region,
thereby overcoming Linnean and Wallacean shortfalls in our knowledge of Philippine
amphibians and reptiles.
Keywords: biodiversity, Busa Mountain Range, herpetofauna, herpetofaunal inventory, Philippine
herpetology, southern Mindanao biodiversity
INTRODUCTION
Our modern understanding of Philippine herpetofauna
has greatly improved in the past decade, which increased
the Philippine terrestrial vertebrate diversity – recognized
likely as the highest estimate per land area on Earth
(Brown et al. 2013a). The present-day patterns of
diversity and endemism within the archipelago were
shaped in part by the fluctuating sea levels during the
Pleistocene glacial cycle, which partially interconnected
smaller islands via land bridges (Heaney 1985). These
amalgamations created larger island groups referred to
as the Pleistocene Aggregate Island Complexes (PAICs;
Brown and Diesmos 2002). The PAICs are considered
zoogeographic sub-regions in the Philippines with distinct
faunal compositions, herein referred to as faunal regions.
Much is known about the herpetofauna in the northern
Philippines (Brown et al. 2012a, 2013b; Diesmos et al.
2005; McLeod et al. 2011; Oliveros et al. 2011; Devan-
Song and Brown 2012; Gojo-Cruz et al. 2018) and central
Philippines (Alcala et al. 2004; Bucol et al. 2011; Gaulke
2011; Siler et al. 2012a; Supsup et al. 2016), leaving gaps
for studies in the southern portion of the archipelago –
Philippine Journal of Science
150 (5): 1279-1306, October 2021
ISSN 0031 - 7683
Date Received: 06 Apr 2021
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the majority of which encompasses the Mindanao faunal
region, comprised of mainland Mindanao and the islands
of Basilan, Dinagat, Leyte, Samar, Bohol, and several
smaller adjacent islands (Brown and Diesmos 2002).
Although our herpetological knowledge of the Mindanao
faunal region is still limited, several reports attest to the
highly diverse and unique assemblage of its herpetofauna
that rivals other well-studied zoogeographic sub-regions
in the Philippines (Diesmos et al. 2015; Sanguila et al.
2016; Leviton et al. 2018). This is particularly true for
mainland Mindanao that harbors a high cryptic diversity
masquerading under a few known recognized species
(Evans et al. 2003; Sanguila et al. 2011; Brown et al.
2015; Welton et al. 2017).
Logistical difficulties and security reasons largely hamper
contemporary field surveys in Mindanao, causing a
continued dearth of its herpetological information (Brown
2015; Sanguila et al. 2016; Pitogo and Saavedra 2021).
Despite these challenges, there is still a growing interest
in herpetological field surveys in recent years, although
these were geographically biased towards northeastern,
central, and southeastern Mindanao (Delima et al. 2006;
Ates and Delima 2008; Beukema 2011; Nuñeza et al.
2010; Sanguila et al. 2016, 2021; Supsup et al. 2017;
Coritico et al. 2018; Baron et al. 2021). These have
left the herpetological diversity of southern Mindanao
(South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Sarangani, and Davao
Occidental provinces) and western Mindanao (Zamboanga
del Norte, Zamboanga Sibugay, and Misamis Occidental
provinces) significant knowledge gaps needing urgent
scientific and conservation attention.
Our study aimed at filling the gap in the herpetological
diversity of southern Mindanao by focusing field surveys
along the southern slope of Mount Busa, the highest peak
in the Busa Mountain Range. It is a key biodiversity area
and an extremely important conservation priority site in
the Philippines (Ong et al. 2002). The mountain range
lies in the Zamboanga Peninsula-Daguma Range block, a
relatively older landmass in the Philippines. It has origins
from the Eurasian margin that coalesced with the more
recent blocks of the central and eastern Mindanao in the
Middle Miocene, forming the present-day Mindanao
island (Sajona et al. 1997; Hall 2002; Yumul et al.
2004). The accretion of these islands could have possibly
influenced the present-day patterns of diversity in the Busa
Mountain Range, as paleoendemic lineages associated
with the old landmass may have persisted or diversified via
several evolutionary processes of diversification (Michaux
2010; Brown et al. 2013a).
The unique geological history of southern Mindanao may
have contributed to the substantial level of biodiversity
of the Busa Mountain Range (Brown 2015; Saavedra
and Pitogo 2021; Senarillos et al. 2021). Unfortunately,
unsustainable agricultural practices, timber extraction,
wildlife poaching, and mining threaten this rich biodiversity
(DENR 2020; PLGU Sarangani 2021; Senarillos et al.
2021). Thus, efforts to include the mountain range into the
National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) of
the Philippines through a legislative process are ongoing
for its long-term conservation and management.
Here, we provide a species account of the herpetofauna
of Mount Busa to contribute to the ongoing protection
efforts for the Busa Mountain Range and facilitate
succeeding studies on the herpetofauna in the southern
Mindanao region. Although our work is site-based and
may be limited in scope, the results still serve as an
important step towards understanding the poorly-studied
herpetological community of southern Mindanao, a long-
overdue response to addressing the gaps in Philippine
herpetological research.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The study focused along the southern slope of Mount
Busa, Kiamba in Sarangani province. It lies southeast
of the Daguma Mountain Range and west of Mount
Melibengoy (also known as Mount Parker). It is the
highest point in Sarangani that reaches 2,046 meters
above sea level (masl). Mount Busa forms part of the
Busa Mountain Range shared by the provinces of South
Cotabato on the northern slope and Sarangani on the
southern slope. This mountain range houses one of the last
remaining primary forests in southern Mindanao, which
are mostly biologically understudied. Three forest types
along the southern slope of Mount Busa were identified
based on the classification of Fernando and colleagues
(2008) – lowland evergreen forest, lower montane forest,
and upper montane forest (Figure 1) – all of which served
as our survey sites. The following are brief descriptions
of each forest type:
The lowland evergreen forest approximately ranges
in altitude from 300–1,000 m. It is dominated by both
primary- and secondary-growth dipterocarp trees. Canopy
height often exceeds 20 m. It has several patches of
farmed abaca (Musa textilis) up to 1,000 masl (Figure
1A). Tree ferns are sparse and are mostly confined near
streams. Water bodies abound in this forest type where
the two major streams flowing from Mount Busa merge,
supplying the base water of the Panguil River (Figure
1B). Characteristic understory vegetations include
the plants under the family Araceae, Acanthaceae,
Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Thelypteridaceae, Polypodiaceae,
and Urticaceae. The lowland evergreen forest was hard hit
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Pitogo et al.: Amphibians and Reptiles of Mt. Busa
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during the logging concessions in the Philippines in the
1990s (Brown 2015), hence the dominance of secondary-
growth trees.
The lower montane forest approximately ranges in
altitude from 1,001–1,600 m (Figures 2C and D). It
is composed of primary forest trees with a few abaca
patches. Canopy height is between 15–25 m. Trees
are denser than in lowland evergreen. Epiphytic ferns
(Asplenium spp., Goniophlebium spp., Lepisorus spp.,
and Loxogramme spp.) and tree ferns (Cyathea spp.
and Dicksonia spp.) are more common. Characteristic
understory vegetations include the plants under the family
Arecaceae, Begoniaceae, Gesneriaceae, Poaceae, and
Polypodiaceae. A small, ephemeral stream with a muddy
substrate is present in the area (2 m wide). The forest floor
is covered with thick leaf litter.
The upper montane forest, also known as mossy forest,
approximately ranges in altitude from 1,601–2,046 m
(Figures 2E and F). It is composed of primary forest trees
and characterized by a mixture of dwarfed, irregularly-
shaped trees and tall, broad-leafed trees partially covered
with bryophytes, orchids, and other epiphytes. Canopy
height ranges between 5–20 m. Tree ferns (Cyathea
spp. and Dicksonia spp.) and various epiphytic plants
abound in this forest type. Other characteristic understory
vegetations includes the plants under the families
Thelypteridaceae, Polypodiaceae, Balsaminaceae,
Orchidaceae, and Melastomaceae. The forest floor is
mostly blanketed with bryophytes, liverworts, and moist
thick leaf litter with several rotten and friable coarse
woody debris. There are also ephemeral swamps and
small streams (max. 0.5 m wide).
Field Sampling
Repeated visit field surveys were done on the following
areas: lowland evergreen forest (25–29 Jun 2018, 16–19
Apr 2019, 21–28 Aug 2019, 12–16 Feb 2020, and
15–18 Aug 2020) plus lower and upper montane forests
(07–21 Jul 2019 and 04–14 Aug 2020). We spent 680.5
person-hours on field surveys. The bulk of fieldwork
coincides with the general onset of the rainy season
in the Philippines (June–August), which are the ideal
months for herpetological fieldwork in the country
(Brown et al. 2012a; Sanguila et al. 2016). However, the
southern Mindanao region falls under climate cluster
five, with an evenly distributed rainfall throughout the
year that peaks between June–October and gradually
decreases from November–April (Corporal-Lodangco
and Leslie 2017).
Figure 1. The contour map of Mount Busa in southern Mindanao, Philippines showing the forest gradient.
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Figure 2. The three forest types identified along the southern slope of Mount Busa: lowland evergreen forest, showing
a patch of farmed abaca (A) and a lowland stream (B); lower montane forest (C–D); upper montane forest
(E–F). Photos by K.M.E. Pitogo.
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Opportunistic sampling was done to exhaustively search
for amphibians and reptiles, which included the purposive
examinations of most microhabitats in each forest
type such as riparian vegetation, trees (branches, root
buttresses, trunks, leaf axils), epiphytes (aerial ferns and
orchids, moss mats, tree foliage), coarse woody debris,
boulders, and various lentic and lotic bodies of water.
These were done with the caveat that highly arboreal
species (perching > 3 m from the ground) and cryptic
fossorial species might have been missed.
Sampling was carried out during the day (10:00–12:00
hr and 13:00–15:00 hr) and night (18:00–21:00 hr) under
different atmospheric conditions by four to six experienced
individuals. Species were photographed in situ whenever
possible. We collected select individuals as voucher
specimens using standard preservation methodologies
(McDiarmid 1994; Gotte et al. 2016). Field numbers (KMP)
refer to the field series of K.M. Pitogo. The Philippine
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR) Region XII Office issued the fieldwork and
collection permit (Gratuitous Permit No. 2019-23).
Species Identification
Species were identified or carefully characterized by
morphology using published photographic guides,
taxonomic papers, and identification keys [e.g. Brown
and Alcala (1994), McGuire and Alcala (2000), Diesmos
et al. (2015), Leviton et al. (2018), Weinell et al. (2019)].
Snout-vent length (SVL) and other taxonomic characters
useful in identification were measured using a digital caliper
(Mitutoyo 500-196-30, Japan) or a measuring tape. Species
nomenclature follows the Amphibian Species of the World
Online Reference (Frost 2020) and The Reptile Database
(Uetz et al. 2021). The species’ conservation status followed
both the International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species and the DENR
Department Administrative Order (DAO) No. 2019-09.
RESULTS
We recorded at least 68 species of herpetofauna, of which 28
species were amphibians and 40 species were reptiles (Table
1). Around 65% of the species recorded are endemic to the
Philippines, and 19% of the species do not have definite
identification and may potentially be new and undescribed
species. For the conservation status under the IUCN Red
List, two species are listed as Vulnerable, 36 as Least
Concern, two as Near Threatened, two as Data Deficient,
while 13 have not been evaluated. However, under the
Philippine Red List (DENR DAO 2019-09), only 11 species
belong to the threatened category, of which two are listed
as Vulnerable and nine as Other Threatened Species.
Species Accounts
Amphibians
Order Anuran
Family Bufonidae
Ansonia muelleri (Boulenger, 1887). The Mindanao
slender toad is found in most major mountains in
Mindanao. The population in Mount Busa is considered
a separate evolutionary significant unit (ESU) for
conservation due to its genetic distinctiveness and may
be considered a distinct species once more information
on morphometrics, bioacoustics, and natural history are
available (Sanguila et al. 2011). It was frequently observed
in low-elevation fast-flowing streams, although some
individuals were seen in forest interior away from water
bodies up to 1,400 masl. Males produced a series of loud
calls on rocks in between cascading waters. We observed
gravid females between April–August. Specimens: KMP
0090 (lower montane); KMP 0184, 0202, 0243–0250
(lowland evergreen).
Figure 3. Anosnia muelleri found in the lowland stream.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Pelophryne brevipes (Peters, 1867). The distribution of P.
brevipes was once considered disjunct which includes the
Philippine islands of Mindanao and Basilan and the Malay
peninsula and Sumatra, Mentawi, and Natuna islands. A
recent phylogenetic study concluded that the populations
from the Malay peninsula and Sumatra are distinct species,
now known as Pelophryne ingeri, and restricts P. brevipes
to Mindanao (Matsui 2019); thus, the latter is now
Figure 4. Pelophryne brevipes found in the mid-montane
forest. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
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Table 1. Checklist of the amphibians and reptiles in Mount Busa, Sarangani from Brown (2015) and this study. OTS – other threatened status;
OWS – other wildlife species
No. Species Common name IUCN
Red List
DAO
2019-09
Philippine
endemic
AMPHIBIANS
Order Anura
Bufonidae
1Ansonia muelleri (Boulenger, 1887) Mindanao slender toad Least Concern OWS Yes
2Pelophryne brevipes (Peters, 1867) Zamboanga flathead toad Least Concern OWS Yes
Ceratobatrachidae
3Platymantis cf. corrugatus (Duméril, 1853) Rough-backed forest frog Least Concern OWS Yes
4Platymantis guentheri (Boulenger, 1882)aGunther’s wrinkled ground frog Least Concern OWS Yes
5Platymantis rabori Brown, Alcala, Diesmos,
and Alcala 1997bRabor’s forest frog Least Concern Vulnerable Yes
6Platymantis sp. 1 “Busa ground” Forest ground frog -- -- --
7Platymantis sp. 2 “moss” Forest ground frog -- -- --
8Platymantis sp. 3 “highland” Forest ground frog -- -- --
9Platymantis sp. 4 “lowland” Forest ground frog -- -- --
Dicroglossidae
10 Limnonectes leytensis (Boettger, 1893) Leyte wart frog Least Concern OWS Yes
11 Limnonectes cf. magnus (Stejneger, 1910) Mindanao fanged frog Near Threatened OTS Yes
12 Limnonectes sp. “hump” Fanged frog -- -- --
13 Occidozyga laevis (Günther, 1858)aCommon puddle frog Least Concern OWS Ye s
Megophryidae
14 Leptobrachium lumadorum Brown, Siler,
Diesmos, and Alcala, 2010
Mindanao litter frog Least Concern OWS Yes
15 Megophrys stejnegeri Taylor, 1920 Mindanao horned frog Least Concern OTS Yes
Microhylidae
16 Chaperina fusca Mocquard, 1892 Saffron-bellied frog Least Concern OWS No
17 Kalophrynus sinensis Peters, 1867 Philippine sticky frog Not Evaluated OWS Yes
18 Oreophryne anulata (Stejneger, 1908) Mindanao cross frog Least Concern OWS Ye s
Ranidae
19 Pulchrana grandocula (Taylor, 1920) Big-eyed frog Least Concern OWS Yes
20 Pulchrana guttmani (Brown, 2015)aGuttman’s stream frog Data Deficient OWS Ye s
21 Staurois natator (Günther, 1858) Mindanao splash frog Least Concern OWS Yes
Rhacophoridae
22 Leptomantis bimaculatus Peters, 1867 Mindanao flying frog Least Concern OWS Yes
23 Nyctixalus spinosus (Taylor, 1920)aSpiny treefrog Least Concern OWS
24 Philautus acutirsotris (Peters, 1867) Pointed-snout tree frog Least Concern OWS Yes
25 Philautus leitensis (Boulenger, 1897)bMindanao bush frog Least Concern OWS Yes
26 Philautus poecilius Brown and Alcala, 1994bMottled tree frog Least Concern OWS Yes
27 Philautus cf. poecilius Tree frog -- -- --
28 Philautus cf. surdus (Peters, 1863)bLuzon bubble-nest frog Least Concern OWS Yes
29 Philautus worcesteri (Stejneger, 1905) Mindanao bubble-nest frog Least Concern Vulnerable Yes
30 Polypedates leucomystax (Gravenhorst, 1829) Common tree frog Least Concern OWS No
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No. Species Common name IUCN
Red List
DAO
2019-09
Philippine
endemic
Order Gymnophiona
Ichthyophiidae
31 Ichthyophis mindanaoensis Taylor, 1960 Mindanao caecilian Least Concern OTS Yes
32 Ichthyophis sp. “pointed tail” Caecilian -- -- --
Order Lacertilia
Agamidae
33 Bronchocela sp. 1 -- -- --
34 Bronchocela sp. 2 -- -- --
35 Draco bimaculatus Günther, 1864 Two-spotted flying lizard Least Concern OWS Yes
36 Draco cyanopterus Peters, 1867 Flying lizard Least Concern OWS Yes
37 Draco mindanensis Stejneger, 1908 Mindanao flying lizard Vulnerable OWS Ye s
38 Draco ornatus (Gray, 1845) White-spotted flying lizard Least Concern OWS Yes
39 Gonocephalus sp. “South Mindanao” Forest dragon -- -- --
40 Hydrosaurus pustulatus (Eschscholtz, 1829) Philippine sailfin lizard Vulnerable OTS Yes
Gekkonidae
41 Cyrtodactylus annulatus (Taylor, 1915) Annulated bow-fingered gecko Least Concern OWS Yes
42 Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1834) Common four-clawed gecko Not Evaluated OWS No
43 Lepidodactylus cf. lugubris (Duméril and
Bibron, 1836)
Mourning gecko Not Evaluated OWS No
Scincidae
44 Brachymeles tiboliorum Siler, Jones, Diesmos,
Diesmos, and Brown 2012
Western Mindanao slender
skink
Not Evaluated OWS Yes
45 Emoia ruficauda Taylor, 1915 Red-tail swamp skink Data Deficient OWS Ye s
46 Eutropis cuprea Barley, Diesmos, Siler,
Martinez, Brown, 2020
Copper Sun Skink Not Evaluated OWS Ye s
47 Lamprolepis smaragdina philippinica
(Mertens 1928)
Emerald tree skink Not Evaluated OWS No/ssp. is
endemic
48 Parvoscincus sp. 1 “midmontane” Forest skink -- -- --
49 Parvoscincus sp. 2 “lowland” Forest skink -- -- --
50 Pinoyscincus cf. abdictus (Brown & Alcala,
1980)
Filipino skink Not Evaluated OWS Possibly
endemic
51 Pinoyscincus jagori jagori (Peters, 1864) Jagor’s Sphenomorphus Least Concern OWS Ye s
52 Pinoyscincus cf. mindanensis (Taylor, 1915)bMindanao Sphenomorphus Not Evaluated OWS Ye s
53 Sphenomorphus fasciatus (Gray, 1845) Banded Sphenomorphus Least Concern OWS Ye s
54 Sphenomorphus sp. “red tail” -- -- --
55 Tropidophorus partelloi Stejneger, 1910 Partello’s waterside skink Least Concern OWS Ye s
Varanidae
56 Varanus cumingi Martin, 1839 Cuming’s water monitor Least Concern OTS Ye s
Order Serpentes
Colubridae
57 Ahaetulla prasina preocularis (Boie, 1827) Philippine vine snake Least Concern OWS No/ ssp. is
endemic
58 Boiga cynodon (Boie, 1827) Dog-toothed cat snake Least Concern OTS No
59 Cyclocorus nuchalis nuchalis Taylor, 1923 Southern triangle-spotted snake Least Concern OWS Ye s
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considered a Philippine endemic. Individuals in Mount
Busa perch on surfaces of shrubs in the lower montane
primary forest between 800–1,500 masl. Specimens: KMP
0129–0131, 0143–0146, 0153–0155.
Family Ceratobatrachidae
Platymantis cf. corrugatus (Duméril, 1853). The
Mindanao population of this widely distributed Philippine-
endemic species is considered a distinct lineage that
warrants a full species recognition, distinguishable by
their large body size and calls with a short note duration
(Cobb 2016). Individuals were commonly observed in the
low-elevation abaca areas, calling exposed on the forest
floor at night (19:00–21:00 hr). Some were also observed
during the day under leaf litter. Specimens: KMP 0297,
0298, 0309–0312, 0347, 0348.
Platymantis rabori Brown, Alcala, Diesmos, and Alcala
1997. This is a widely distributed yet less commonly
encountered species in Mindanao faunal region due
to its naturally low-density populations and arboreal
microhabitat preference (Sanguila et al. 2016). Their
population appears to be declining due to the conversion
of lowland forests into agriculture, plantations, and
settlement areas. However, P. rabori is listed as Least
Concern due to its wide area of occurrence (IUCN SSC
Amphibian Specialist Group 2018). Our observation
No. Species Common name IUCN
Red List
DAO
2019-09
Philippine
endemic
60 Dendrelaphis philippinensis (Günther, 1879) Philippine bronze-back tree
snake
Not Evaluated OWS Yes
61 Lycodon dumerilii (Boulenger, 1893)bDuméril’s Asian wolf snake Not Evaluated OWS Yes
62 Pseudorabdion taylori Leviton & Brown, 1959 Taylor’s burrowing snake Data Deficient OWS Yes
63 Rhabdophis lineatus (Peters, 1861) Zigzag-lined water snake Least Concern OWS Ye s
64 Rhabdophis auriculatus auriculatus (Günther,
1858)
Günther’s Philippine keelback
snake
Least Concern OWS Yes
65 Stegonotus muelleri Duméril, Bibron, &
Duméril 1854
Müller’s ratsnake Near Threatened OWS Yes
66 Tropidonophis dendrophiops (Günther, 1883) Spotted water snake Least Concern OWS Yes
Elapidae
67 Naja samarensis Peters, 1861 Southern Philippine cobra Least Concern OTS Ye s
Lamprophiidae
68 Oxyrhabdium modestum (Duméril, 1853) Philippine shrub snake Least Concern Not
Evaluated
Yes
69 Psammodynastes pulverulentus (Boie, 1827) Common mock viper Not Evaluated Not
Evaluated
No
Pareidae
70 Aplopeltura boa (Boie, 1828) Blunt-headed slug snake Least Concern Not
Evaluated
No
Pythonidae
71 Malayopython reticulatus (Schneider, 1801) Reticulated python Least Concern OTS Yes
Viperidae
72 Trimeresurus cf. flavomaculatus (Gray, 1842) Philippine pit viper Least Concern OTS Ye s
aSpecies recorded by Brown (2015) but not in this study
bNew distribution record for southern Mindanao
Figure 5. Platymantis cf. corrugatus found in the lowland
forest. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
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This species is more active in the morning (06:00–07:00
hr) producing a series of high-frequency calls sounding in
the human ear like “Tiiit!”. Individuals at night call under
moss mats, hence the assigned name for the observed
calling habit. Specimens: KMP 0064, 0072, 0076, 0100,
0101, 0104, 0110.
Platymantis sp. 3 “highland.” A few brightly colored
individuals with distinguishable face masks were found
between 1,400 and 2,046 masl, but they are distinguished
from P. cf. corrugatus by the absence of dorsal ridges and
smaller body size. Gravid females of this species are also
smaller (27.75–27.69 mm) than the gravid females of P.
cf. corrugatus (40+ mm) found in Mount Busa. They
exhibit a bright orange to brown color, rarely dark purple.
Individuals can be observed perched on leaf litter from
16:00–21:00 hr.
Figure 8. Platymantis sp. 2 “moss” found in the upper
montane forest. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 6. Platymantis rabori found in the lowland forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
extends the range of P. rabori to southern Mindanao.
Specimens: KMP 0334, 0360.
Platymantis sp. 1 “Busa ground.” Several highly
polymorphic ground Platymantis conservatively assigned
under “Busa ground” were observed and collected between
900–2,000 masl. They have a dark brown tuberculate body
and bright orange to red eyes, rarely yellow. Individuals
were observed hiding under leaf litter and moss mats
at night. Molecular studies are needed to ascertain the
species since most of the recorded Mindanao Platymantis
are still undescribed (Brown et al. 2015; Sanguila et al.
2016). Specimens: KMP 0009, 0066, 0069–0071, 0084,
0085 (upper montane); KMP 0088, 0089, 0092, 0094,
0105–0109, 0116 (lower montane).
Figure 7. Platymantis sp. 1 “Busa ground” found on the
leaf litter from lowland to montane forests. Photo
by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Platymantis sp. 2 “moss.” A few high-elevation
Platymantis not assignable to any known species were
observed around the peak (1900–2,046 masl). They have
two continuous dorsal ridges from the supratympanic
region to the sacral region, long dorsal ridges on the
dorsum, and a lighter dorsal color than the rest of the body.
Figure 9. Platymantis sp. 3 “highland” found in the upper
montane forest. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Platymantis sp. 4 “lowland.” A few distinctive ground
frogs were collected in the low-elevation mixed secondary
forest. However, we conservatively separated these
individuals from Platymantis sp. 1 “Busa ground” due to
the larger average body size of gravid females (33.6 mm
vs. 26.8 mm) and the longer but less prominent dorsal
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ridges. All specimens were seen during the day perched
on leaf litter. Gravid females were collected in February.
No calls were heard for this species. Specimens: KMP
0288, 0362, 0366, 0380.
Family Dicroglossidae
Limnonectes leytensis (Boettger, 1893). This is a
common species in aquatic habitats in the Mindanao
faunal region readily distinguished by its small body
size, rugose skin, and “v” mark on the scapular region
(Siler et al. 2009). Individuals of L. leytensis perch on
boulders and sand along the stream bank, while some
hide in riparian shrubs. This species is also harvested for
local consumption, though it is less preferred than the
large-bodied Limnonectes species. Specimens: KMP 0181,
024–0242, 0365, 0367, 0378.
crevices and vegetation. The taxonomic status of this
widespread low-elevation L. cf. magnus with respect to the
high-elevation L. magnus at its type locality in Mount Apo
warrants further investigation (Sanguila et al. 2016). This
is also locally harvested for consumption. This species
was tested positive for Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
(Bd) fungi, but there is no known harmful impact has been
recorded yet (Diesmos et al. 2012). Specimens: KMP
0006, 0173, 0317, 0363.
Limnonectes sp. “hump.” One individual, presumably an
adult male, was observed hidden under thick vegetation
approximately 15 m away from a lowland stream. It is
characterized by its distinctive wider head, more rugose
dorsal skin, dorsal ridges, and densely distributed dorsal
asperities all over the body. Some characters agree with
the description of Limnonectes ferneri from southeastern
Mindanao (Siler et al. 2009), but it differs in the presence
of dermal ridges and its dorsal asperities do not form radial
clusters. No other similar-looking Mindanao Limnonectes
were found in the literature, so this may be a putatively
undescribed species. Specimen: KMP 0266.
Figure 10. Platymantis sp. 4 “lowland” found in lowland
forest mixed with abaca. Photo by K.M.E.
Pitogo.
Figure 12. Limnonectes cf. magnus found in the lowland
stream. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 11. Limnonectes leytensis found in the lowland
stream. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Limnonectes cf. magnus (Stejneger, 1910). This large-
bodied Limnonectes is widely distributed all throughout
the Mindanao faunal region. Individuals were rarely
observed in open areas and mostly found hidden in
Figure 13. Limnonectes sp. “hump” found in the lowland
stream. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
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Family Megophryidae
Leptobrachium lumadorum Brown, Siler, Diesmos, and
Alcala, 2010. This is a less frequently encountered species
endemic to the Mindanao faunal region except in Samar,
Leyte, Bohol, Dinagat, and Siargao. A few individuals of
L. lumadorum were observed in abaca areas adjacent to
the low-elevation mixed secondary forest in Mount Busa.
Specimens: KMP 0186, 0313, 0314.
Megophrys stejnegeri Taylor, 1920. This species can be
the most frequently encountered amphibian in site-based
herpetological surveys in Mindanao (Delima et al. 2006;
Ates and Delima 2008; Baron et al. 2021). We encountered
M. stejnegeri between 600–1,900 masl, suggesting a wide
elevational range size of this species. In higher elevations,
individuals were most often observed near or around
small streams and swamps. Specimens: KMP 0081 (upper
montane); KMP 0118, 0119 (lower montane); KMP 0187,
0346 (lowland evergreen).
taxonomic status needs to be revisited (Sanguila et al.
2016). We encountered this species hidden in lowland
abaca leaf axils during the day and perching on abaca
leaves at night. When handled, it excretes a yellowish
substance coming from the spots on its underside.
Specimens: KMP 0290–0293, 0316, 0349, 0372, 0373.
Kalophrynus sinensis Peters, 1867. This species
is widespread in the Mindanao faunal region and is
frequently encountered during the rainy season (Sanguila
et al. 2016). This species was recently resurrected from
the synonymy of K. pleurostigma (Zug 2015). The lone
individual observed was found at night at 1,200 masl on
the leaf litter of abaca.
Figure 14. Leptobrachium lumadorum found in the
lowland forest. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 15. Megophrys stejnegeri found in the montane
forests. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Family Microhylidae
Chaperina fusca Mocquard, 1892. This widespread but
patchily distributed species is poorly understood, and its
Figure 16. Chaperina fusca found in the lowland forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 17. Kalophrynus sinensis found in the lowland
forest. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Oreophryne annulata (Stejneger, 1908). This
species reportedly differs from the similarly-looking
Aphantophryne nana (formerly Oreophryne nana) in
having subarticular tubercles (Brown and Alcala 1967),
but this trait may vary across sites that require further
investigation (Sanguila et al. 2016). We observed our
specimen perching on a tree epiphyte in abaca patches
adjacent to the village, suggesting tolerance to disturbance.
Specimen: KMP 0289.
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Pulchrana grandocula (Taylor, 1920). This common
stream amphibian is widespread in Mindanao faunal
region in both disturbed and undisturbed areas (Sanguila
et al. 2016). They aggregate in carabao wallows and
fishponds, while some solitary individuals perch on
riparian shrubs. Polymorphism is evident for this species,
particularly on the dorsal pattern. Individuals mostly
have blotched dorsum, rarely dotted. This species was
tested positive for Bd infection, but no known harmful
impacts have been recorded yet (Diesmos et al. 2012).
It lives in syntopy with the morphologically similar and
enigmatic Pulchrana guttmani, which was known only
from a single specimen collected in 1993 in Mount Busa,
Sarangani (Brown 2015). Our extensive fieldwork in
the area, however, did not produce any new additional
specimens of P. guttmani. Specimens: KMP 0207–0213,
0252, 0253; KMP 0234, 0331, 0333, 0374 (juveniles);
KMP 0335 (dotted morph).
Gravid females were observed between June and July.
Surprisingly, locals harvest this species for consumption.
Specimens: KMP 0120 (lower montane); KMP 0179,
0206, 0239, 0277, 0307, 0322 (lowland evergreen).
Family Rhacophoridae
Leptomantis bimaculatus Peters, 1867. Previously
belonging to the genus Rhacophorus, a recent phylogenetic
work resurrected the genus Leptomantis, of which L.
bimaculatus is the type specimen (Jiang et al. 2019). This was
the most frequently encountered amphibian in low-elevation
streams, clinging to overhanging riparian vegetation. Large
individuals perch on abaca leaves up to seven meters above
the forest floor. Several breeding individuals were observed
between June–August. Specimens: KMP 0235–0237, 0251,
0261, 0262, 0271–0274.
Figure 18. Oreophryne anulata found in the lowland
forest. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 19. Pulchrana grandocula found in the lowland streams.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Staurois natator (Günther, 1858). This species is common
throughout the Mindanao faunal region, although a further
taxonomic investigation is needed for Basilan, Samar, and
Leyte populations (Sanguila et al. 2016). We found them
perching on rocks and overhanging riparian vegetation
in lowland and mid-elevation streams (600–1,400 masl).
Figure 20. Staurois natator found in the lowland streams. Photo
by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 21. Leptomantis bimaculatus found in the lowland streams.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Philautus acutirostris (Peters, 1867). The species is
widely distributed in the Mindanao faunal region. It is
distinguished by its nearly uniform grayish- or reddish-
brown body color and distinctly pointed snout with
usually a pale-colored projection at the tip (Brown and
Alcala 1994). Very common in the lower montane forest
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between 800–1,700 masl, this species perches on shrubs,
epiphytic plants, and tree ferns up to 3 m above the forest
floor. They become very active at around 18:00 hr and
have a distinctive rattle call with a decremental pulse rate
(Sanguila et al. 2016). Specimens: KMP 0077, 0079, 0080,
0096–0098, 0111–0114.
Philautus leitensis (Boulenger, 1897). This species is
widespread yet patchily distributed in Mindanao faunal
region. It looks similar to its congener P. acutirostris but
differs by its relatively less pointed snout and more extensive
toe webbings (Brown and Alcala 1994). Ranging in altitude
from 600–1,300 m, individuals perch on shrubs and other
epiphytic plants up to three meters above the forest floor.
Our observation extends the range of this species to southern
Mindanao. Specimens: KMP 0125, 0126 (lower montane);
KMP 0257, 0295, 0296, 0315 (lowland evergreen).
shrubs, while several individuals were collected perching
on fronds of tree ferns up to 4 m above the forest floor.
Their number starts to decrease below 1,800 masl,
suggesting that this species is a high-elevation specialist.
Our observation is a major range extension of this species
to the south. Specimens: KMP 0018, 0019, 0025–0028,
0034–0037.
Figure 22. Philautus acutirostris found in the lower montane forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 23. Philautus leitensis found in the lowland forest. Photo
by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Philautus poecilius Brown and Alcala, 1994. The
current known distribution of P. poecilius is in northern,
northwestern, and northeastern Mindanao (Diesmos et
al. 2015). Distinguished by its more evident mottled
coloration, this highly polymorphic species was the most
abundant in the mossy forest. Some perches on understory
Figure 24. Philautus poecilius found in the upper montane forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 25. Philautus cf. poecilius found in the upper montane forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Philautus cf. poecilius. Several distinct individuals of
a high-elevation Philautus were observed in the mossy
forest. It is distinguished from P. poecilius mainly by its
bright uniform color pattern and from P. aurifasciatus
group by its wider digital pads. Its body color ranges
from bright orange to reddish-brown, mostly uniform or
rarely having a darker dorsum resembling a complete or
partial hourglass. This color pattern has not been reported
in P. poecilius but may fall within its variability limits
since Philautus are known to have high intraspecific
variability in body coloration (Bossuyt and Dubois 2001).
Nevertheless, we conservatively separate these individuals
until further integrative taxonomic studies on P. poecilius
are done. They perch exposed on leaves of understory
shrubs lower than most P. poecilius. Juveniles were found
under moss mats on dead logs and tree trunks. Specimens:
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KMP 0012, 0013, 0015–0017, 0036, 0038, 0039, 0041,
0054, 0055.
Philautus cf. surdus (Peters, 1863). This species is the
most widely distributed among Philippine Philautus, with
known records in Luzon, Catanduanes, Polillo, Bohol, and
Mindanao (Diesmos et al. 2015). Although previous records
show a high degree of species polymorphism, its protologue
distinguished P. surdus by its larger size, relatively
extensive toe webbings, and tubercles on the dorsum –
especially at shoulder level on either side (Brown and Alcala
1994). Records in Mindanao were only from the northern
and southeastern portions with no known specimens from
the south. Thus, if confirmed, our observation extends its
range to southern Mindanao. Further molecular studies on P.
surdus may confirm that this is a complex of several cryptic
species. Specimens: KMP 0102, 0128, 0152.
Polypedates leucomystax (Gravenhorst, 1829). This is a
human commensal species able to tolerate a wide range of
anthropogenic disturbances. In Mount Busa, this species
more commonly perches on understory shrubs around
human settlements and carabao wallows, while some
perch higher on abaca leaves. Specimens: KMP 0185,
0233, 0329, 0330, 0364.
Order Gymnophiona
Family Ichthyophiidae
Ichthyophis mindanaoensis Taylor, 1960. Despite its
cryptic nature and fossorial habit, this species has now
been recorded in different montane localities in Mindanao,
although basic ecological studies are still needed to
improve our understanding of this species (Diesmos 2012).
It was previously observed in agricultural areas abutting
primary forest patches and other man-made structures,
suggesting tolerance to some degree of anthropogenic
disturbance. Its taxonomy remains uncertain (Sanguila
et al. 2016), which may require further molecular and
morphological examinations among specimens collected
all over Mindanao (Diesmos 2012). We collected three
mature larvae of this species along the stream bank at 800
masl. Specimens: KMP 0299, 0301, 0302.
Figure 26. Philautus cf. surdus found in the lower montane forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Philautus worcesteri (Stejneger, 1905). Widely distributed
in the Mindanao faunal region, P. worcesteri is seldom
observed due to the high microhabitat with which this
species prefers to perch on. It is readily distinguished by
its larger body size, uniform dorsal and ventral colorations,
and extensive toe webbing (Brown and Alcala 1994). This
species ranges in altitude between 700–1,900 m and perches
higher than most other amphibians observed in Mount Busa.
Specimens: KMP 0059, 0087, 0115, 0127.
Figure 27. Philautus worcesteri found in the upper montane forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 28. Polypedates leucomystax found in the lowland forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 29. Ichthyophis mindanaoensis found in the lowland stream
at 650 masl. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
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Ichthyophis sp. “pointed tail.” An individual caecilian
distinct from I. mindanaoensis was collected in a low-
elevation stream. It has a pointed tail, light brown body
color, and larger and more conspicuous skin glands.
All were diagnostic characters to distinguish Philippine
caecilian species (Taylor 1960). When in water, this
individual actively moves in the water column in contrast
to the still behavior of I. mindanaoensis. Studies on
Philippine caecilians remain very scarce, thus future
taxonomic and molecular work on this taxon may reveal
undetected cryptic species (Diesmos 2012). Specimen:
KMP 0300.
Reptiles
Order Lacertilia
Family Agamidae
Bronchocela sp. 1. The Mindanao populations were
previously identified as Bronchocela cristatella
(Hallermann 2005), but we follow previous authors in
not assigning these individuals to any known species until
further integrative taxonomic studies of representative
individuals are undertaken (Sanguila et al. 2016). This
species is common in the low-elevation secondary forests
and was often encountered clinging on to shrubs and
hanging streamside vegetation. Specimens: KMP 0222,
0232, 0263, 0264, 0304.
Bronchocela sp. 2. Observed in syntopy with Bronchocela
sp. 1, individuals of this species are mainly distinguished
by their larger ear diameter (3.5–4.3 mm vs. 2.3–3.3
mm), larger with more elaborate and longer nuchal crest
(vs. short), and large strongly keeled mucronate scales
on the ventrum, particularly on the scales covering the
gular area (vs. smaller uniformly keeled scales). All are
diagnostic characters used to distinguish Bronchocela
species (Hallermann 2005; Grismer et al. 2015). These
morphological differences from Bronchocela sp. 1
compelled us to separate these individuals, which will be
needing further integrative taxonomic studies. However, we
note that morphological differences have also been recorded
in Luzon populations (Brown et al. 2012a, 2013b; McLeod
et al. 2011). Specimens: KMP 0190, 0178, 0343.
Figure 30. Ichthyophis sp. “pointed tail” found in the lowland stream
at 650 masl. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 31. Bronchocela sp. 1 found in the lowland forest. Photo
by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 32. Bronchocela sp. 2 found in the lowland forest. Photo
by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Draco bimaculatus Günther, 1864. This species is widely
distributed in Mindanao, Samar, Leyte, Bohol, Dinagat, and
Sulu archipelago. It is commonly found in both primary
and secondary forests, as well as in coconut plantations
abutting natural forests (McGuire and Alcala 2000).
Previous records suggest that this species can tolerate some
degree of disturbances (McGuire and Alcala 2000; Sanguila
et al. 2016). We observed several individuals gliding
in between tall trees in low-elevation mixed secondary
forest. Specimens: KMP 0147, 0163–0166, 0214, 021.
Draco cyanopterus Peters, 1867. This species is found
mostly in coconut plantations in Mindanao, suggesting
tolerance to disturbance (Sanguila et al. 2016). We
commonly observed D. cyanopterus on tree branches during
the day around the villages, gliding in between trees.
Draco ornatus (Gray, 1845). This species occurs in the
Mindanao faunal region and is found in both primary
and secondary forests and coconut plantations abutting
natural forests (McGuire and Alcala 2000). We observed
an individual in an abaca area mixed with primary forest
trees at 600 masl.
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Draco mindanensis Stejneger, 1908. Previous
observations of this species in the wild were all restricted
to primary forests (Smith 1993; McGuire and Alcala 2000;
David et al. 2006; Sanguila et al. 2016). However, our
lone sub-adult specimen was captured upon landing on
a boulder in a mixed early secondary forest at 650 masl,
suggesting that it might be able to tolerate disturbed areas
abutting primary forest patches. Naturally occurring in
low numbers in primary and possibly mature secondary
forests in Mindanao faunal region, D. mindanensis is
the most threatened Draco species in the Philippines.
Specimen: KMP 0167.
Gonocephalus sp. “South Mindanao.” There are
currently three recognized species of Gonocephalus in
the Philippines, but the range and distribution of these
species remain to be a challenge due to problems in
species identification. Although Gonocephalus interruptus
is the only species with its holotype bearing a specific
type locality data in Mindanao, characters used to
define Philippine populations appear to be problematic
(Taylor 1922). A phylogenetic analysis of Philippine
Gonocephalus revealed 12 monophyletic divergent
lineages, one of which includes the southern Mindanao
population (Welton et al. 2017). This population may
represent a putatively undescribed species or one of the
three recognized species in the Philippines. Until further
integrative taxonomic studies are undertaken, we refrain
from identifying the populations in Mount Busa to any
known recognized species. All specimens were collected
at night sleeping on tree branches in lowland riparian
habitats. Specimens: KMP 0275, 0327, 0342, 0343.
Hydrosaurus pustulatus Eschsholtz, 1829. We observed
a few individuals in the lowland riparian habitats in Mount
Busa between 300–500 masl. But these individuals eluded
capture. In a phylogeographic analysis of H. pustulatus
in the Philippines (Siler et al. 2014), no genetic data was
available for the southern Mindanao population that could
help determine its relationship to other populations in
the country, thus the need to secure specimens in future
fieldwork in the region.
Family Gekkonidae
Cyrtodactylus annulatus (Taylor, 1915). The re-
description of this species delineates its geographic
distribution to Visayas and Mindanao faunal regions, where
it is widely distributed (Welton et al. 2009). This is the most
encountered lizard in the low-elevation riparian corridors
in Mount Busa, clinging to large boulders, hanging riparian
shrubs, and woody debris. Specimens: KMP 0191, 0223,
0224, 0258–0260, 0278, 0280, 0318, 0338.
Figure 33. Draco cyanopterus found in lowland early secondary-
growth forest. Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 34. Draco mindanensis found in the lowland forest. Photo
by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 35. Cyrtodactylus annulatus found in lowland riparian
habitats. Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Gehyra mutilata (Wiegmann, 1834). This house gecko
is widespread in the Philippines and occurs in poorly lit
residential habitats in contrast to other common house
geckos. We found individuals on thatched walls in the
villages around Mount Busa. This species was observed
feeding on the flowers of a calabash tree in southcentral
Mindanao, suggesting its potential role in pollination
(Tanalgo and Hughes 2017). Specimens: KMP 382–384.
Lepidodactylus cf. lugubris (Duméril and Bibron,
1836). This species is surprisingly absent in most
herpetological diversity studies in Mindanao despite
having a widespread distribution, although we note that
the Philippine populations can be variable (Brown and
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Alcala 1978). Previous studies in the country recorded
this species in a variety of habitats: from lowland coastal
areas (Siler et al. 2012a; Supsup et al. 2016) to forested
montane habitats (Brown et al. 2013b; Gojo-Cruz et al.
2018). Two specimens were collected at night in a mixed
secondary forest between 600–700 masl crawling on
epiphytic plants and abaca leaves. Differences in the shape
of and pigmentation on the scansors of our specimens
were observed, which may require further examination to
ascertain the identification. Specimens: KMP 0279, 0319.
Family Scincidae
Brachymeles tiboliorum Siler, Jones, Diesmos, Diesmos,
and Brown 2012. This species known distribution is
southern Mindanao and Misamis Oriental in the north.
The northern population, however, may eventually be
recognized as a distinct species pending the collection of
additional adult specimens, restricting B. tiboliorum to
southern Mindanao (Sanguila et al. 2016). We found our
lone specimen under rotting abaca leaves at 700 masl.
Specimen: KMP 0381.
Figure 36. Lepidodactylus cf. lugubris found in the lowland forest.
Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 37. Brachymeles tiboliorum found in the leaf litter of lowland
forest. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Emoia ruficauda Taylor, 1915. The only endemic Emoia
species found in the Philippines has a disjunct distribution
in Mindanao. It was described from the upper Agusan
Valley and was later observed in the lowland habitats
close to water bodies in Sarangani, Sultan Kudarat, and
Zamboanga del Sur. It is regarded as a lowland species
Figure 38. Emoia ruficauda found in the lowland forest. Photo by
A.J.L. Saavedra.
(0–300 masl) that prefers areas near freshwater (Gaulke
and Alcala 2009). We observed individuals in vegetated
areas near streams in the lowland mixed secondary
forests, extending its upper elevational range to 600 masl.
Specimens: KMP 0170, 0174–0177, 0336, 0337.
Eutropis cuprea Barley, Diesmos, Siler, Martinez, and
Brown 2020. A multilocus molecular analysis revealed
seven morphologically conserved distinct genetic clades
within the E. multicarinata complex occurring in the
Philippines with overlapping distributions (Barley et al.
2013). One of these is E. cuprea, which was recently
described from a revision of Philippine sun skinks (Barley
et al. 2020). It occurs in syntopy with the morphologically
very similar and widespread E. caraga in South Cotabato,
posing difficulty in species delimitation without using
molecular techniques. We conservatively assign this name
to the Mount Busa population due to its extreme southern
distribution, which is likely within the range of E. cuprea.
We observed several individuals basking on leaf litter,
woody debris, and boulders; they retreat to nearby crevices
or holes when disturbed. Specimens: KMP 0219, 0220,
227, 0265, 0303, 0340.
Figure 39. Eutropis cuprea found in the leaf litter of lowland forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Lamprolepis smaragdina philippinica (Mertens, 1928).
Despite being common and tolerant of human disturbance,
we only observed one individual of this species crawling
on a tree trunk in the lowland secondary forest at 500
masl. We have not recovered additional specimens despite
our extensive surveys in higher elevations (> 700 masl).
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Figure 40. Lamprolepis smaragdina philippinica found in the
early secondary-growth lowland forest. Photo by A.J.L.
Saavedra.
Parvoscincus sp. 1 “midmontane.” A single specimen
of a high-elevation diminutive skink was collected under
woody debris at 1,300 masl. Its SVL is 30 mm and has
a purplish-brown body, a dark brown dorsolateral band
from head to tail, and numerous light brown flecks on its
flank. These features are assignable to the P. decipiens
species complex, although these do not match any known
recognized species in the genus. An integrative taxonomic
study on this species complex is necessary for proper
identification. Specimen: KMP 0124.
Figure 41. Parvoscincus sp. “midmontane” found in the lower
montane forest. Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 42. Parvoscincus sp. “lowland” found on the leaflitter of
abaca in the lowland forest. Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 43. Pinoyscincus cf. abdictus found in rock crevices in the
lowland streams. Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Parvoscincus sp. 2 “lowland.” This skink is assignable to
the P. decipiens species complex. Its SVL ranges between
28–31 mm and has a reddish-brown dorsum, a dark brown
dorsolateral band from head to tail, and a red-orange
throat. Several individuals were observed under piles
of rotting abaca leaves and leaf litter between 600–800
masl. Specimens: KMP 0225, 0226, 0231, 0353–0356,
0375, 0376.
Pinoyscincus cf. abdictus (Brown and Alcala, 1980).
We found a few individuals of this species among rocks
along stream banks at 600 masl. They escape into crevices
when disturbed or threatened. Specimens from Mount
Busa exhibit obvious differences in the color pattern that
may warrant further taxonomic investigations. Specimens:
KMP 385–386.
Pinoyscincus jagori jagori (Peters, 1864). This large-
bodied skink species is widespread in the Philippines. This
species occurs in areas with varying levels of disturbance,
from disturbed lowland to forested high-elevation areas
up to 600 masl (Sanguila et al. 2016). We found our lone
specimen at night at 1,200 masl on the forest leaf litter,
making our observation an altitudinal range extension
for this species.
Figure 44. Pinoyscincus jagori jagori found in the lower montane
forest. Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Pinoyscincus cf. mindanensis (Taylor, 1915). This
species was previously recorded in eastern Mindanao,
Bohol, and Leyte and inhabits montane habitats
compared to other Pinoyscincus species, which are larger,
generalist, and mostly encountered in lower elevations.
Individuals were observed basking on leaf litter in the
lowland evergreen forest between 700–900 masl and
escaped by climbing up the tree trunk when disturbed or
threatened. Our specimens exhibit darker brown dorsal
and tail coloration. Our observation is a geographic range
extension of this species to southern Mindanao. Specimen:
KMP 0230.
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Pitogo et al.: Amphibians and Reptiles of Mt. Busa
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Figure 45. Pinoyscincus cf. mindanensis found in the lowland forest.
Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 46. Sphenomorphus fasciatus found in the lowland forest.
Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Sphenomorphus fasciatus (Gray, 1845). This
morphologically distinctive Sphenomorphous species
has a wide elevational range, commonly found in
secondary low-elevation forests in Mindanao faunal
region. Individuals were observed under a pile of rotting
abaca leaves in lowland mixed secondary forest in Mount
Busa. Specimen: KMP 0229.
Sphenomorphus sp. “red tail.” Individuals resemble a
juvenile of the large-bodied Otosaurus cumingii, which is
widespread in the Philippines. However, locals reported
that our specimens are within the normal range of size of
this species. We temporarily assigned these specimens
under the genus Sphenomorphus until further taxonomic
work is undertaken on this species. Specimen: KMP
0357, 0370.
Figure 47. Sphenomorphus sp. “red tail” found in the lowland forest.
Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 48. Tropidophorus partelloi found in lowland streams. Photo
by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Tropidophorus partelloi Stejneger, 1910. This species is
widespread yet patchily distributed in Mindanao island
(Sanguila et al. 2016). It is distinguished by its spiny
tail and light brown color with several pale crossbars on
the dorsum. We observed this species in forests between
600–1,200 masl, along vegetated stream banks during
the day. Individuals were seen fleeing into the water
when disturbed. Previous records suggest that T. partelloi
prefers less disturbed areas (Smith 1993; Beukema 2011).
Specimens: KMP 0287, 0339.
Family Varanidae
Varanus cumingi Martin, 1839. This species is
widespread in Mindanao faunal region and commonly
found in lowland habitats below 1,000 masl. We saw an
individual basking by the road at 300 masl. Despite being
common throughout its range, V. cumingi is threatened by
commercial reptile skin trade and human consumption
(Koch et al. 2013). This species is listed under CITES
Appendix II, which means trade is controlled to avoid
utilization incompatible with their survival.
Order Serpentes
Family Colubridae
Ahaetulla prasina preocularis (Boie, 1827). It is regarded
as a widespread species able to tolerate a varying degree of
anthropogenic disturbance. We found several individuals
in riparian shrubs around 600 masl during the day.
Specimens: KMP 0351, 0352.
Figure 49. Ahaetulla prasina preocularis found in lowland streams.
Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Philippine Journal of Science
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Figure 50. Lycodon dumerilii found in the lowland stream. Photo
by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 51. Pseudorabdion taylori found in the lower montane forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Boiga cynodon (Boie, 1827). This is a widespread
species in the Philippines found in understory vegetation,
arboreal, and riparian habitats in both primary and
secondary forests (Siler et al. 2012a; Brown et al. 2013b;
Sanguila et al. 2016). Individuals also show color and
pattern variability, with some individuals having no
pattern and a more uniform color (Brown et al. 2013b). A
local found our lone specimen in the canopy of a coconut
tree near the village. Specimen: KMP0191.
Cyclocorus nuchalis nuchalis Leviton, 1967. Two
subspecies of C. nuchalis occur in the Mindanao faunal
region based on head scalation: C. nuchalis nuchalis and
C. nuchalis taylori (Weinell et al. 2019). The former is
distributed in south to western Mindanao and Basilan
and the latter in eastern Mindanao, Leyte, and Samar.
We observed one individual crossing the trail at 500 masl
only during our reconnaissance; thus, no specimens were
collected. The species has distinctive white spots along
the lateral edge of ventral body scales.
Dendrelaphis philippinensis (Günther, 1879). We
observed several individuals of this species in the
lowland forest of Mount Busa between 400–800 masl,
although all eluded successful capture. We assigned this
name due to the relatively less enlarged vertebral body
scales and extreme southernmost distribution, which is
within the distribution range of this species (Leviton et
al. 2018).
Lycodon dumerilii (Boulenger, 1893). This species
is endemic and widespread in the Mindanao faunal
region, but our observation is its first record in southern
Mindanao. It is distinguished by its light crossbands
throughout the body and tail. We found our lone
specimen slithering on a boulder by a lowland stream
at night. Specimen: KMP0134.
Pseudorabdion taylori Levtion & Brown, 1959. Previous
records of this species were mostly in southern Mindanao
(Leviton et al. 2018). We found one specimen in the lower
montane forest at 1,570 masl, actively slithering through
leaf litter at night. Recent observations of its natural
history (including the specimen here) have noted that
this species is nocturnal and has a wide elevational range,
occurring from undisturbed lowland evergreen to montane
forests in southern Mindanao (Pitogo 2021). There is not
much information available in the literature on the extent
of occurrence and natural history of this species; hence, it
is listed as Data Deficient in the IUCN Red List (Diesmos
and Duya 2009). Specimen: KMP 0133.
Rhabdophis lineatus (Peters, 1861). This species is widely
distributed in the Mindanao faunal region. It is a frequently
encountered species around the vicinity of streams and
ponds in the lowland forest of Mount Busa, but individuals
were observed up to 1,300 masl. It is easily distinguished
by its reddish-brown body color and the distinctive white
stripe across the supralabial scales. Previous records show
that this species can tolerate heavy disturbance (Sanguila
et al. 2016). Specimens: KMP 0267, 0344, 0345.
Rhabdophis auriculatus auriculatus (Günther, 1858).
This species has two subspecies both distributed in the
Mindanao faunal region: the R. auriculatus myersi in
western portions (including Bohol) and R. auriculatus
auriculatus in the rest of Mindanao (including Samar and
Leyte) (Leviton et al. 2018). They reportedly differ in the
degree of light lateral body stripe (Weinell et al. 2019).
This subspecies is widespread and abundant in Mindanao.
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1299
Figure 52. Rhabdophis lineatus found around the vicinity of lowland
streams. Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 53. Rhabdophis auriculatus auriculatus found in the lower
montane forest. Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 54. Stegonotus muelleri found in the lowland forest. Photo
by A.J.L. Saavedra.
We found our lone specimen at 1,300 masl during the
day, but several juveniles were also observed in lowland
streams (300–600 masl). Specimen: KMP0132.
Stegonotus muelleri (Duméril, Bibron, & Duméril
1854). This is a large species of rat snake of Papuan
origin endemic to the Mindanao faunal region. Its
occurrence in Samar is the northernmost distribution
of a Stegonotus species (Kaiser et al. 2018). We found
individuals crossing trails and coiling in fallen branches in
the lowland evergreen forest of Mount Busa. It is listed as
Near Threatened under the IUCN Red List, but we concur
with the suggestions of previous authors to downgrade the
species to Least Concern due to its widespread distribution
(Sanguila et al. 2016). Specimen: KMP 0270.
Figure 55. Tropidonophis dendrophiops found in the lowland forest.
Photo by K.M.E. Pitogo.
Figure 56. Oxyrhabdium modestum found in the lowland forest.
Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Tropidonophis dendrophiops (Günther, 1883). The
genus Tropidonophis closely resembles Rhabdophis but
can be distinguished by the background color of ventral
body scales (Weinell et al. 2019). Most observations
occur in Mindanao faunal region and are often associated
with relatively undisturbed riparian areas (Sanguila et al.
2016). We found our lone specimen by a small stream at
700 masl. Specimen: KMP 0379.
Family Elapidae
Naja samarensis Peters, 1861. This is a widely distributed
and the lone true cobra species in the Mindanao faunal
region, occupying a wide range of habitats. It is easily
identified by its distinctive yellowish black body and its
hood when threatened. Despite its common distribution,
limited is known on the natural history and ecology of
this species. Predation of N. samarensis on an invasive
cane toad was reported reinforcing its role in pest control
(Ravalo et al. 2019). We found one decomposing individual
with a severed head near the village. Persecution of snakes
out of fear is common in these rural villages.
Family Lamprophiidae
Oxyrhabdium modestum (Duméril, 1853). This species is
widespread in the Mindanao faunal region, although there
are also few records in Luzon Island (Leviton et al. 2018).
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Figure 57. Psammodynastes pulverulentus found in the lowland
forest. Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 58. Aplopeltura boa found in the lowland forest. Photo by
A.J.L. Saavedra.
Figure 59. Trimeresurus cf. flavomaculatus found in the lowland
forest. Photo by A.J.L. Saavedra.
This is the most commonly encountered snake species
in the lowland mixed secondary forest in Mount Busa.
Most observations were in and around streams, rotting
abaca leaves, understory layers of vegetation, and leaf
litter both day and night. Specimens: KMP 0215, 0216,
0320, 0341, 0350.
Psammodynastes pulverulentus (Boie, 1827). This
species has a widespread distribution, spanning from
southern China down to most of South and Southeast
Asia. It is a specialized skink predator owing to its
unique dentitional morphology (Miller and Zug 2016).
It is commonly observed in Mount Busa: coiled in tree
branches, tree holes, streamside vegetation, rotting abaca
leaves, and on the forest floor. This species has not been
evaluated by the IUCN. Specimens: KMP 0228, 0268,
0269, 0358.
Family Pareidae
Aplopeltura boa (Boie, 1828). This species is widely
distributed in Southeast Asia. It is commonly encountered
in the riparian areas, eating mostly arboreal snails and
slugs, particularly after heavy rains (Sanguila et al. 2016).
Our juvenile specimen was found at 600 masl by the
stream. Specimen: KMP 0371.
Family Pythonidae
Malayopython reticulatus (Schneider, 1801). The lone
python species in the Philippines is widespread in the
country. Almost every herpetological study reports this
species occupying a wide range of habitats. A recent
phylogenetic study found that M. reticulatus in the
Philippines, except Palawan, formed a single haplotype
group and may be considered an ESU for conservation
(Murray-Dickson et al. 2017). Locals reported M.
reticulatus or locally called “sawa” feeding on their
domesticated chickens, which prompted us to include the
species in the list despite not being observed firsthand.
Family Viperidae
Trimeresurus cf. flavomaculatus (Gray, 1842). This
species is widespread in the Philippines, but future
integrative taxonomic work is needed to determine if the
Mindanao population is a separate evolutionary lineage.
An adult individual was observed in the lowland riparian
area in Mount Busa at 600 masl. We were not able to
collect specimens.
DISCUSSION
Previous herpetological field surveys in southern
Mindanao have led to the rediscoveries of lost species
(Siler et al. 2011; Pitogo and Saavedra 2021) and
descriptions of new species restricted to the region (Siler
et al. 2012b; Brown 2015; Barley et al. 2020). These
milestones reinforce the indispensable role of empirical
field-based investigations to understand the level and
patterns of diversity in southern Mindanao. Our results
contribute to the current knowledge by providing baseline
information on the herpetofauna of Mount Busa. Most
species encountered are endemic to the Mindanao faunal
region, many of which are rarely observed and reported
in the literature. These include the amphibians P. rabori,
P. poecilius, I. mindanaoensis, and the reptiles D.
mindanensis, B. tiboliorum, E. ruficauda, and P. taylori.
We report the range extensions of P. poecilius, P. leitensis,
P. rabori, P. cf. surdus, and P cf. mindanensis to southern
Mindanao, affirming their large extent of occurrence. This
Philippine Journal of Science
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1301
study exemplifies how field surveys in less-studied areas
can inform and support species conservation assessments
(Brown et al. 2012a, 2013b; Sanguila et al. 2016;
Supsup et al. 2017), particularly for Mindanao-endemic
species on which limited studies are done to update their
ecological information. The lack of ecological data for
several Philippine herpetofauna not only hamper species
conservation assessments [e.g. Gonzalez et al. (2018)]
but may also wrongfully assign species into higher threat
categories like the case of Platymantis polillensis (Brown
et al. 2012a). Such errors can have repercussions in setting
priorities for species conservation.
Field surveys are made difficult by identifying species
on site, particularly those with high polymorphism and
cryptic diversity. This difficulty hampers accurate species
inventory and may lead to doubtful results if specimens
are not carefully examined [see Supsup et al. (2017) and
Pitogo et al. (2020)]. We therefore highly advise that
future inventories collect enough voucher specimens and/
or take clear photos showing diagnostic characters as the
ideal practice in herpetological research. This practice not
only enables future validation of reports but also facilitates
further taxonomic work, which is still needed for many
Philippine endemic species.
Several commonly occurring and widespread species of
reptiles were not recorded despite our repeated visits and
extensive fieldwork. We anticipate that future surveys in
the Busa Mountain Range will record additional species
of reptiles widespread in the Mindanao faunal region,
such as the snakes Coelognathus erythrurus, Calamaria
lumbricoidea, C. gervaisii, Gonyosoma oxycephalum,
Oligodon maculatus, Tropidolaemus philippensis,
Rampothyplops cumingii, and Calliophis philippina; and
the lizards Gekko gecko, Eutropis multifasciata, Eutropis
lapulapu, and Pseudogekko pungkaypinit. The snake M.
reticulatus was included in the species list despite not
being observed firsthand due to the compelling accounts
and certainty of the local community and the widespread
distribution of the species (Leviton et al. 2018).
A few of the amphibian species recorded by Rafe
Brown and colleagues in their 1993 fieldwork in Mount
Busa were not also observed. These were P. guentheri,
O. laevis, N. spinosus, and the enigmatic P. guttmani
described from a single specimen collected in Mount
Busa, Sarangani (Brown 2015). These species may have
been greatly reduced in numbers or extirpated after
much of the original lowland forest of Mount Busa has
been cleared or fragmented (Brown 2015; Pitogo and
Saavedra 2021). Of particular interest is the P. guttmani,
a species lost to science for more than two decades until
its recent rediscovery in the northern slopes of the Busa
Mountain Range in the South Cotabato Province (Pitogo
and Saavedra 2021). Without the 1993 fieldwork, the
existence of these species in Mount Busa would not have
been known, attesting to the value of specimen collections
as important sources of long-term datasets to track changes
in herpetological communities.
Southern Mindanao’s forest cover declined to more than
50% since the early 1990s (FMB 2018). Although the rate
of deforestation in the Philippines has stabilized in recent
years, agricultural expansion remains the key driver of the
remaining forest cover loss (Carandang 2013), particularly
in southern Mindanao (DENR 2020; PLGU Sarangani
2021; Senarillos et al. 2021). This threat is persistent in
Mount Busa as regenerating lowland secondary forests in
the area are selectively thinned for abaca farming, which
is the main economic activity in nearby villages. Abacas
start to encroach to higher elevations (up to 1,300 masl),
which may significantly affect forest communities if left
unregulated. Surprisingly, at least 80% of the species
recorded in our surveys were observed in the lowland
forest areas mixed with farmed abaca, suggesting that
sustainable abaca farming practices may support diverse
herpetological communities, although the effect of these
practices on other taxa should be carefully studied and
considered. This case highlights the value of integrating
multiple-use lowland forests in conservation planning
[e.g. Gillespie et al. (2015)].
The combined results of our field surveys and a few
records of Brown (2015) identified at least 72 species
of herpetofauna in Mount Busa – comprising about 32
species of amphibians, 24 species of lizards, and 16
species of snakes. Considering the limited area surveyed,
the diversity is relatively high and comparable to other
well-surveyed mainland provinces and mountain ranges
in the Philippines: 76 species for Cebu province (Supsup
et al. 2016), 68 species for Bulacan province (McLeod et
al. 2011), 66 species for Caraballo Mountain Range (Gojo-
Cruz et al. 2018), 61 species for Hamiguitan Mountain
Range (Supsup et al. 2017), 59 species for Malindang
Mountain Range (Nuñeza et al. 2010), 58 species for
Ilocos Norte province (Brown et al. 2012a), and 41 species
for Victoria-Anepahan Mountain Range (Supsup et al.
2020). However, we acknowledge that these differences
are influenced by sampling coverage and effort (McCain
and Grytnes 2010).
It is also noteworthy that amphibian diversity in Mount
Busa is relatively high even without a single record of
invasive alien species in the area. We expect that the
current known diversity in this mountain range would
significantly increase with additional field surveys in the
intact forested portions in the municipalities of Maitum
and Maasim in Sarangani and the northern slope in Lake
Sebu and Tboli in South Cotabato. Our results provide the
empirical data needed to justify the inclusion of the Busa
Mountain Range into the NIPAS by virtue of Republic
Philippine Journal of Science
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Pitogo et al.: Amphibians and Reptiles of Mt. Busa
1302
Act No. 11038, otherwise known as the Expanded NIPAS
Act of 2018. Such inclusion would mean a stronger legal
framework for its conservation, as legislated protected
areas will have their resources, management plan, and
governing body.
Continued field surveys in the diverse habitats of southern
Mindanao will eventually provide a much clearer picture of
the region’s amphibian and reptile diversity. Nevertheless,
our results offer a glimpse of what was a previously
unknown herpetological community in the southern
reaches of the Philippines. Site-based faunal inventories
are important sources of data for research, conservation,
and education (Brown et al. 2001). Unfortunately, field
surveys are becoming unpopular and are often relegated to
lower importance in modern conservation science (Ríos-
Saldaña et al. 2018).
Acknowledging the many challenges field biologists
face in southern Mindanao (Brown 2015; Sanguila et al.
2016; Pitogo and Saavedra 2021), we highly encourage
repeated visits and site-based herpetological surveys in
the diverse habitats in South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat,
Sarangani, and Davao Occidental provinces. Only
when these areas are extensively surveyed can we fully
understand the herpetological community of southern
Mindanao, overcoming Linnean and Wallacean shortfalls
in our knowledge of Philippine amphibians and reptiles
(Brown et al. 2012b).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fieldwork is funded by The Rufford Foundation (Project
No. 26752-1), United States Agency for International
Development (through the Protect Wildlife program),
Idea Wild, and the Philippine Department of Science
and Technology graduate scholarship awarded to KMEP.
The Philippine DENR Region XII Office provided the
necessary fieldwork and collection permit (Gratuitous
Permit No. 2019-23). We are grateful to the Municipal
Government of Kiamba in Sarangani Province and the
DENR–CENRO (Community Environment and Natural
Resources Office) Kiamba for allowing KMEP and AJLS
to conduct fieldwork in Mount Busa. We give our immense
gratitude to the indigenous Tboli community of Sitio
Tulad, headed by tribal chieftain Lorenzo Sinandon, for
their significant contributions in data collection and for
ensuring the team’s safety while on the field. John Carlo
Santos is also acknowledged for preparing the map of
Mount Busa we used in this paper. Finally, we want to
thank the two anonymous reviewers for improving the
early version of this manuscript.
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