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O
Ocean-Related Effects of
Climate Change on Society
Nathalie Hilmi, Matías Bastián Crisóstomo
Pinochet and Nicholas Theux-Lowen
Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Environmental
Economics, Monaco, Monaco
Definition
Stress has been defined as “a state that occurs
when people are faced with demands from the
environment that require them to change in some
way”(Veitch and Arkkelin 1995, p. 118). Evans
and Cohen (1987) included four categories into
the environmental stressors: daily hassles,
stressful life events, ambient stressors, and cata-
clysmic events. Inside the cataclysmic events is
possible to find many catastrophes like tornados,
storms, volcanic eruption, chemical accidents,
and toxic waste dumps (Guski 2001). Some of
the environmental stressors exposed in this entry
are climate change, floods, sea level rise, and the
increase in sea surface temperature.
The more common definition in the literature
of ecosystem services it has given by the Millen-
nium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA 2005),
defined as the ecological characteristics, func-
tions, or processes that directly or indirectly con-
tribute to human well-being. That is the benefits
that people derive from functioning ecosystems.
These include provisioning, regulating, and
cultural services that directly affect people and
supporting services needed to maintain the other
services. Also, the Intergovernmental Science-
Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES 2019) recognizes that many ser-
vices fit into more than one of the four categories.
For example, food is both a provisioning service
and, emphatically, a cultural service, in many
cultures.
Sustainable development goals (SDGs) are
goals adopted by all United Nations Member
States in 2015 with the primary objective of pro-
tecting the planet, provide human well-being, and
end with poverty rates around the globe by 2030
(UNDP, United Nations Development
Programme 2020). Also, has been defined as the
“ability to make development sustainable—to
ensure that it meets the needs of the present with-
out compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs”(WCED 1987; Robert
et al. 2005).
Nwabor et al. (2016) explain that waterborne
or water-related diseases are the product of
exposure to water (indirect or direct), that induce
illnesses due to toxic substances and pathogens in
the water. It can reach humans by skin exposure
during bathing, recreational water use, or drink-
ing. This definition includes diseases related to
water scarcity or the contamination of the water
during hostile climate events like droughts and
floods (Satnwell-Smith 2010). This entry empha-
sizes HABs (Harmful Algae Blooms), ENSO
(El Niño Southern Oscillation), and floods.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Life Below Water, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71064-8_104-1
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
gave the first global adopted definition in 1983,
which was focused on the analysis of food access.
The definition was established, taking into
account the balance between the demand and sup-
ply of food security:“Ensuring that all people at
all times have both physical and economic access
to the basic food that they need”(FAO 1983).
Over the years, this definition was used for many
authors, including the concept as well as “food
insecurity.”FAO (2002), through the consultation
of Clay (2002), explains that food security “exists
when all people, at all times, have physical, social
and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutri-
tious food which meets their dietary needs and
food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Household food security is the application of this
concept to the family level, with individuals
within households as the focus of concern”
(Clay 2002).
Introduction
Climate change is an environmental stressor that
has been increasing among the years. The ocean
has a vital and essential role as it represents 70%
of the surface of the planet and contains around
97% of earth’s water (NOAA 2017). It serves a
crucial function as the provider of many ecosys-
tem services and plays a fundamental role in the
human development and well-being. These eco-
system services will be affected due to climate
change, generating significant changes not only
in the local ecosystems but also in the economy
and social development. Climate change affects
the ocean through alterations in the temperature
average, sea level rise, acidification, deoxygen-
ation, eutrophication are some of the main factors
involved in this relationship, that will generate
socioeconomic impacts in many levels like in
human health, seafood security, pollution, aqua-
culture, and coastal communities, just to mention
some of them. Human activities have had a sig-
nificant and widespread impact on the world’s
ocean. These include direct exploitation, in par-
ticular overexploitation of fish, shellfish, and
other organisms, land- and sea-based pollution
from river networks and land-/sea-use change,
and coastal development for infrastructure and
aquaculture (IPBES 2019). Climate change and
anthropic activities have been shown to have a
detrimental effect on many biological marine eco-
systems (Claudet et al. 2020). The ocean-related
social impacts of climate change are divided into
four areas: ocean and human health (SDG 3), food
security (SDG 2), conflicts and migration (SDG
16), and cultural and aesthetical values.
Ocean and Human Health
Climate change in the ocean is impacting a wide
variety of marine organisms and their ecosystems
(Brierley and Kingsford 2009). Ocean acidifica-
tion, ENSO (El Niño), changes in the temperature,
and deoxygenation are primary factors that play a
crucial role in the alteration of the ocean and
marine organisms (Bednaršek et al. 2018). Con-
sequently, these marine organisms can produce
toxic compounds. The increase in toxic com-
pounds generates a negative effect on human pop-
ulation health. Also, new models suggest that the
intensity and frequency of ENSO will increase
with climate change in the next decades (Cai
et al. 2018). Therefore, an increase in sea surface
temperature (SST) will provide negative conse-
quences in human health. As an example, the
increase in one degree Celsius in SST increases
by approximately 20% the cases of malaria in five
regions of Colombia (Mantilla et al. 2009).
Pollution/Contaminants in the Ocean
Moore et al. (2008) explained 12 years ago that
increasing rates of greenhouse gases are expected
to increase the sea surface temperature, acidify
pH, and cause changes in marine ecosystems.
Also, marine plastic pollution has increased
since the 1980s, affecting sea birds (44%), mam-
mals (43%), and marine turtles (86%). Pollution
through the food chain can harm humans (IPBES
2019). Another factor is HABs (Harmful Algae
Blooms). These blooms are commonly linked to a
fast proliferation of toxic or otherwise noxious
microalgae and their accumulation at the sea sur-
face or in the water column (Anderson et al.
2012). Harmful algae are only a small component
of the phytoplankton population (Zingone and
2 Ocean-Related Effects of Climate Change on Society
Wyatt 2004). For humans, the exposure to toxins
of harmful algae is mainly due to inhalation, con-
tact, or consumption of contaminated sources like
food, water, and air. The different harmful algae
belonging to the ocean can cause diarrhetic shell-
fish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, aero-
solized Florida red tide respiratory syndrome,
paralytic shellfish poisoning, and neurotoxic
shellfish poisoning (Moore et al. 2008; Bindoff
et al. 2019; Nguyen et al. 2020). At the same time,
there is a positive correlation between the increase
in the risk on ecosystem services like fisheries,
aquaculture, public health, and tourism with the
increase in occurrences of HABs (Borbor-
Córdova et al. 2018). Bindoff et al. (2019) attri-
bute HABs to climate change, generating negative
impacts on food provisioning, economy, human
health, and tourism (Berdalet et al. 2017). The
impact in those communities depending on these
ecosystem services is significant, affecting their
well-being, local economy, and social
development.
Another relevant contaminant is organic mer-
cury (elemental mercury and carbon). Usually, it
is detected as methyl- or ethyl mercury. It is con-
sidered as the most common form of mercury
exposure and the most hazardous (Crowe et al.
2017). It is a neurotoxin formed from elemental
mercury by microorganisms in water (Braune
et al. 2015). This compound can accumulate in
the fatty tissue of some organisms like fish and
mammals. Increases in temperature will increase
bioaccumulation rates (Scheuhammer et al. 2015;
Macdonald and Loseto 2010; Krabbenhoft and
Sunderland 2013; McKinney et al. 2015). Most
human exposure to organic mercury occurs due to
the bioaccumulation in food chains. The exposure
can present severe consequences like mental
debilitation and physical effects (Sakamoto et al.
2018). Variated studies have shown the positive
correlation between increased risks of neurodeve-
lopmental disorders, such as attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), delayed lan-
guage/speech skills, tic disorder, and organic mer-
cury exposure (Young et al. 2008). Bindoff et al.
(2019) conclude that the human population that
consumes this type of food is vulnerable and has
health effects.
Waterborne Diseases
There is a crucial link between temperature and
diseases (Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno 2010). The
increase in temperature is causing an overgrowing
of some pathogenic species. Vibrio species pref-
erentially grows in warm environments and saline
aquatic environments higher than 15 °C. Many
Vibrio are going to be harmful to humans (like
Vibrio cholerae, responsible for cholera disease),
to corals (Vibrio coralliilyticus),and to fishes and
crustacean (Vibrio vulnificus) (Le Roux et al.
2015). Vibrio coralliilyticus infects corals at tem-
peratures above 27 °C (Kimes et al. 2012).
A consequence of HAB can be coral bleaching.
Hence, some species dependent on coral can
migrate, decreasing the fish stock (Graham et al.
2007), which will considerably affect the human
well-being of the population dependent on this
ecosystem services. Also, there is a positive cor-
relation between El Niño occurrences and coral
bleaching. Studies showed that all the most
intense bleaching events occurred since 1900,
during the most influential periods of ENSO
(McWilliams et al. 2005; Oxenford et al. 2008;
Clark et al. 2009).
Floods will increase the risk of cholera trans-
mission, due to the exposure of human
populations-pathogens during these events
(Baker-Austin et al. 2017), especially in some
countries in Africa, such as, Kenya, Tanzania,
Zanzibar, and Mozambique (Reyburn et al. 2011).
Seafood Security and the Ocean
Food security and the abolishment of malnutrition
are fundamental priorities of SDGs agenda related
to ocean and human well-being (Thilsted et al.
2016). Bindoff et al. (2019) explain that 15% of
the protein intake of more than 4.5 billion of the
global population comes from marine food (FAO
2017).
Seafood security has a negative correlation
with Vibrio (Berdalet et al. 2017). Also, coral
reefs degradation and bleaching are associated
with fish stocks having a positive correlation,
resulting in food security alteration (Gattuso
et al. 2015). The decrease in production of fisher-
ies is linked to malnutrition that will affect the
Ocean-Related Effects of Climate Change on Society 3
local population, as well as productivity (Bell
et al. 2009).
It is simultaneously projected that climate
change will decrease fish availability (Heenan
et al. 2015), and that total fish production will
increase from 179 million tonnes in 2018 to
204 million tonnes in 2030 (FAO 2020). Bindoff
et al. (2019) has projected that in low latitude
areas, the risk for food security will be higher
due to their dependence on ocean products. In
regions like West Africa and Pacific Islands, the
maximum fisheries catch potential is projected to
decrease (Golden et al. 2016; Hilmi et al. 2017).
At the same time, it is projected that the maximum
fisheries catch potential in other regions with
higher latitudes will increase (Kenny 2019).
Dietary Regimes
Seafood supply is getting affected by the bacterial
microbial contamination, viruses, and protists,
linked to human and animal activity (Fleming
et al. 2006). Some coastal indigenous communi-
ties are transforming their nutritional consump-
tion (Charlton et al. 2016; Batal et al. 2017).
Bindoff et al. (2019) explain that ocean acidifica-
tion is affecting Mollusca aquaculture and sea-
food. Initially, the diet was based on traditional
nutritious seafood-based wild-caught. Due to eco-
nomic and social changes, the diet turns and has
been an increase in processed energy-dense foods
high in fat, sodium, and refined sugar (Charlton
et al. 2016; Batal et al. 2017), having significant
consequences on population, increasing preva-
lence of obesity and other diet-related chronic
diseases (Sheikh et al. 2011).
Another consequence is the decrease in marine
phytoplankton growth and reduced synthesis of
omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).
Omega-3 PUFAs are marine phytoplankton,
which are essential nutrients for healthy human
development and well-being (Kang 2011). More-
over, it is projected that by 2100, in several
regions of the Pacific Islands States, more than
half of exploited fishes and invertebrates around
the exclusive economic zones will become locally
extinct (Asch et al. 2018).
Communities Dependent on Fisheries
It was estimated that near to 59.5 million people
were engaged in this sector (FAO 2020). It is a
significant source of employment around the
globe, with an estimation of 13% women working
in this field in 2018 (FAO 2020). Vital provision-
ing services from the ocean are fisheries, provid-
ing food, protein intake, profits, livelihoods, and
human well-being (FAO 2018). Between 1961
and 2017, global fish consumption has been
increased of 3.1% (annual). In 2017, fish con-
sumption was 17% of the world’s population
intake of animal protein, positioning itself as the
number one protein intake in the human popula-
tion, even over meat and milk (FAO 2020).
It has been reported for several coastal fish
stocks changes in water columns and poleward
distribution (Nye et al. 2009; Last et al. 2011).
For some tropical countries, negative impacts on
the catch and total fisheries revenues are pro-
jected, consequently, having significant implica-
tions for local economies, food security, and
protein intake (Golden et al. 2016). Productivity
will increase in the cold water ocean and decrease
in lower latitudes (Cheung et al. 2010; Piñeiro
et al. 2010; Pinsky et al. 2018). For example,
local communities and countries dependent on
tuna catch will suffer from loss of income and
revenues (Robinson et al. 2010). However,
Indian, Atlantic, and Pacific ocean significantly
increase the catches of tropical tunas with the
increase in SST (Monllor-Hurtado et al. 2017).
Small-scale fisheries play a fundamental role in
the development of coastal communities and their
well-being (Chuenpagdee 2011). Communities
strongly dependent on fisheries linked to ecosys-
tems that are particularly sensitive to climate
change and have a crucial importance (Marshall
et al. 2013), such as coral reefs, will be at higher
risk (Cinner et al. 2016). Bindoff et al. (2019)
projected that dependent populations on fisheries
would increase the risk of impacts on the income
and their livelihood by 2050.
Conflicts and Migration
Bindoff et al. (2019) explain that individuals can
lose sites of significance, affecting their cultures
and identity directly (Adger et al. 2012). Also, a
4 Ocean-Related Effects of Climate Change on Society
decrease in fish stock will contribute to future
conflicts (Belhabib et al. 2016; Pomeroy et al.
2016; Blasiak et al. 2017). Hence, governances
without proper adaptation responses will increase
potential conflicts in management and resource
distribution (Belhabib et al. 2018; Pinsky
et al. 2018).
Illegal Fishing/Piracy
Axbard (2016) explains that in Indonesia, close to
40% of the attacks decline when fishing condi-
tions are above average in a specific area and
period of the year. Also, when sea surface temper-
ature increases, the numbers of attacks are higher.
The decline in chlorophyll-a rates will decrease
the fish stocks, which at the same time will
increase piracy due to the lack of resources
(Axbard 2016).
Bindoff et al. (2019) mention that overfishing
has increased around the globe. Illegal fishing and
overfishing of some species have an enormous
impact on carbon sequestration. For example,
countries such as Japan, Iceland, and Norway are
still catching whales (McCarthy 2019). In the list
of catches since the moratorium came into effect
from 1985 until 2018 (excluding whales which
were shot but not landed and bycatches), the total
of catches was 56,809 individuals between 8 dif-
ferent species (IWC 2019). Carbon sequestration
executed by each great whale arises to 33 tons of
CO
2
on average (Chami et al. 2019). At the same
time, nutrients to surface waters can be trans-
ported by whales through their depositions
(Roman et al. 2014), increasing phytoplankton
concentrations (Chami et al. 2019), generating
suitable conditions for the development of other
species. Carbon sequestration is important to
achieve the Paris Agreement objectives too.
Human Migration Due to Climate Change
A number close to 200 million environmental
refugees are projected to migrate by 2050
(International Organization for Migration 2008).
Lonergan (1998) explains that migration can be
influenced by five groups: natural disasters, indus-
trial accidents, progressive evolution of the envi-
ronment, development projects that involve
changes in the environment, and environmental
consequences due to conflicts. Bindoff et al.
(2019) explain that switches in seascape impact
the mobility of individuals (Camus 2017). Sea
level rise changes the geomorphology in coast-
lines, which increases flooding affecting local
aquaculture and inciting migration (Gattuso
et al. 2015).
Migrations can be forced by environmental
degradation (Neuteleers 2011). It is mainly due
to rising sea levels, droughts, floodings in some
islands and meteorological disasters (Piguet
2008). It has been studied that in poor and
middle-income countries, floods and storms influ-
ence emigration rates and that local and temporary
mobility is due mainly to natural disasters
(Cattaneo 2015). Conversely, long-term migration
is related to coastal erosion and sea level rise
(Bassetti 2019). However, the link between cli-
mate change and human migration remains
unclear (Kibreab 2017) due to the multiple factors
involved and the complexity of modelling (Perch-
Nielsen 2004).
Cultural, Educational, and Aesthetical Values
Climate change will modify perceptions, trans-
mission, and practice of the knowledge on the
ocean (Alderson-Day et al. 2015). Education can
enhance knowledge and consciousness of climate
change effects and the way to mitigate them
(Anderson 2012). Furthermore, education can
enhance the likelihood of the use of technologies
to interpret and adapt better to climate change
events (Pescaroli and Magni 2015). At the same
time, it can help to create new relationships
between environmental managers and coastal
populations with the aim of elaborate and enforce
new adaptation strategies (Wynveen et al. 2015).
Bindoff et al. (2019) explain that cultures are
impacted at a fast rate. Consequently, part of peo-
ple’s cultural identity and values can be modified
or lost. For some indigenous cultures, several
marine species harvests affected have an essential
role in spirituality and aesthetic values for the
community (Pörtner et al. 2014). The term of
environmental aesthetics arises to betake the envi-
ronmental character of natural objects (Brady
2014). Thus, aesthetically aspects of marine eco-
systems play a fundamental role in the support of
Ocean-Related Effects of Climate Change on Society 5
local and international economies and human
well-being (Bindoff et al. 2019).
In 2025, a substantial growth is projected in the
Global Ornamental Fish Market due to millen-
nials’preferences for aquariums as home decora-
tion. Moreover, studies have shown that
ornamental fishes in household aquariums pro-
vide psychological advantages such as reducing
stress and provide calm on the members of the
house (Market Analysis Report 2020).
Natural Beauty, Artistical, and Spiritual Values
Since years ago, natural beauty has been signifi-
cative, inspiring artist and millions of people
(Hansen 2016). Bindoff et al. (2019) mention
that natural beauty is essential for the spiritual
and psychological well-being of the human pop-
ulation, and that climate change will impact it
through the modification in geomorphology. Con-
sequently, communities can migrate and the indig-
enous knowledge can be affected (Camus 2017).
Also, aesthetical aspects of marine ecosystems are
essential for supporting local and international
economies, primarily through tourism (Bindoff
et al. 2019). Due to changes in natural beauty,
transmission and structure of indigenous knowl-
edge can be affected due to the mobility of the
community caused by the modification in the sea-
scape (Camus 2017).
For some cultures, the ocean is a divinity
(Villagrán and Videla 2018). As an example, it
can be mentioned in the Mapuche culture from
South America. In their cosmovision, the creation
of the earth was made by two snakes, one terres-
trial and other oceanic, showing the duality of life
and the importance of earth and ocean in their
cosmovision. “The snake kills, also provides life,
gives rain, and the only opportunity of life and
sense for communities is generating a spiritual
connection with the deity, even if it is dangerous”
(Rosete 2006, p. 277). Furthermore, in Pacific
Islanders communities, it is described that the
trajectory from and to heaven includes the island
orchards, transoceanic routes, and routes from and
to the reef (Mondragon et al. 2010). Thus, it can
be interpreted that ocean is fundamental for
coastal communities under a spiritual point
of view.
Indigenous Knowledge/Coastal Local
Communities
Climate change adverse impacts can affect and be
harmful to indigenous communities in access to
resources or livelihoods (MEA 2005). The indig-
enous coastal population around the world is
nearly 30 million people (Davidson-Hunt
et al. 2016).
A better understanding of the local environ-
ment is possible due to the knowledge developed
by local communities (Andrachuk and Armitage
2015). Bindoff et al. (2019) mention that there is a
link between vital spaces and Oceanian identity.
In the Pacific, the local knowledge in the ocean
was transferred from a family monopoly to the
community and even to schools (Bambridge and
Le Meur 2018). Currently, the group and the indi-
vidual are part of a narrative and historical con-
struction (Alderson-Day et al. 2015).
Local knowledge promotes adaptation and the
development of new strategies to fight the effects
of climate change (Kittinger et al. 2012), but also
local knowledge can act as a barrier to adaptation.
For example, for an individual with higher local
knowledge, adaptation can be more difficult due
to the sensitivity to changes (Metcalf et al. 2015).
Bindoff et al. (2019) explain that climate change
in the ocean can impact local and indigenous
cultures, their economies, and culture preserva-
tion (Pörtner et al. 2014). Also, the given valua-
tion for marine ecosystems by dependent
communities is higher than for other cultures
(Cinner et al. 2018). Finally, Adger et al. (2012)
expose that cultures are endangered.
Conclusion
The IOC (Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission) has created the United Nations
Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Devel-
opment (2021–2030) to achieve the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 (con-
serve and sustainably manage ocean and marine
resources) by 2030 and other linked SDG’s such
as food security (SDG 2), and good health and
well-being (SDG 3), just to mention some of
them. Through the coordinated work of scientists,
6 Ocean-Related Effects of Climate Change on Society
managers, policymakers, and individuals, the
Decade seeks to decrease the scientific knowledge
gap between different countries in the ocean, tech-
nologies, infrastructure, and societal dialogues
fields, especially in SIDS (Small Island Develop-
ing States). The Decade is expected to help and
support many countries and populations from
global to local scale, to achieve the SDGs of the
Agenda 2030 mentioned above. The Decade
would provide a clean, safe, healthy, and resilient
ocean, as well as a sustainable harvest and pro-
duction through the transmission of scientific
information and technologies. Hence, if Decade
is implemented in a context of cooperation based
on trustworthiness, the economy and human well-
being should improve in many vulnerable
populations and countries, by providing benefits,
better opportunities, and socioeconomic
development.
Cross-References
▶Ocean-Related Effects of Climate Change on
Economy
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