LEARNING MOTIVATION MOTIVATION OF LEARNING

Abstract

Educational psychology has identified two basic classifications of motivation - intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation arises from a desire to learn a topic due to its inherent interests, for self-fulfillment, enjoyment and to achieve a mastery of the subject. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is motivation to perform and succeed for the sake of accomplishing a specific result or outcome. Students who are very grade-oriented are extrinsically motivated, whereas students who seem to truly embrace their work and take a genuine interest in it are intrinsically motivated.

Full text

Dr. ROHANA, M.Pd
LEARNING MOTIVATION

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MOTIVATION OF LEARNING
What is the best way to motivate students? The short answer is that all of
these strategies can be used, as often as possible. Understanding student motivation is
much like a group of blind men discovering for the first time what an elephant is like.
One man holds the tail and says that an elephant is like a broom. Another holds a leg
and says that an elephant is like a tree trunk. Others say an elephant is like a big
pillow, a big hose, or a spear. Each blind man has an accurate portrayal from his
specific vantage point but not the whole picture. This also seems to be the case
regarding student motivation. Each of the writers or theorists has another valuable
aspect that contributes to the understanding of student motivation. However, no
theory seems to be complete in and of itself. As such, maybe the best way to gain
some new understandings about motivation is to hold all of these theories
simultaneously in mind, much like a giant puzzle, and see where there is good
understanding and where there are gaps. These new ideas then could be translated
into the classroom, using those specific items that are effective and useful in each
instructor’s unique classroom situation. At the very least, it seems that motivation in
the classroom is a function of five components: student, teacher, content,
method/process, and environment. Aspects of any of these five components could
contribute to and/or hinder motivation. Maybe educators could start just by choosing
and trying three new possibilities for enriching student motivation. Or, more
importantly, educators could watch themselves and their own behavior to become
self-aware of new understandings about motivation. Remember.
Ames (1992), Lepper and Hodell (1989) suggest some strategies to increase
students' classroom motivation. Turner and Paris (1995) term these the Six C's of
Motivation: choice, challenge, control, collaboration, constructing meaning, and
consequences. As we apply the Six C’s of Motivation to instructional design it is
important to remember that these strategies are extremely flexible and can be
modified and adapted as needed
Given the importance of teachers’ motivational strategies for students’
motivation and learning outcomes, the purpose of this small-scale exploratory study
was to gain more insight into how teachers negotiate their personal beliefs with
contextual factors, and how this affects the extent to which they adopt autonomy-
supportive or controlling teaching strategies. As such, this paper contributes to our
understanding of why teachers often rely on controlling motivational strategies even

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though these controlling strategies have been associated with adverse student
outcomes
According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan 1985),
motivational strategies can vary along a continuum that ranges from highly
autonomy-supportive to very controlling (Deci et al. 1991; Ryan and Deci 2000a;
Vallerand 1997; Vansteenkiste et al. 2004). Autonomy-supportive motivational
strategies aim to nurture students’ inner motivational resources and volitional
intentions to act. In classrooms, autonomy can be facilitated by transferring
responsibility of the learning process to students, providing choice, connecting to
students’ interests, providing explanatory rationales, and creating meaningful and
relevant learning activities. Such strategies are aimed at increasing students’ own
willingness to engage in learning activities. Conversely, controlling motivational
strategies include compelling students to think, feel or act in certain ways, and
overruling students’ own perspectives. Controlling teachers motivate students by
external incentives, pressure or control instead of relying on students’ inner
motivational resources. Such strategies include the use of external rewards such as
grades or directive language (Jang et al. 2010; Niemic and Ryan 2009; Reeve and
Jang 2006; Reeve et al. 2004a, b; Vansteenkiste et al. 2004). Although it is often
assumed that autonomy-supportive strategies and structure are opposites, structure
can be delivered in autonomy-supportive ways (Reeve 2009) by communication of
clear expectations, giving directions, providing guidelines and setting limits. Control
is different from structure, however, because control implies that teachers exert
pressure on students (Reeve 2009).
Autonomy-supportive teaching strategies have been associated with higher
intrinsic motivation and more favorable learning outcomes (Jang et al. 2010; Reeve et
al. 2004a, b; Ryan and Deci 2000b; Vansteenkiste et al. 2004, 2006). Autonomy-
supportive teaching in combination with structure has been found to be most
beneficial to students’ motivation (Sierens et al. 2009). Likewise, research from
interpersonal theory has demonstrated that teaching styles characterized by high
affiliation with students in combination with intermediate levels of control are
associated with higher levels of student motivation (Wubbels and Brekelmans 2005).
Moreover, various studies have indicated that constructivist teaching
approaches which include elements of autonomy-supportive teaching, such as
personal relevance, shared control and student negotiation, positively relate to student
motivation (e.g. Fraser 2012; Henderson and Fisher 2008; Maulana et al. 2012;
Ogbuehi and Fraser 2007). In contrast, high levels of dominance or control have been
associated with adverse motivational outcomes, such as lower intrinsic motivation,

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more controlled motivation, or even lack of motivation (Jang et al. 2010; Reeve et al.
2004a, b; Ryan and Deci 2000a; Vansteenkiste et al. 2004, 2006; Wubbels and
Brekelmans 2005).
Many studies have shown that, in practice, teachers often use controlling
motivational strategies even though research seems to indicate that autonomy-
supportive strategies are more favorable with regard to students’ motivation (e.g.
Reeve 2009; Stroet et al. 2013; Turner 2010). Thus far, many studies on teachers’
motivational strategies have depended on survey research (Stroet et al. 2013).
However, the choice to use controlling or autonomy-supportive teaching strategies
and their effectiveness could depend on a variety of factors often not taken into
account in survey research, such as teachers’ personal beliefs, contextual factors and
student characteristics (Furtak and Kunter 2012; Iyengar and Lepper 1999). To gain
more insight into these aspects, the present study therefore qualitatively examined the
role of teachers’ personal beliefs and the contextual factors that teachers can
experience in relation to their motivational strategies.
Learning Environ Res (2015) 18:363–392 365 123 Teachers’ personal beliefs
and their motivational strategies Teachers usually hold very stable long-term beliefs
about the nature of student motivation and the particular motivational strategies that
are effective in motivating their students (Pajares 1992; Turner 2010; Turner et al.
2009). Teacher beliefs are developed through teachers’ own experiences as learners
(Mansfield and Volet 2010; Richardson 2003), their initial teacher training (Avalos
2011; Mansfield and Volet 2010; Richardson 2003), as well as their professional
experiences as teachers (Avalos 2011; Turner et al. 2009). Often, teachers use
controlling motivational strategies that can be at odds with motivational theories
(Reeve 2009; Turner 2010). Several reasons can account for this difference between
motivational theory and actual teacher behaviours.
Teachers’ personal beliefs about motivation and learning or their role as a
teacher can account for some differences (Eisenhart et al. 1988). Teachers can find
controlling strategies more effective when they seem to believe that students are not
motivated. In such instances, teachers consider lack of motivation to be an innate
characteristic of students, and they might resort to controlling strategies so that they
can make students work without having to encourage their inner motivational
resources (Reeve 2009). Furthermore, a teacher’s belief that extrinsic rewards
encourage learning can be deeply rooted and so, when students are not autonomously
motivated, teachers could offer extrinsic rewards such as grades to make students
learn. Also, some teachers could feel that they will more efficiently reach their
instructional goals when using controlling strategies (Reeve 2009). In other words,

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simply instructing students about what to do, instead of explaining the relevance or
providing choice through offering different strategies, seems to be less time
consuming for teachers. Previous research has also shown that teachers’ motivational
strategies do not always correspond with their own motivational beliefs (Mansour
2009; Raymond 1997).
Some teachers could have personal beliefs favouring autonomy-supportive
motivational strategies, but there could be factors in the educational context that
constrain teachers from teaching according to those beliefs (Mansour 2009).
Teachers’ perceptions of contextual pressures and their motivational strategies
Pelletier et al. (2002) described several contextual conditions that can pressure
teachers to teach in controlling ways. Contextual factors can be divided into factors
from above and factors from below. Factors from above, with which teachers in many
countries are faced, include performance standards (Deci et al. 1982), high-stakes
testing (Nolen 2011; Ryan and Brown 2005; Ryan and Weinstein 2009) or pressure
from school administrations, colleagues and parents (Reeve 2009). In contrast, factors
from below arise from the day-today interactions within the classroom and refer to
the motivational characteristics of the student population (Pelletier et al. 2002).
Pelletier et al. (2002) found that teachers resorted to more extrinsically-oriented
controlling motivational strategies when students appeared unmotivated.
When perceiving a lack of intrinsic motivation from students, teachers might
try to tell students what to do or motivate them by grades or other forms of rewards or
punishments. Furthermore, Oakes (1985) found that teachers in schools with many
low achieving students emphasized controlling motivational strategies, conformity
and obedience. Likewise, Solomon et al. (1996) found that teachers who worked at
more disadvantaged schools rated their strategies as more controlling, held more
positive attitudes towards teacher authority and held less positive attitudes towards
student autonomy.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Educational psychology has identified two basic classifications of motivation
- intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation arises from a desire to learn a topic due
to its inherent interests, for self-fulfillment, enjoyment and to achieve a mastery of
the subject. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is motivation to perform and
succeed for the sake of accomplishing a specific result or outcome. Students who are
very grade-oriented are extrinsically motivated, whereas students who seem to truly
embrace their work and take a genuine interest in it are intrinsically motivated.

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Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: Typical students bring varying degrees of
both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to the learning arena. Intrinsic motivational
factors found to be at work with most students include involvement (the desire to be
involved), curiosity (find out more about their interests), challenge (figuring out the
complexity of a topic), and social interaction (creating social bonds). Extrinsic
motivational factors include compliance (to meet another’s expectation, to do what
one is told); recognition (to be publicly acknowledged); competition; and work
avoidance (avoid more work than necessary). Individuals who are motivated
intrinsically tend to develop high regard for learning course information without the
use of external rewards or reinforcement. On the other hand, individuals who are
motivated extrinsically rely solely on rewards and desirable results for their
motivation, e.g., tests and GPA. (Lei, 2010) Students who are motivated externally
are at a greater risk of performing lower academically than intrinsically motivated
students. It is interesting to note that nontraditional students report higher levels of
intrinsic motivation than traditional students. (Dean and Dagostino, 2007; Daniels,
2010; Bye, Pushkar, and Conway, 2007; Afzal, et al., 2010)
Ingredient 1 Motivation For Students
Various individual and social factors: Overall academic motivation is
affected by various individual and social factors. For example, intrinsic motivation is
affected by the reason for preferring the school, the probability of finding a job after
graduation, the order of preference, the future expectation, the distinctiveness of
testing and measuring activities at the school, and desire to complete a Masters’
degree. In the simplest terms, it is necessary to be motivated and to make an effort.
Extrinsic motivation is significantly affected by the probability of finding a job, the
attitude towards the teacher, the peer group, the level of income, the appropriateness
of the classrooms, the adequacy of teaching materials, and the number of siblings.
The most effective extrinsic motivation is the probability of finding a job. (Celikoz,
2010) Also, Gen Y students seem to be more connected to their parents. As a result, it
is important to involve the parents in encouraging and motivating their children to do
well in college. (McGlynn, 2008; Fulton and Turner, 2008)
• Hierarchy of needs: Regarding lower level needs, if a student is hungry or
thirsty, it is more difficult to focus on learning. Also, if the environment is physically,
mentally, or emotionally unsafe, then it will be hard for the student to put all of his or
her attention on learning. If the teacher always is critical of the student, then the
student Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 4 probably
will not feel accepted or that he or she belongs. Low self-esteem and ego will make
the student feel unappreciated and unrecognized. As such, the educator must do what

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is necessary to support the student to a higher level of need satisfaction so that the
student can focus his or her attention on learning. Even at the level of self-
actualization, the educator may need to provide encouragement or opportunities.
(Maslow, 1943)
• Perceived well-being: Students’ perceptions may be clouded by their
perceived wellbeing, e.g., bad mood, not being able to find parking, or having a
disagreement with someone before class. Well-being or life satisfaction is the degree
to which a student is content with his or her life including pleasure in daily activities,
meaningfulness of life, goodness of fit between desired and achieved goals, mood,
self-concept, perceived health, financial security, and social contact. To increase
satisfaction with the learning experience and in turn performance, these well-being
factors need to be extrapolated into the classroom. That is, factors beyond quality of
teaching can affect student satisfaction including student motivation, course level,
grade expectations, type of academic field, and workload difficulty. (Duffy and
Ketchard, 1998) At the very least, teachers will need to be compassionate and even
supportive of the personal life conditions of their students that surface in the process
of education.
• Efficient use of energy and focus: Students should be taught how to produce
results while maintaining focus and energy. Businesses and organizations certainly
focus on getting the right results with the least effort or cost. Hence, educators need
to train students to “stalk” efficient and effective results. In another complementary
vein pertinent to the “greening” of business and the planet as a whole, each individual
ultimately will be required to become a master of focusing on and using skills such as
personal energy conservation and regeneration. This theme of efficiency should serve
the student in his or her studies as well as in his or her life and global citizenry.
• Purposeful connection with work: Emergent motivation results from
connecting with work as a source of self-expression, exploration, and sustained
creativity. It is emergent because purpose arises out of the interaction between a
student and what he or she perceives as a significant and meaningful context. That is,
students discover their own rewards by mastering new challenges and making unique
contributions in a significant and meaningful context. To foster emergent motivation,
educators need to design variety into a learning system. This variety can overcome
extensive individual differences in student inputs and yield uniformly high levels of
perceived personal effectiveness, organizational effectiveness, ability to apply course
materials, and satisfaction with both course results and the educational process. Also,
students become co-producers in the educational system because they are inherently
responsible for the learning work that takes place. (Lengnick-Hall and Sanders, 1997)

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• Conscientiousness and achievement: Conscientiousness and achievement
motivation are positively correlated with GPA. It is suggested that conscientious
students may do better because of differences in achievement motivation capacity. As
such, achievement motivation assessments and prior academic achievement could
help identify students likely to maximize their potential. On the other end of the
continuum, it also could alert educators to less conscientious and less achievement
oriented students. Then, in turn, educators could provide appropriate attention
incentives, or trainings that positively impact these students. In addition, it may be
possible to retrain students to self-regulate motivation for challenging academic tasks,
thereby enhancing their effort regulation capacities. Interventions could be developed
for this purpose. (Richardson and Abraham, 2009) It seems that success does breed
success.
• Public speaking competence: Student motivation has been positively related
to public speaking competence, but not to the demonstration of communication
knowledge (Carrell, 1997). Because fear of public speaking is a prevalent phobia of
most people, continued practice in public speaking will teach students how to face
their greatest fears and get over them, hence, getting over unconscious blocks,
rebuilding traits, and enhancing self-concept. These positive results should make
students more confident and motivated.
• Study time and study habits: Students lead very busy lives. As a result,
evidence shows that students are devoting less time to their studies (Higher Education
Research Institute, 2003). While the quantity of time spent studying has an influence
on performance, this influence is moderated by the students’ study habits. Also, the
ability to concentrate influences student performance positively. Having a good set of
notes is important, but it still depends on how study time is used. Ultimately, studying
has quantitative aspects as well as qualitative aspects, that is, amount of time studying
and good study habits are both important. (Nonis and Hudson, 2010)
• Lecture attendance: Lectures are viewed as positively associated with
academic performance. They also are perceived as valuable and interesting learning
experiences for students. Then, why is it that students skip lectures? Lectures may be
seen as only one of an array of student pressures. As a result, students engage in a
constant decision process that involves weighing the benefits against the costs of
attending lectures. Students generally see lectures as optional and not always as a
beneficial or enjoyable part of their college time. Non-attendance may simply be a
coping strategy that signals difficulty in coping with the content, processes, or
schedules associated with formal learning. (Moore, Armstrong, and Pearson, 2008)

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• Comprehensive, long-range educational plan: The development of a long-
range educational plan will help students to value education and to make the most of
their time in school. This plan also should contribute to their confidence and reduce
the fear of the unknown. That is, students who have compiled a long-range plan are
less likely to give up when difficulties occur. This plan is even more effective when it
is updated continuously and encompasses the transition from education to career.
Creating a vision of adulthood and who they want to become is very empowering.
This planning process can empower students to see the connection between school
and work. Ultimately, it prepares them for a lifetime of productive employment and
continual learning. (Dedmond, 2009)
Some Aspect Motivation
a. Make it real
In order to foster intrinsic motivation, try to create learning activities that are
based on topics that are relevant to your students' lives. Strategies include using local
examples, teaching with events in the news, using pop culture technology (iPods, cell
phones, YouTube videos) to teach, or connecting the subject with your students'
culture, outside interests or social lives. ([Brozo, 2005] ; McMahon and Kelly, 1996)
b. Provide choices
Students can have increased motivation when they feel some sense of
autonomy in the learning process, and that motivation declines when students have no
voice in the class structure. Giving your students options can be as simple as letting
them pick their lab partners or select from alternate assignments, or as complex as
"contract teaching" wherein students can determine their own grading scale, due dates
and assignments. Kurvink, 1993 Reeve and Hyungshim, 2006 (Perkins 2002, GSA
Abstract)
c. Balance the challenge
Students perform best when the level of difficulty is slightly above their
current ability level. If the task is to easy, it promotes boredom and may communicate
a message of low expectations or a sense that the teacher believes the student is not
capable of better work. A task that is too difficult may be seen as unattainable, may
undermine self-efficacy, and may create anxiety. Scaffolding is one instructional
technique where the challenge level is gradually raised as students are capable of
more complex tasks. (Wang and Han) (more info) , [Margolis and McCabe, 2006]
[Adams, 1998]

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d. Seek role models
If students can identify with role models they may be more likely to see the
relevance in the subject matter. For example, Weins et al (2003) found that female
students were more likely to cite a positive influence with a teacher as a factor for
becoming interested in science [Wiens et al, 2003] . In some cases, you can be a role
model but it's unlikely that you will connect on that level with everyone in the class
due to differences in gender, age and social circles. However there can be many
sources of role models, such as invited guest speakers, fellow students or other peers.
e. Use peer models
Students can learn by watching a peer succeed at a task. In this context, a peer
means someone who the student identities with, not necessarily any other student.
Peers may be drawn from groups as defined by gender, ethnicity, social circles,
interests, achievement level, clothing, or age. [Margolis and McCabe, 2006]
f. Establish a sense of belonging
People have a fundamental need to feel connected or related to other people.
In an academic environment, research shows that students who feel they 'belong' have
a higher degree of intrinsic motivation and academic confidence. According to
students, their sense of belonging is fostered by an instructor that demonstrates
warmth and openness, encourages student participation, is enthusiastic, friendly and
helpful, and is organized and prepared for class. [Freeman, Anderman and Jensen,
2007] [Anderman and Leake, 2005]
g. Adopt a supportive style
A supportive teaching style that allows for student autonomy can foster
increased student interest, enjoyment, engagement and performance. Supportive
teacher behaviors include listening, giving hints and encouragement, being
responsive to student questions and showing empathy for students. Reeve and
Hyungshim, 2006 Also see how immediacy in the classroom can be part of a
supportive style of teaching.
Show me examples of supportive-style teacher behaviors
Show me examples of controlling-style teacher behaviors
Strategize with struggling students

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When students are struggling with poor academic performance, low self-
efficacy or low motivation, one strategy that may help is to teach them how to learn.
That is, to outline specific strategies for completing an assignment, note-taking or
reviewing for an exam. [Tuckerman 2003] [Margolis and McCabe, 2006] Specific
learning strategies:
Pre-action phase (preparing for task) -take a reasonable risk, work toward
goals that are challenging but attainable, work in manageable, bite-size pieces, take
responsibility for your actions, believe in your own effort and capability, set a plan
and work from it.
Action phase - search the environment, ask questions, visualize it (?)
Reaction phase (after one task, preparing for the next one) - use feedback
from prior tasks, monitor your own actions, give yourself instructions (see also
Tuckerman, 2003 )
Ingredient Motivation For Teacher
Mark Twain Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page
6 Students display more motivational benefits from teachers they like over teachers
they dislike (Montalvo, 1998). However, education is much more than a personality
contest. The role of teachers seems to be shifting from preprogrammed knowledge
dispensers to instead managers of student learning and the learning environment.
Therefore, teachers must be empowered to exercise professional judgment in the
classroom to attain clearly expressed goals. Professional educators should be given
latitude to test individual approaches based on strategic goals and incentive systems.
Also, teachers should be provided with training to support them in this expanded role
including more time for peer interaction to share views on what is effective. Overall,
teachers should do unto the students as they would want done unto themselves. The
following suggestions are offered regarding Ingredient 2 or teacher contributions to
student motivation:
• Subject knowledge and motivational level: The professor’s knowledge of the
subject matter and the motivational level of the professor are most important to
motivate college students to do well in college. That may be because professors could
influence the student’s internal state of wanting to do well in college. While high
school students make statements like I want to get a job, to feel proud of myself, to
graduate with my friends, and to avoid feeling like a failure, college students are
motivated by the professor’s knowledge of the subject matter, the professor’s sense of
humor, the motivational level of the professor, high quality of teaching, intellectual

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challenge, engagement in class, and academic help outside of the class. (Weinstein,
2010)
• Teacher skills: One important extrinsic factor in the educational
environment is the instructor. On examining the degree of learning whether taught by
a Ph.D. faculty vs. an M.A. faculty, there is no significant net association between
instructor’s degree and student assessments of amount learned or instructor
effectiveness. (Finegan and Siegfried, 1998) However, all else being equal, students
perform better if they: (a) are educated in smaller schools where they are well known,
(b) have smaller class sizes, (c) receive a challenging curriculum, and (d) have
teachers with greater expertise and experience. For example, curriculum quality and
teacher skills make more difference to educational outcomes than initial test scores or
racial backgrounds of the students. (Darling-Hammond, 1998) Teacher skills include
staying calm, eliminating negative thoughts or feelings, disengaging stress,
remembering that students have their own realities and are doing their best, not taking
students’ actions personally, remembering that students are not bad rather just in the
process of development, and maintaining a sense of humor. (Whistler, 1992)
• Teacher qualifications: Qualifications of the teacher employed in
universities should be questioned and improved. Educators need to acquire new
qualities and continue to grow and evolve as they are role models for the students.
(Celikoz, 2010) Given that there is variability across campuses, there need to be
support structures for educators as well as clear understandings that teaching involves
more than just subject matter knowledge and classroom management skills. In
particular, Shulman (1987, p. 8) calls the knowledge needed for effectively teaching a
specific subject “pedagogical content knowledge” (PCK) which “represents the
blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics,
problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interests
and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction.” Research in Higher Education
Journal Five key ingredients, Page 7
• Test giving: Teachers need to know how to give tests that are motivating to
the students. Tests need to have thematic relevance, that is, they need to aim at
checking what students have learned and whether they can apply it to real-life tasks.
In addition, tests that are more demanding or challenging than anything practiced in
class will have negative effects on student motivation. Also, tests should be based on
course objectives and should not involve surprise or novelty. Specifically, test
questions should be as easy as possible for test takers to process, even when the
content is very challenging. In general, test-taking instructions, terminology, layout,

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and item choices need to not be ambiguous, confusing, illogical, unclear, imprecise,
or poorly designed. (Trugman, 2007)
• Scientific management and human relations: The educator must consider
whether to approach students from the viewpoint of scientific management, human
relations, or both. Here are some tips on how to add components of both scientific
management and human relations from Jamie Doran (1999), the Pennsylvania
Institute of CPAs 1998 Outstanding Accounting Educator Award: − Use inventive
teaching techniques, − Encourage your students to embrace technology, − Make
learning both interesting and entertaining, − Require significant effort both inside and
outside the classroom, − Convey a real sense of caring to the students, − Make each
student feel special, − Help students outside of the classroom and at odd hours, −
Teach them how to use information to make proper decisions for real life, − Students
need to know you are approachable, − Motivate them to achieve at their maximum
level, − Instill a fire in your students, − Create a classroom environment where
students are passionate about learning, − Go beyond the confines of the academic
setting, − Discuss contemporary topics, − Share personal relevant experience, −
Capture the interest of your students, − Be devoted to your students, − Learn students
individual needs and respond appropriately, − Develop specialized assignments and
schedules when needed, − Provide tools for their careers, − Promote practical work
experience, − Foster relationships with local area professionals, and − Each semester
ask the students to write down what future students should do in order to be
successful in the course and put some of these on the next term’s syllabus.
Conscious of small details: Barbara McCombs states that “almost everything
(teachers) do in the classroom has a motivational influence on students - either
positive or negative.” This includes the way information is presented, the kinds of
activities that teachers use, the ways teachers interact with students, the amount of
Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 8 choice and
control given to students, and opportunities for students to work alone or in groups.
Students react to who teachers are, what they do, and how comfortable they feel in
the classroom. (Olson, 1997) Consequently, small details do make all the difference.
Greet each student at the door by his or her first name. Make eye contact and smile.
Actively listen to each student. Avoid giving advice. Be genuine. Be clear in approval
and disapproval. Let students know you do not carry a grudge. Avoid sarcasm and
criticism. Talk to students about negative concerns privately as not to embarrass them
in front of others. Walk around the room and give the students an occasional pat on
the back or catch their eyes or give them an okay sign as appropriate. (Olson, 1997)
Also, use stories, personal examples, and language that engage the students and
create rapport.

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• Reach out to students: Student engagement is a key to academic motivation,
persistence, and degree completion. Teachers are competing for the students’
attention, that is, jobs, family, personal activities and interests, surfing the Web,
instant-messaging, social media, cell phones and apps, text-messaging, video games,
and so forth. In addition, students almost have a “consumer” attitude about learning;
it is another acquisition to purchase rather than a learning process. Also, students are
use to 24-7 convenience and expect instant gratification from their teachers. Reaching
out to students will help in finding a connection between how students learn and how
instructors teach. (McGlynn, 2008)
• Know your students and build on their strengths: Use the strengths that
students bring to the classroom. For example, Gen Y individuals like group activities
and want to learn information relevant to their lives and that can make a difference in
the world. That is, experiential and service-learning programs could be very effective
with this group. The learner-centered classroom is effective with this group in that it
requires a shift from teacher-driven and content-centered learning to seeing the
classroom as student-centered and process driven. Collaborative learning is effective
with Gen Y. Also, it is important to teach students how to find information and to
evaluate the validity of the information. (McGlynn, 2008)
• Value and build relationship: “Relationships are at the heart of teaching
since it is an activity based on communication” (MacGrath, 2005, p. 57). Some of the
necessary elements that build and maintain constructive relationship include trust, be
on their side, treat everyone with respect all of the time, be in charge and lead them to
achievement, work together, and show you can listen and accept what the student
says. Empathy can help to build a trusting relationship. (MacGrath, 2005)
• Relational turning points: Relational turning points between the student and
teacher have been found to impact student motivation. A turning point is any event
associated with a change in the relationship. Six turning point event types have been
found: instrumental, personal, rhetorical, ridicule/discipline, locational, and other
person. These relational turning point events can be positive or negative. However,
only the ridicule/discipline category was most commonly judged as negative. In
general, positive turning points appear to entail acting on students’ interests and
needs including providing support and discussing common interests. On the other
hand, negative turning points typically involve failing to meet students’ needs or
expectations, and are perceived as giving harm to the students such as ridiculing a
Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 9 student or being
unavailable during office hours. It is interesting to note that some 62% of students
were able to readily identify a relational turning point event with a teacher. As such,

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the ways in which teachers act toward their students and the students’ perceptions of
those events may have strong positive or negative consequences. In particular,
positive relational turning points have a positive effect on student motivation.
(Docan-Morgan and Manusov, 2009)
• Enthusiasm: When the teacher is more enthusiastic about a topic, then the
students will be more inclined to believe that the topic has value for them. That is,
teacher enthusiasm can motivate students. Enthusiasm can be expressed by facial
expressions, body language, stating preferences, describing personal experiences or
amazing facts, showing collected artifacts, using humor, putting energy into their
lesson preparation, and meticulously preparing materials. The teacher also should
balance his or her enthusiasm appropriately for the audience. (Palmer, 2007)
Ingredient Motivation On Content
“What the mind of man conceives and he believes, he can achieve.” -
Napoleon Hill At the least, content must be accurate and timely. However, content
also should be relevant and useful to the student in his or her life. Olson (1997) notes
that student motivation depends on the extent to which the teacher is able to satisfy
the student’s need for (1) feeling in control of their learning, (2) feeling competent,
and (3) feeling connected to others. As such, content also must be included to satisfy
each of these student needs. Following are some suggestions for Ingredient 3 or
content contributions that will build student motivation. That is, content needs to be
developed and improved with awareness of the factors listed below:
• Students experience success and achievement: Ensuring that students
experience success is an extremely important strategy for motivation. Success creates
selfconfidence which in turn makes students more inclined to engage in learning.
This requires that tasks be moderate and have an achievable level of difficulty. The
goal is to have students experience success in their understanding. Some techniques
for ensuring this success include: state the goal for the lesson; provide simple and
clear explanations; ask the students to express their comments, questions, and ideas;
question the students; provide hand-on activities as often as possible; and assessment
tasks should be flexible. (Palmer, 2007)
• Student ownership: Students feel some ownership of a decision if they agree
to it. Whenever possible, students should be allowed to determine class rules and
procedures, set learning goals, select learning activities and assignments, and decide
whether to work in groups or independently. Allowing students to select learning
partners has been shown to improve their motivation to learn. Also, it is important to

15
get students to accept the reasons why some aspects of the course are not negotiable.
(Olson, 1997)
• Student choices: Human beings are naturally curious and self-directed, that
is, they want to learn, make choices, and achieve (Truby, 2010). As a result, students
will be more motivated when they are given choices. Doing something one chooses
rather than what one has been told to do, can be very motivating. Having some
element of Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 10
negotiation is better than a classroom that is completely permissive. Some choices
might include: who they work with, what book to read, their assignment topic, how
the assignment will be presented, and when the assignment is due. However, when
offering choices, instructors should construct options that meet the students’ needs.
Choices should be offered in a manner and context that meets students’ needs and
that are offered in a non-controlling accepting atmosphere. Guided inquiry is a
technique that allows more flexibility in that they choose their research question and
methodology, yet the instructor provides some parameters. (Palmer, 2007) As such,
the various choice options need to be based on students’ needs, interests, goals,
abilities, and cultural backgrounds. Choices need to not be too numerous or complex
as well as congruent with the students’ values. (Katz and Assor, 2007; Simmons and
Page, 2010; Garger, Thomas, and Jacques, 2010)
• Build competency: Content that builds students’ competency requires
assignments that challenge students’ beliefs, actions, and imaginations. This can be
done by having them investigate and respond to issues relating to survival, quality of
life, problem solving, and/or real products and situations. Lessons that are more
interesting and more personally relevant are more motivating to the students.
Internship and work study programs are useful in this regard. In any event, the
instructor must draw out the relevance of the class and class work to future
employment, quality of life, and/or life skills. (Olson, 1997)
• Creativity and critical thinking: Competence also is learned from
experiences that involve both creative and critical thinking. Creative and critical
thinking requires the student to define the task, set goals, establish criteria, research
and gather information, activate prior knowledge, generate additional ideas and
questions, organize, analyze, and integrate all the information. (Olson, 1997)
• Students feel connected: Content that contributes to the student feeling
connected may include advisory programs, cooperative learning, peer mentoring, peer
counseling, and community service. Regardless of whether or not students participate
in these programs, they need a sense of trust, respect, caring, concern, and community

16
with others. In student/teacher interactions even a single event can determine how the
student feels about a class and how he or she will perform. (Olson, 1997) One way to
build connection is to send a welcoming e-mail before the first day of school. This
has been shown to enhance student motivation, attitude toward the instructor, and
perceptions of the course. Whether it is an e-mail or another computer contact such as
instant messaging or social networking, the contact is relatively effortless and seems
to improve student attitudes toward the instructor and the course. (Legg and Wilson,
2009)
• Novelty: Novel content can introduce a surprising or unusual experience
creating a discrepancy in the student’s mind, and this can cause a short-term arousal
of interest in order to resolve the discrepancy. Some ways to increase novelty might
include using discrepant events and demonstrations, amazing facts, fantasy, or games.
(Palmer, 2007)
• Timely and relevant to real life: Making the content relevant to real life can
increase a student’s motivation. As such, teachers should emphasize the links
between real life and school subjects, design assignments, and experiments that use
everyday Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 11
materials and situations, and use personal anecdotes. (Palmer, 2007) Tasks that are
meaningful to the students’ real life motivate them. (Frey and Fisher, 2010)
• Variety: Variety is very relevant to student motivation. Variety can be
brought into the class by including activities wherein the students are physically
active with a thinking component. Other forms of variety can be added into the
content via dramatizations, model making, and out-of-classroom activities. (Palmer,
2007)
• Technology and information from the Internet such as Facebook, Twitter,
YouTube, and phone apps: Students love the Internet, so give them examples, videos,
or demonstrations of topics from Internet sites that are interesting to them. At the
very least, this incorporation of technology, the Internet, and phone apps involves
using more of the students’ language and experience base. Also, the Internet is a great
way to keep up-to-date and to show important current trends and ideas. However,
students need to understand how to assess the validity and safety of Internet sites and
information. Whiteboards also can be powerful, interactive technological tools for
improving instruction, but instructors need to know how to use them effectively.
(Manzo, 2010)

17
Ingredient Motivation Method And Process
“If you tell me I will listen. If you show me I will see. If you let me
experience, I will learn.” - Lao-Tzu The method or process is the way in which
content is presented, that is, the approach used for instruction. Two basic approaches
for supporting and cultivating motivation in the classroom are (1) creating a
classroom structure and institutional method that provides the environment for
optimal motivation, engagement, and learning; and (2) helping the student to develop
tools that will enable him or her to be self-regulated. (Alderman, 1999) Some specific
ideas or tips for improving Ingredient 4 or the method/process contributions to
student motivation are:
• Incentives: Educators could experiment with monetary incentives but
budgets usually do not allow this possibility. Another option is to help the student get
a scholarship/job/work study or participate in a sponsored competition featuring
financial awards. Small incentive gifts could be given but these may not be as
effective as money. Another option is to emphasize and illustrate the financial
betterment that will occur for the student once he or she has completed his or her
education. Or, the educator could use the incentive of time, that is, give the student
the time to do something the student feels is important to him or her. In general,
rewards and punishments work at controlling the students’ immediate classroom
behavior, but they do not foster an intrinsic, long-term desire or commitment to
learning. (Daniels, 2010; Campbell and Niles, 2006)
• Experiential learning or self-learning: At the upper end of the hierarchy,
experiential learning or self-learning becomes more highly utilized. Experiential
learning is when an individual is actively involved with concrete experience, that is, a
student cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally processes knowledge, skills, and/or
attitudes such that knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.
Smith and Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 12 Kolb
(1986) explained individual experiential learning differences in terms of four learning
styles or ways in which the mind works: 1. Convergent learning style (abstract
conceptualization, active experimentation, may have solutions to the wrong problems,
and excellence at technical tasks) 2. Divergent learning style (concrete experience,
reflective observation, may be paralyzed by alternatives generated, and people
oriented) 3. Reflective or assimilator learning style (loves ideas and concepts,
theoretical professions, theory but no application, and ideas over people) 4. Doer or
accommodator learning style (concrete experience and active experimentation, carries
out plans, likes changing the environment, may produce tremendous ends but all in
the wrong area, and prefers trial and error method). Learning styles are combinations

18
of heredity, education, experience, and the demands of the environment. In addition,
learning styles are strongly correlated to work preferences. (Saunders, 1997) Learning
styles are just different, one is not better than another. (Komarraju and Karan, 2008)
• Mutual goals or objectives: Students need to see the point of it all and know
what they personally will get out of the educational process. For management-
byobjectives (MBO) and goal theory to be successful, the participants must agree on
mutual goals or objectives. Some of the common goals or objectives in the
educational organization which promote continuous improvement and learning might
be sense of pride, teamwork, willingness to share the credit, sense of ownership, the
elimination of mixed messages, the management of interdependencies, shared vision
and communication direction, the building of consensus, mutual respect and trust, and
concern for the whole organization. It would be very beneficial for the educator to try
to include these as appropriate in the MBO process. In turn, the goal setting needs to
be tied to performance evaluation and rewards. Rewards unique to the educational
environment could include the valuing of ideas, attention and support from the
educator or educational organization, respect for beginning ideas, celebration and
awards for accomplishments, the implementation of suggestions, and encouragement.
(Ahmed, Loh, and Zairi, 1999; MacGrath, 2005)
• Verbal conformity: One method to use to support students in accomplishing
their goals is verbal conformity wherein the student repeats all or part of the goal in
his or her own words. This simple act of saying will influence his or her private
convictions, i.e., saying is believing. Some methods that can be used to achieve
verbal conformity include: (a) have the student explain the goal to a third party, (b)
have the student write a memo on the subject, and (c) grapple for words and have the
student fill in for you. The student needs to understand the goal first before using
verbal conformity. (Pollock, 1999)
• Flexible and stimulating just-in-time training and interactivity: One way to
support students in seeking out responsibility and working toward goals to which they
are committed is to use flexible and stimulating just-in-time training which allows the
student to train at his or her own pace and time. The key to effective use of this
training is interactivity. That is, it is important to focus on the material to be learned
and on how the students interact with it rather than being side tracked by glitz. Guide
the students logically through the information and monitor their progress adjusting as
Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 13 necessary.
(Burns, 1997) As expected, the natural use of technology and the Internet is essential
here for building interactivity and just-in-time learning.

19
• Different types of framing: Educators need to be aware that different types
of framing of a problem or decision area can lead to different preferences or shifts in
judgment. In particular, students who have a more enjoyable experience during
training are more likely to perceive the system to be easier to use which in turn can
lead to enhanced behavioral intentions to use the system. Also, game-based training
perceived as enjoyable will potentially allow users to scale initial hurdles to
acceptance and usage, create higher-level intrinsic motivation, and lead to sustained
usage behavior. (Venkatesh, 1999)
• Objective criteria: Objective criteria should be clearly communicated and
employed in testing and evaluating student success. The clarity of knowing exactly
what is needed can be very motivating. Some of the motivational factors may include
rewarding students for their success, appreciating them both verbally and in writing,
providing them with opportunities to improve themselves and use their creativity, and
allowing them to participate in the decision-making process and to assume
responsibility. (Celikoz, 2010)
• Encouragement and praise: Positive verbal statements of encouragement and
praise can strongly influence student motivation. Praise for effort and for
improvement can build a student’s self-confidence. Esteem can be boosted by
emphasizing his or her performance relative to personal goals. (Palmer, 2007) It is
important that the student feel seen and “gotten.”
• Casework: Cases seem to be an effective method for increasing student
motivation. In particular, Finney and Pyke (2008) have found that a positive
correlation exists between case content relevance and student motivation toward local
cases. In specific, case relevance can be based on relevance of the topic, importance
of the topic, application to career interests, and integration of the subcomponents of
the topic, e.g., business functional areas. Students did feel that local cases provided a
more realistic learning experience and helped them learn about entrepreneurship. As
such, case relevancy enhances learning and student motivation.
• Guided discussion: Discussion seems to be a viable strategy for motivating
students. Through guided discussion, students can demonstrate reading
comprehension with integration of multiple and different texts and critical thinking
using analysis and synthesis of information. That is, students are able to discuss and
make connections between the textual knowledge, news or current events, and their
personal experiences that motivate their thinking. (Newstreet, 2008)
• Reinforcement strategies: Two reinforcement strategies have been found to
lead to significantly higher test scores: reviewing the concepts delineated on the study

20
guide and silent reading of class notes. Both of these strategies could be used to
increase student motivation. (Carrell and Mengel, 1997)
• Positive social interactions: When students have positive social interactions
with their peers or teacher, they will become more engaged in learning. Social
interaction can occur when students work in groups, have group discussions, group
projects, and group presentations. However, the students need to be properly prepared
in the skills Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 14
needed to make the group operate effectively. (Palmer, 2007) Positive interaction
with the instructor and in the classroom overall are important.
• Storytelling: A good story is a good story, and storytelling has always had a
place in teaching. Storytelling can change the pace of a class, add a freshness to
engage students, motivate students in their discipline, give the students the mental
space to construct their own meanings, provide analogies between a story and a
discipline, help understand the world, can generate reflection, and create common
meanings and understandings. The instructor or the student can tell factual and/or
fictitious stories. When students tell stories, they take ownership of their learning and
become an integral part of the learning process. Students will self-motivate if an
activity such as storytelling is sufficiently challenging and relevant. Any discipline
can use stories, and stories can be used from other disciplines as appropriate. (Miley,
2009)
• Enhanced lecture: While the lecture method is an academic staple, students
do not pay attention continuously during a 50-minute lecture. Teachers need to be
aware of attention cycles and strive to improve student attention by using student-
centered enhanced lecture techniques. (Bunce, Flens, and Neiles, 2010). That is,
lectures can be enhanced to make the class stimulating, entertaining, and interactive.
For example, lectures can start with a “grabber” such as a chart, short reading,
problem, cartoon, quote, question, vote, or dramatization. Interactivity is important in
lectures and can take many forms: pop quizzes, questioning and discussion, problems,
visual aids, films, questions on the board, questions through e-mail, handouts,
simulations (Gillentine and Schultz, 2001), board games (Mummalaneni and
Sivakumar, 2008), video games, and case methodology. The textbook can be used as
a supplement to any lecture, however, the lecture does not need to be passive.
Instructors need to represent the latest thinking and research, modeling how scholars
frame questions and pursue answers. Humor, not sarcasm or ridicule, can be used in
lectures. Positive physiological and psychological benefits result from humor such as
attentiveness, interest, positive rapport, and retention of material. It is good to
humanize lectures integrating biographies, history, current events, the Internet, and

21
real life. Lectures need to respect the audience by utilizing students’ multiple
intelligences (Gardner, 1990) and learning styles (Dunn and Dunn, 1978), e.g., visual,
auditory, or tactile/kinesthetic learners. In addition, interdisciplinary lectures can
enhance the investigation and understanding of topics. Overall, lectures need to
motivate, challenge, and inspire. As a final tool, summarize the current lecture and
preview the next lecture. (Heitzmann, 2010)
• Collaborative quiz: The collaborative quiz uses the same questions as a
regular quiz and helps to ensure that students have read the material carefully; but, it
also provides an opportunity for students to engage in classroom experience. As such,
students work collaboratively determining answers and crafting explanations
together. The instructor will need to monitor the process to reduce free riders and
dominant students as well as to maintain the fairness of the grading. (Quinn and
Echerson, 2010) Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 15
Ingredient Motivation For Environment
“To stay motivated you must fight self-doubt, poor discipline, fear, and any
other ghost” - Dr. Zonnya Environment is the fifth key ingredient of student
motivation. First of all, an environment must be available and accessible. Thereafter,
that environment must be of a quality or caliber that contributes to the motivation of
the students. For example, if an environment is not safe, it is difficult and maybe even
unwise to put all of your attention on learning. On the other hand, an environment of
openness and freedom to learn from our mistakes can foster motivation to learn. Also,
the environment can be physical as well as mental, emotional, and even spiritual in
some regard. Suggestions for creating an environment conducive to student
motivation are as follow:
• Create an effective environment: According to Rumsey (1998), when
creating an effective environment, educators need to consider the following: −
Overall approach to material presentation and development, − Examples coming
before and after detailed discussions of the concepts, − The use of engaging
classroom activities, − In-depth discussions or simulations, − The use of good
business or organizational problems rather than contrived examples, − The use of
real-life exercises throughout that are varied in scope and field of application, −
Using applications relevant to students’ everyday experiences or to their chosen
career fields, − Creating situations in which the students perceive themselves as
academically productive, − Fostering positive peer social interaction and exchange, −
Decreasing peer aggression, − Moving from simple to more complex problems, −
The use of a good solidly written text in a traditional format, − Incorporation of some

22
modern or future components that concern students, − Motivating by example and by
encouraging student discovery, − Developing positive attitudes, − Making sure that
academic tutoring is available, − Having voluntary parental and community support
and involvement as necessary, and − Encouraging critical thinking (e.g., what do you
mean, why, what if, what works/does not work, and how would you...).
• Individual and learning system design differences: According to Lengnick-
Hall and Sanders (1997), both individual and learning system design differences
influence the learning environment. For example, to motivate students to demonstrate
high levels of responsibility and self-management, effective goal setting must occur
in that students have a clear understanding of course objectives, means and methods
for accomplishing target objectives, and measured benchmarks for assessing their
Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 16 progress.
Students need not participate in establishing the goals as long as they accept the goals
as feasible and desirable. When students take charge of their learning, they gain self-
esteem and confidence, more choices, higher levels of commitment, and the ability to
customize the learning process to best meet their personal needs and learning goals.
That is, when students become active participants in customizing and activating
learning systems, they become team leaders, coaches, and models in a sense.
“Through self-management and self-leadership, students invest their efforts more
effectively and efficiently, take ownership of their educational experience, and
customize the learning process to reflect their personal interests and competencies.”
(Lengnick-Hall and Sanders, 1997, p. 7) It is assumed that this shift to increased
selfparticipation, personalized learning, and self-ownership would be viewed
positively by teachers and other shareholders involved in the educational process.
(Andersen, 2011; Stewart, et al., 2005)
• Include the study of self-information: Just like people everywhere, students
are intrinsically interested in the study of information about themselves and about
their own personal interests. Instructors need to find creative ways of knowing and
incorporating self-information into the classroom. (Dargahi-Noubary, 1998)
• Empowerment: Empowerment can contribute positively to the learning
environment. Empowerment can mean vested authority or enablement. Before
investing authority in a role or person, it is necessary to clarify the student’s mandate
and the expectations of his or her performance. Enablement means having the right
tools and support when they are needed. (Maccoby, 1999)

23
• Engagement and considering student and teacher opinions: The learning
environment should take into consideration the intrinsic and extrinsic student
motivations and the opinions of students and teachers in arranging the environment.
Materials, tools, and equipment that are needed in the educational process should be
determined, obtained, and modernized so that active learning is promoted. This
engagement results in students feeling that their teachers have a special interest in
them. Students need to be encouraged to engage and to participate. (Celikoz, 2010;
Daniels, 2010; AdkinsColeman, 2010)
• Teamwork: An environment of teamwork can contribute to learning. All
teams need four competencies: generate and refine ideas, organize and integrate
work, sustain group spirit, and manage boundaries. “Smart teams” are built by having
the entire team look at what competencies are needed to be effective. For example,
generational and multicultural differences will need to be considered as well as chain
of command, work/life balance, and technology. (Farrer and Maurer, 1999) In terms
of multicultural diversity in groups, the following should be considered: (1) the
reasons for taking the course may be different than that perceived by the instructor or
other team members, (2) students may have difficulty in studying or completing
assignments due to part time jobs or attending other courses, (3) the instructor should
not underestimate how differently people think and feel from various cultures, and (4)
value judgments of purpose and moral standards of behavior may be important
differences. (Sexty, 1998; Simmons and Page, 2010; Lilly and Tippins, 2002; Hytti,
et al., 2010; Friedman, Cox, and Maher, 2010) Research in Higher Education Journal
Five key ingredients, Page 17
• Structures: Teachers, administrators, and counselors contribute to a positive
teaching and learning environment by putting in place structures that provide an
optimal learning environment for learners. These educational leaders can enhance the
development of an educational experience that encourages students to express their
own ideas, freely participate in discussions, freely compare and contrast ideas, be
involved in discussion, and be able to learn from each other. These structures can lead
to increased student-faculty interaction, elevated student-to-student relations, and the
development of critical thinking skills that in turn affect student motivation and
academic success. (Rugutt and Chemosit, 2009; Louis and Wahlstrom, 2011)
Structural characteristics also may include type of tasks, degree of student autonomy,
and evaluation (Debnath, Tandon, and Pointer, 2007)
• Distance and online learning: Instructors are moving increasingly to distance
and online learning environments. Motivating students online can be difficult given
content, technology access and challenges, isolation, poor communication with

24
instructors, English as a second language, and lack of connection between content
and the students’ needs. In addition, instructors may not be able to show the depth of
their knowledge online, and empathy and enthusiasm may be lost in the online
environment. On the other hand, assignments can be challenging and have the variety
necessary to increase curiosity and creativity. Active and multifaceted projects may
be developed that have personal meaning to the students. Distance and online
communication should be clear, timely, friendly, and flexible. In the online
environment, the acquisition of mastery and improvement could be the primary focus
rather than the more traditional focus on test taking and evaluation. Social isolation
and depersonalization can be reduced by building a sense of online community. Very
importantly, teachers and students should have consistent contact with technical
support personnel. Distance and online learning may be as effective as traditional
learning in terms of student motivation, attitudes, and achievement. Intrinsic
motivation is an important indicator for online students, with many online learners
having higher intrinsic motivation. However, ultimately, the optimal learning model
might be a hybrid of conventional and online learning. (Beffa-Negrine, Cohen, and
Miller, 2002; Zhu, Valcke, and Schellens, 2009; Crank, Ristau, and Rogers, 1999; PR
Newswire, 2010)
• Emotionally literate environment: The more comfortable individuals feel in
themselves and with others, the easier it is to concentrate and achieve. Consequently,
emotional literacy has a positive impact on achievement, mental health issues,
behavior, and workplace effectiveness. Creating an emotionally literate environment
includes equipping students with essential life skills and learning behaviors including
self-awareness, empathy, managing feelings, motivation, and social skills. These
skills can be taught and modeled. In building an emotionally literate environment, the
place for the teacher to start is with him or herself. That is, each instructor should get
his or her thinking straight, stand firm, refine communication skills to relate
positively and creatively with the students, develop positive regard toward self and
others, and develop a support network for oneself and a supportive lifestyle. Also, it
is important to constantly review and improve these efforts. As such, teaching should
focus not only on pedagogical techniques, but also on the social and emotional
dynamics of the Research in Higher Education Journal Five key ingredients, Page 18
student-teacher relationship. Here is a YouTube link that demonstrates an
emotionally literate environment: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=armP8TfS9Is.
(MacGrath, 2005; Lammers and Smith, 2008; Wighting, Liu, and Rovai, 2008)

25
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