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Rajasthan
Abstract
Even though water-scarce and mostly a desert, the State of Rajasthan is rich in traditional water wisdom that seeks to save every drop of water from the minimal rains that this State receives throughout the year. This chapter examines the water scenario of the State of Rajasthan and some of these water traditions. It analyzes the critical water issues and challenges that Rajasthan faces and recommends appropriate solutions that can go a long way to render the State water-sufficient to tap its water potential to the fullest and focus on sustainable development. This paper reviews the water policy, law and jurisprudence in the State. It calls for water sector reforms by implementing improved technologies and practices for optimal farm productivity, reviving traditional water harvesting methods, awareness building and infrastructure development through community engagement. Further, this paper views collective action bringing together the public sector, the private sector, civil society and other stakeholders to work together toward an integrated and participatory way for water resources planning and its management.
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Hydrofluorosis caused by fluoride-rich water was predominantly restricted in Rajasthan, India before the commencement of guinea-worm (Dracunculus medinensis) eradication programme in 1986. During implication of the programme, numerous bore- and tube-wells fitted with hand pumps were dug in villages even in the remote areas of the state, simultaneously closing down the traditional step/open-wells which were used as drinking water sources. Groundwater from tube- and bore-wells drawn from deeper sources in all the 33 districts of Rajasthan is found contaminated with varying amounts of fluoride (F), with most containing F above the maximum acceptable limits of 1.0-1.5 ppm. As a result, hydrofluorosis has become more rampant in rural Rajasthan. Extreme large amounts of F in potable water sources were detected in desert districts located in western Rajasthan (Thar Desert region). The findings of this article show how a well-intentioned medical health programme has led to the spread of another disease (hydrofluorosis) in Rajasthan. These findings can play an important role in the formulation and implementation of a health policy at the state level for mitigation and prevention of endemic hydrofluorosis.
In India, high fluoride concentration in groundwater (greater than 1 mg/l) is widespread in the arid to semi-arid western states of Rajasthan and Gujarat and in the southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. A field research study conducted at six areas severely affected by fluorosis shows that affordability of safer drinking water is related to higher income level, and that the severity of fluorosis affliction is higher for lower income levels. The cost incurred on medicines and loss of wages is a significant proportion of the earnings and has a general debilitating impact on the affected families. As compared with fluorosis, the skin afflictions of arsenicosis carry greater social stigma and patients incur higher costs. In Nadia district of West Bengal, the impacts of arsenic contamination are more severe with increasing age. Cumulatively, over the entire afflicted population, both fluoride and arsenic contamination have a high cost on society and addressing the problem would require more attention from government agencies and society apart from individual awareness.
The consequences of negative groundwater draft have mostly been viewed as an ecological disaster, but the externalities of groundwater depletion pose greater concern for socio-economic equity in the access to this resource. This empirical analysis signifies the concerns for the livelihoods of farmers, when the cost of depletion is disproportionately borne by the resource-poor farmers as they are unable to invest in capital and technology and are hence denied the benefits of groundwater irrigation that is subsidised by free electricity. This situation is perpetuated with further scarcity leading to unequal economic returns and, finally, takes the most exploitative form where the "large landlords" also emerge as "water lords" through surplus accumulation, forcing the small and marginal landholders to become landless agricultural labourers.
The argument that economies that face acute water scarcity problems can and should meet their water demand for food through
cereal imports from water-rich countries; and that virtual water trade can be used to achieve water securities has become
dominant in global water discussions. Analysis of country level data on renewable freshwater availability and net virtual
water trade of 146 nations across the world shows that a country's virtual water trade is not determined by its water situation.
Some countries have the advantage of high “economic efficiency” in food production and have surplus water, but resort to food
import, whereas some water scarce countries achieve high virtual water trade balances.
Further analysis with a set of 131 countries showed that virtual water trade increased with increase in gross cropped area.
This is because of two reasons: First, when access to arable land increases, the ability to utilize available blue water for
irrigation increases. Second, increasing access to arable land improves the access to water held in the soil profile as “free
good”, a factor not taken into account in assessing water availability.
Hence, many of the humid, water-rich countries will not be in a position to produce surplus food and feed the water scarce
nations; and virtual water often flows out of water-poor, land rich countries to land-poor water-rich countries. This means
that “distribution of scarcity” and “global water use efficiency”, are goals that are difficult to achieve through virtual
water trade in a practical sense. For a water-poor, but land rich country, virtual water import offer little scope as a sound
water management strategy as what is often achieved through virtual water trade is improved “global land use efficiency”.
The important policy inferences emerging from the analyses are two: First, assessing the food security challenges posed to
nations in future purely from a water resource perspective provides a distorted view of the food security scenario. National
policies on food security should take into account “access to arable land” apart from water availability. Second, analysis
of water challenges posed by nations purely from the point of view of renewable water availability and aggregate demands will
be dangerous. Access to water in the soil profile, which is determined by access to arable land, would be an important determinant
of effective water availability.
The law and policy frameworks for allocation or reallocation of water to different uses, or within a category of use, remain underdeveloped in India. This paper intends providing a starting point for a conversation on the law and policy dimensions of inter-sectoral water allocation. Focusing on a specific inter-sectoral water allocation conflict in Rajsamand District, Rajasthan, it illustrates gaps in the existing law and policy frameworks and highlights multiple issues that need to be addressed. It argues that the law must go beyond just prioritising water uses and water allocation to understand the issue in a comprehensive manner.
This study attempts to examine the impact of drought on production, employment, wages and farms' income. It also analyzes drought relief expenditure and its impact on the state budget and deals with different institutions in the state meant for drought management. This paper emphasizes that there is a need for transparent and non-political criterion for identification of vulnerable areas and population in order to help the most deserving population and areas. This study also analyzes the direct and indirect impact of drought on economic and social parameters. This study ensures that the present policy of financing relief expenditure guided by the recommendations of the Finance Commission seems to be pragmatic and efficient in dealing with any kind of natural calamity. It suggests that there is a need to reduce the dependence of people on agriculture by diversifying them to non-farm activities. It also narrates how the budget deficit and public debt in the state are increasing since most of the development programs are extremely funded. Finally, this study concludes that poverty reduction efforts have to be multi-targeted in a drought-prone state like Rajasthan.
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