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McGowan, CJ, Pyne, DB, Raglin, JS, Thompson, KG, and Rattray, B. Current warm-up practices and contemporary issues faced by elite swimming coaches. J Strength Cond Res 30(12): 3471–3480, 2016—A better understanding of current swimming warm-up strategies is needed to improve their effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to describe current precompetition warm-up practices and identify contemporary issues faced by elite swimming coaches during competition. Forty-six state-international level swimming coaches provided information through a questionnaire on their prescription of volume, intensity, and recovery within their pool and dryland-based competition warm-ups, and challenges faced during the final stages of event preparation. Coaches identified four key objectives of the precompetition warm-up: physiological (elevate body temperature and increase muscle activation), kinesthetic (tactile preparation, increase “feel” of the water), tactical (race-pace rehearsal), and mental (improve focus, reduce anxiety). Pool warm-up volume ranged from ∼1300 to 2100 m, beginning with 400–1000 m of continuous, low-intensity (∼50–70% of perceived maximal exertion) swimming, followed by 200–600 m of stroke drills and 1–2 sets (100–400 m in length) of increasing intensity (∼60–90%) swimming, concluding with 3–4 race or near race-pace efforts (25–100 m; ∼90–100%) and 100–400 m easy swimming. Dryland-based warm-up exercises, involving stretch cords and skipping, were also commonly prescribed. Coaches preferred swimmers complete their warm-up 20–30 minutes before race start. Lengthy marshalling periods (15–20+ minutes) and the time required to don racing suits (>10 minutes) were identified as complicating issues. Coaches believed that the pool warm-up affords athletes the opportunity to gain a tactile feel for the water and surrounding pool environment. The combination of dryland-based activation exercises followed by pool-based warm-up routines seems to be the preferred approach taken by elite swimming coaches preparing their athletes for competition.
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... Its positive effect was first presented by De Vries [12], a pioneer in testing different modes of warm-up (e.g., in-water, calisthenics, hot showers and massage), with the best effects driven by the in-water warm-up. The main effects of the in-water warm-up could be due to the increase in body temperature and blood flow and oxygen supply to the muscles after exercise [6], although some authors have also pointed out its effects on joint mobility and recalibration of the athletes' sensorimotor network [42,43], as well as in the reduction of excessive anxiety before competition by familiarizing athletes with the competition venue [44][45][46]. ...
... At local and regional championships, a swimming event consisting of several races can take up several hours between warm-up and competition [46]. However, after 15-20 min of passive rest, muscle temperature can rapidly decrease and performance can be negatively affected [1]. ...
... Therefore, while a good warm-up strategy is crucial, the development of methods to maintain a high muscle temperature and activation during the recovery period emerges as a factor to be considered [13]. Active warm-up activities during the transition phase, such as dryland exercises performed alone or in combination with other passive strategies such as heated tracksuit jackets, have increased their popularity among elite swimming coaches as an alternative tool to be used between the classical in-water warm-up and competition [46,[56][57][58][59]. In general, short-term performance is likely to improve if the recovery interval after the CA allows phosphocreatine (PCr) stores to be fully restored [2]. ...
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In swimming, the beneficial effects of the in-water warm-up are often undermined by the long transition periods before competition (≥ 20 min). For that reason, studies comparing the effects of in-water warm-ups followed by dryland activities have been conducted in the swimming literature. This has brought conflicting evidence due to large combinations of supervised and unsupervised warm-up procedures used. Therefore, a scoping review was performed to discuss (1) why warm-up strategies are important for competitive swimming; to identify (2) what are the different warm-up approaches available in the literature, and; to establish (3) what are the main conclusions, considerations and gaps that should be addressed in further research to provide clearer guidance for interventions. The search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus databases. To be considered eligible, studies must have assessed acute short-term responses of warm-up procedures in swimmers by using randomized controlled trials or pre-post study designs. A total of 42 articles were included in this review. The effectiveness of warm-up responses was evaluated based on the inclusion or not of warm-up, the type of conditioning activity (in-water exercise, in-water exercise combined with dryland or dryland exercise only), its duration, and intensity. (1) Warm-up mechanisms have been mainly related to temperature changes associated to cardiovascular adaptations and short-term specific neuromuscular adaptations. Thus, maintaining muscle activity and body temperature during the transition phase immediately prior to competition could help swimmers' performance; (2) the most common approach before a race usually included a moderate mileage of in-water warm-up (~ 1000 m) performed at an intensity of ≤ 60% of the maximal oxygen consumption, followed by dryland protocols to keep the muscle activity and body temperature raised during the transition phase. Dryland activities could only optimize performance in sprint swimming if performed after the in-water warm-up, especially if heated clothing elements are worn. Using tethered swimming and hand-paddles during warm-ups does not provide superior muscular responses to those achieved by traditional in-water warm-ups, possibly because of acute alterations in swimming technique. In contrast, semi-tethered resisted swimming may be considered as an appropriate stimulus to generate post-activation performance enhancements; (3) nothing has yet been investigated in backstroke, butterfly or individual medley, and there is a paucity of research on the effects of experimental warm-ups over distances greater than 100 m. Women are very under-represented in warm-up research, which prevents conclusions about possible sex-regulated effects on specific responses to the warm-up procedures.
... Swimmers undertook CV, KDS, CVKDS and NOWU warm-up protocols at 24-hour intervals under the guidance of their respective coaches. The intensity and frequency of the warm-up protocols were informed by a review study conducted by McGowan et al. in 2016 [18]. CV, a warmup protocol which demonstrated the effect of critical velocity on performance, was employed in the study conducted by Neiva et al. [10]. ...
... Drawing upon the investigative framework employed by McGowan et al. (2016) in their evaluation of swimming warm-up practices, we utilized a comparable approach for qualitative scrutiny in our study. Responses to our specific open-ended questions (namely, "If so, could you indicate the reason(s) for physically reactivating during the break between halves?" and "If not, could you indicate the reason(s) for not reactivating physically during the break between halves?") were subjected to a systematic content analysis. ...
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Background Basketball referees are a vital part of the organised competition system, although they remain an “outgroup” in sport. While physical development and fitness programming are deemed necessary for basketball officiating excellence, there is a paucity of literature exploring strategies for physical fitness management in this population. Methods This research was a nationwide cross-sectional, self-administered online survey conducted in 2021. A sample of 628 (531 males, 97 females) referees from 18 regional referee organisations in Spain provided individual responses to gather information on demographic details, level of participation in refereeing, physical fitness practices, and match-day exercise-based regimens. The data were described using summary statistics, and the associations of the assessed variables were subsequently calculated using contingency tables. Results Our findings reveal that a large fraction of the Spanish basketball referee population focuses on aerobic (83%) and strength (73.6%) activities, while less attention is paid to speed (36.9%) and flexibility (23.2%), and agility, coordination, and balance tasks are somewhat overlooked. No significant differences were observed among the referee categories regarding weekly training days or session duration, with most training for 15–60 min per session. Elite referees were more likely to hire personal trainers and engage in strength and flexibility exercises. Sub-elite referees showed a higher tendency to perform stretching and joint mobility activities post-match, while regional referees did so less frequently. Approximately 30.7% of referees across all competitive levels engaged in re-warm-up (RW-U) activities, with stretching and joint mobility being the most prevalent. Conclusions Spanish basketball referees participate in routine physical exercise and fitness practices, irrespective of their competition level. While warm-up activities are prevalent, some sub-elite and regional referees do not consistently perform them, and re-warm-up routines are not extensively embraced.
... In addition, swim coaches have to deal with four specific strokes, across multiple events (of varying distances). Considering that competitive swimming is an area of great research interest, it is not surprising that a series of studies have been conducted to analyze the perceptions of competitive swim coaches, mainly from training and physiological perspectives, such as resistance training practices (29), competition preparation (30), warm-up protocols (31), and recovery strategies (32), all of which may serve as guidelines for daily practice. Particular attention has also been given to the analysis of swimming performance (33), emphasizing the important role of technical ability during water movement aiming to improve the overall swimming efficiency. ...
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This study investigated swim coaches’ perceptions of professional development issues and current training practices according to their coaching experience, education level, and gender. An online survey (January—April 2022) was completed by 123 swim coaches (96 male/27 female) of competitive swimmers based in 41 countries. The survey consisted of 36 questions divided into six sections: (1) background information, (2) developing swim coaching through learning, (3) self-evaluation, (4) interpersonal-intrapersonal interactions, (5) life skills, and (6) analyzing swimming performance. Pearson chi-square assessed the relationship between the frequency of responses and professional background and gender. The survey results indicated that swim coaches’ educational level is potentially one of the most influential parameters affecting the coaches’ perceptions about their own professional development. The data presented may be used for the future design of coach education programmes as they advance current knowledge on understanding psycho-social issues related to professional development and training perceptions involved in the competitive swimming environment.
... In competition, it is common for swimmers to complete a poolbased warmup before reporting to race marshals a minimum of 20 mins prior to the race [1,2]. The period of time between the completion of the warmup and the beginning of competition has been termed the 'transition phase' [3]. In swimming, the transition phase is regarded as beginning once the swimmer exits the warmup pool [4]. ...
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Background In swimming, the period between the end of the swimming warmup and the beginning of competition is critical to performance, here termed the transition phase. Several options are available during this phase, necessitating a systematic review to understand if optimal strategies exist. Objectives To synthesise and critically evaluate the current literature investigating land-based warmup interventions on subsequent performance in competitive swimmers. Methods A search of three electronic databases (PubMed, EBSCO SPORTDiscus and Web of Science) was conducted to identify original studies until February 2022. Selection criteria dictated that (i) a control condition was used, (ii) participants were ≥ 15 years of age, (iii) a pool-based warmup was done prior to the land-based warmup. A total of 25 articles met the selection criteria. Results Reducing the transition phase duration by at least half led to consistently faster time-trial times of between 1.1–1.5% for all included studies. Passive warmups using clothing interventions resulted in mostly faster time-trial’s of 0.4–0.8% with increases in skin temperature frequent, though little change occurred in core temperature. The methodology of passive respiratory warmups were vastly different with positive time-trial’s effects ranging between 0.9–1.1% for two studies, though one reported no meaningful difference. Active warmups led to consistently faster time-trial’s between 0.7–0.9%, though the unpinning factors are not clear. Warmups which combined passive and active options frequently led to faster time-trial’s between 0.8–3%. Upper and combined limb post-activation performance enhancement led to mostly unfavourable time-trial changes. Lower limb exclusive protocols results were inconsistent, with limited beneficial effects on time-trial or start performance reported following plyometric protocols. However, there does appear merit in heavier loaded lower limb protocols. Conclusion Each of a reduced transition phase length, and passive, active or combination warmup have demonstrated improvements in swimming performance. Conversely, PAPE protocols should be used with caution, especially when including the upper limbs.
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