Women and Ethiopian politics: Political leaders’ attitude and views on women’s effectiveness

Abstract

In the assertion of democracy, good governance, and development, there needs to be a fair and equitable representation of all members of the community in the political process of the country. Besides, women’s involvement in political leadership is imperative for the prevalence of democracy and good governance in the country. Accordingly, women’s participation in the legislative and executive leadership of the country can be determined by the attitudes and views of the society in general and political leaders in particular. The political leaders as the members of the society may not have different attitudes toward women’s involvement in the political leadership process of the particular country. This study was conducted for measuring the attitude of men and women political leaders toward women’s effectiveness in elected, appointed, and policy-making positions of government bodies. Accordingly, this study used independent sample t-test and chi-square test to measure the attitude of political leaders toward women’s participation and effectiveness in Ethiopian political leadership. It is found out that there was statistically a significant difference of attitude of political leaders toward the importance of women’s participation in elected and policy-making positions at p = 0.000, which is less than 0.05 of significant level. Comparatively, women political leaders have favorable attitude toward the relevance or importance of women’s participation in elected and policy-making positions than their counterparts. These emanate from the patriarchal political socialization and political culture that favor men’s involvement and domination in the productive activities including politics and leadership. Thus, the concerned government bodies should work on men in general and political leaders in particular so as to modify their attitude in the way that favors women’s participation and successfullness in the political leadership process of government bodies.

Full text

POLITICS & INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS | RESEARCH ARTICLE
Women and Ethiopian politics: Political leaders’
attitude and views on women’s effectiveness
Wubante Ayalew Dessie
1
*
Abstract: In the assertion of democracy, good governance, and development, there
needs to be a fair and equitable representation of all members of the community in
the political process of the country. Besides, women’s involvement in political
leadership is imperative for the prevalence of democracy and good governance in
the country. Accordingly, women’s participation in the legislative and executive
leadership of the country can be determined by the attitudes and views of the
society in general and political leaders in particular. The political leaders as the
members of the society may not have different attitudes toward women’s involve-
ment in the political leadership process of the particular country. This study was
conducted for measuring the attitude of men and women political leaders toward
women’s effectiveness in elected, appointed, and policy-making positions of
government bodies. Accordingly, this study used independent sample t-test and chi-
square test to measure the attitude of political leaders toward women’s participa-
tion and effectiveness in Ethiopian political leadership. It is found out that there was
statistically a significant difference of attitude of political leaders toward the
importance of women’s participation in elected and policy-making positions at
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
The author, Wubante Ayalew Dessie (PhD), con-
ceived and designed the research paper. The
whole research process including data collec-
tion, analysis and report writing had been car-
ried out by the author alone. The research
interest of the author encompasses gender,
politics, leadership, governance, conflict man-
agement and other related issues. Now, the
author is doing several researches on gender,
politics, leadership and conflict management in
collaboration with other researchers. This
research paper was conducted to measure the
attitude of top government official towards the
significance of women’s participation in elected,
appointed and policy making positions. Hence,
the result of the study will be very useful to
design national projects for empowering women
politicians and leaders of the country.
Meanwhile, the author approved the final ver-
sion of the manuscript and agrees to be held
accountable for the contents therein.
PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Women’s involvement in political leadership is
imperative for the prevalence of democracy and
good governance in the country. Besides,
women’s participation in the legislative and
executive leadership of the country can be deter-
mined by the attitudes and views of the society in
general and political leaders in particular. It is an
undeniable fact that the public including political
leaders manifest unfavorable view and perception
toward women’s effectiveness and appropriate-
ness in the political leadership process of the
country. This undesirable attitude was emanated
from the presence of gender role that reserved
productive and community roles including politi-
cal leadership for men and reproductive and other
domestic tasks for women. These emanate from
the patriarchal political socialization and political
culture that favor men’s involvement and domi-
nation in the productive activities including poli-
tics and leadership. The Ethiopian popular culture
perpetuates women’s traditional roles as a house
maker instead of being prominent political leader.
Thus, women need to be properly represented in
the political leadership process of government
bodies.
Dessie, Cogent Social Sciences (2021), 7: 1948653
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2021.1948653
© 2021 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license.
Received: 07 October 2020
Accepted: 22 June 2021
*Corresponding author: Wubante
Ayalew Dessie, Debre Berhan
University, Debreberhan, Ethiopia
E-mail: webeayalew@gmail.com
Reviewing editor:
John Kwame Boateng, University of
Ghana, Accra, Ghana
Additional information is available at
the end of the article
Page 1 of 17

p = 0.000, which is less than 0.05 of significant level. Comparatively, women political
leaders have favorable attitude toward the relevance or importance of women’s
participation in elected and policy-making positions than their counterparts. These
emanate from the patriarchal political socialization and political culture that favor
men’s involvement and domination in the productive activities including politics and
leadership. Thus, the concerned government bodies should work on men in general
and political leaders in particular so as to modify their attitude in the way that
favors women’s participation and successfullness in the political leadership process
of government bodies.
Subjects: Political Behavior and Participation; Government; Gender Studies - Soc Sci
Keywords: Politics; attitude; political leader and political leadership
1. Introduction
In the assertion of democracy, good governance, and development, there needs to be a fair and equitable
representation of all members of the community. It is unthinkable to achieve development objectives of
the country without full involvement of men and women members of the community at large. In line with
this, Sablewongel depicts that women constitute half of humanity rather than being a small minority as
a group. Other than incorporating the views, perspectives, and needs of women in the political aspect of
the country, it is so difficult to think and speak about democracy, good governance, and development. But,
circumstances portray that half of the members of the community have been ignored and could not be
treated equitably and fairly. In this regard, one can ask the societies’ perception and understanding of the
essence of democracy, good governance, and democracy (Seblewongel, 2005).
In relation to these, the gender norms of the society affect the way women participation in the political
leadership process is perceived and responded in the given political system. It also determines women’s
opportunity to get political leadership positions of government bodies. The stereotypical view regarding
reserving leadership as a male domain severely hampers women’s involvement and effectiveness in the
legislative and executive decision-making process (Muray, 2014).
Besides, women’s participation in the legislative and executive leadership of the country can be
determined by the attitudes and views of the society in general and political leaders in particular.
The political leaders as the member of the society may not have different attitudes toward
women’s involvement in the political leadership process of the particular country. The society’s
attitude about women as apolitical and public leaders greatly influences women’s participation
and effectiveness in the decision-making process of government bodies.
It is an undeniable fact that the public including political leaders manifest unfavorable view and
perception toward women’s effectiveness and appropriateness in the political leadership process
of the country. This undesirable attitude was emanated from the presence of gender role that
reserved productive and community roles including political leadership for men and reproductive
and other domestic tasks for women. Besides, there is some improvement in this regard as a result
of different international, regional, national, and local efforts to bring gender equality in social,
economic, and political sectors of the country.
Ethiopia has been experiencing this state of affairs. The political leaders and the public at large
have had unfavorable attitude toward women’s capability to lead and administer tasks in govern-
ment bodies of Ethiopia despite the presence of few figurative women who had positive impact in
Ethiopian politics. The people of Ethiopia considered women as a housewife and best suited in doing
child care, cleaning, fetching, and caring of elders and children, and other domestic activities.
Deduced from those facts mentioned above, women have been marginalized and neglected from
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the top political decision-making process of the government bodies of the country. In this regard, the
attitude and views of political leaders toward women’s involvement in political leadership matter. As
to Meseret, the member of the parliament as the formulator of different policies and strategies on
social, political, and economic affairs of the country, their attitude toward women’s participation in
political leadership has significant effect on women’s involvement and effectiveness in the political
process of the country. The attitude of the members of the parliament as apolitical leaders toward
women’s participation and effectiveness is an indicator of whether the laws and legislations estab-
lished and approved by parliamentarians are women-friendly or biased (Meseret, 2010).
2. Materials and methods
This study has used quantitative research approach by using statistical techniques to measure the
attitudes of political leaders toward women’s participation and effectiveness in political leadership
process of Ethiopia. Quantitative approach focuses on the generation and analysis of quantitative
data through quantitative data collection and analysis techniques (Kothari., 2004).
This study has used primary and secondary sources together. Published journal articles, books, and
reports of government were used as a secondary source, whereas questionnaires including open- and
close-ended were used as primary sources. In relation to questionnaires, Likert scale questions were utilized
so as to measure the attitudes or opinions of men and women political leaders toward women’s
effectiveness in legislative and executive leadership. Attitude is one of the most common areas where
scales have been developed so as to measure attitudes and opinions. Thus, Likert scale (The Summating
Rating) model questionnaire sideways a seven-point scale or fixed alternative terminologies (strongly
disagree, somewhat disagree, disagree, neutral, somewhat agree, agree, and strongly agree) was used
in order to measure the attitudes of women and men parliamentarians toward women’s participation in
political leadership. The rationale to employ Likert scale format is due to the fact that “it is an appropriate
instrument to measure knowledge, attitude, sentiments, and judgments towards an issue” (Meseret, 2010).
Accordingly, the researcher adopted the mathematical formula below for determining the sample size for
quantitative data (Meron Hailesilasie, 2007).
n¼N
1þN e2
ð Þ
where N is the total population, and e is the error or confidence level. The conventional confidence
level of 95% is used to ensure a more accurate result from the sample. Based on this, the error
term would be equal to 0.05.
Based on the formula, House of People Representative (547) + House of Federation (153) = 700
Out of the total number of the target population, 255 respondents were selected based on
below-mentioned mathematical operation.
n¼700
1þ700ð0:05Þ2
254
Accordingly, participants of the study encompass men and women members of the parliament
and the council of minister or executive.
Moreover, hypothesis of the study that portrays the significance difference between men’s and women’s
attitude toward the significance of women’s participation in appointed, elected, and policy-making posi-
tions. H
1:
There is a significant difference in attitude between men and women parliamentarians on the
importance of women’s participation in appointed, elected, and policy-making positions. H
0:
There is no
significant difference in attitude between men and women parliamentarians on the importance of
women’s participation in appointed, elected, and policy-making positions.
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Besides, as data analysis techniques, both descriptive and inferential statistics such as percentage,
frequency, graphs, mean, standard deviation, independent sample t-test, and chi-square test (x
2
).
3. Results and discussions
Following materials and methods of the study, the results of statistical tools are demonstrated and
discussed here. Accordingly, the demographic characteristics of respondents and its relationship of
women political leaders’ attitude toward women’s participation and effectiveness in political
leadership of Ethiopia are discussed and analyzed here.
Part 1: Background Information (Demographic Characteristics) of Respondents
As to the data demonstrated in Table 1, concerning the marital status of the participants of the
study, 86.3% of the respondents are married, whereas 9.0% are unmarried, 3.0% are widowed.
This shows that respondents are forming and leading their family which is very essential for
properly administering other roles given by the society including the political tasks. On the other
hand, the education status of respondents reflected that 62.3% of the respondents hold first
degree, 26.5% of respondents have second degree, 8.5% holds diploma. This implies that more
than half of the respondents of the study have better educational qualification, which is expected
for the proper functioning of the government duties even though it depends on the government’s
nature and its member’s dedication. Besides, data obtained on the residence of respondents
before joining the Ethiopian parliament shows that 74.4% of respondents had resided in urban
areas, 7.7% had resided in rural areas, and 12.4% had resided in semi-urban areas.
Likewise, data on the parliament experience of respondents show that 23.5%, 49.6%, 20.1%, and 5.1%
of respondents have 1 to 5, 6 to 10, 11–15, and above 16 years of parliament experience, respectively.
Moreover, regarding the reasons of parliamentarians to join the Ethiopian parliament, the data
display that 85.0% of respondents were motivated by the government policy, 8.1% for challenging
patriarchy (male supremacy in Ethiopian politics, 1.3% to get economic advantage, 2.6% for using
their political knowledge, and 1.3% motivated by other reasons).
Having these, the age distribution, sex, and political experience of respondents are demon-
strated through graphical representation as follows:
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This histogram demonstrates a normal distribution curve and the mean age of the respondents is
2.5, which mean the mean age is between 36–44 and 41–45 with the standard deviation of 1.17.
Likewise, as the data demonstrated, 18 (7.7%) respondents were in the age of 25–30 years, 27
(11.5%) of respondents were in the age range of 31–35 years, 55 (23.5%) were in the age range of
36–40 years, 83 (35.5%) were in the age range of 41–45 years, and 47 (20.1%) were above
47 years. This implies that the majority of respondents (23.5% +35.5% = 59%) were in between
the age of 36–45.
As it is reflected above, 116 (50.4%) respondents of the study were women members of the
parliament, whereas 49.6 (114%) were men. Thus, there is proportional sex representation of
respondents.
As to the data demonstrated above on political experience of the respondents who have been working
as the member of the parliament reveals that 13 (5.6%), 54 (23.1%), 63 (26.9%), and 100 (41.0%) of
respondents have 1 to 5, 6 to 10, 11–15, and above 16 years of political experience, respectively.
Correspondingly, Tables 2 and 3 show respondents level of agreement concerned with women’s
participation in political leadership of the country. Levels of agreement are of respondent’s attitude
Table 1. Description of background information of respondents
Name of the variable Frequency %
(1) Marital status
Married 202 86.3
Unmarried 21 9.0
Widowed 7 3.0
Others 0 0
(1) Education status
Diploma 20 8.5
First degree 148 62.3
Second degree 62 26.5
(1) Residence before joining par-
liament
Rural 18 7.7
Urban 174 74.4
Semi-urban 29 12.4
(1) Parliament experience
1–5 years 55 23.5
6–10 years 116 49.6
11–15 years 47 20.1
Above 16 years 12 5.1
(1) Reason of entry to the parlia-
ment
Government policy 199 85.0
To challenge patriarchy 19 8.1
To get economic advantage 3 1.3
To use my knowledge 6 2.6
Other reasons 3 1.3
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toward women and men’s participation in the political leadership process of the country. The variable of
level of agreement is coded in such a way that Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1, Disagree (D) = 2, Somewhat
Disagree (SWD) = 3, Neutral (N) = 4, Somewhat Agree (SWA) = 5, Agree (A) = 6 and Strongly Agree
(SA) = 7. Here below the percentage, frequency, mean, and standard deviation of the respondents’ level
of agreement regarding with each question asked are demonstrated and explained as follows:
Table 2 displays the level of agreement (attitude) of respondents toward women’s and men’s
participation and effectiveness in political leadership. Accordingly, it is good to see one variable
regarding the issue that women consider political problems different from men and respondents
level of agreement (attitude) with the mean = 3.7 and SD = 1.948. This level of agreement is in
between somewhat disagreeing and neutral. This implies that most of political leaders have
somewhat favorable opinion toward equal participation of men and women in political leadership.
The political leaders have neutral attitude toward the issue that women are best suited for some
political positions unlike their counter parts.
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Table 2. Part one: level of agreement of respondents concerning with women’s and men’s participation in political leadership
Variable Women see political
problems differently
than men
Women better for
political decisions
Men better for
political decisions
Women and men
Equal active for
politics
Women and men
Equally qualified for
political decisions
Women better for
some political
decisions
Level of
agreement
F % F % F % F % F % F %
SD 34 14.8 28 12.2 42 18.3 38 16.5 31 13.5 27 11.7
D 39 17 33 14.3 39 17.0 30 13.0 29 12.6 28 12.2
SWD 39 17 41` 17.8 36 15.7 30 13.0 45 19.6 36 15.7
N 35 15.2 45 19.6 32 13.9 39 17.0 38 16.5 34 14.8
SWA 28 12.2 31 13.5 29 12.6 30 13.0 34 14.8 34 14.8
A 29 12.6 27 11.7 33 14.3 22 9.6 30 13.0 48 20.9
SA 25 10.9 25 10.9 19 8.3 41 17.8 23 10.0 23 10.0
N = 230
M = 3.73 3.87 3.62 3.97 3.86 4.11
SD = 1.948 1.851 1.9 2.0 1.86 1.89
Note: Sorts coded (1 = Strongly agree; 2 = Agree; 3 = Somewhat agree; 4 = Neutral; 5 = Somewhat disagree; 6 = Disagree; 7 = Strongly disagree).
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Table 3. Part two: level of agreement of respondents concerning with women’s and men’s participation in political leadership
Variable Men better for some
political decisions
Parliament should
have equal no- men
and women
Executive should have
equal no-of men and
women
Being Men politician
has an advantage or
privilege
Women politicians are
conservative
There need to be
Special budget for
women
Level of
agreement
F % F % F % F % F % F %
SD 21 9.1 15 6.5 21 9.1 32 13.9 31 13.5 18 7.8
D 33 14.3 21 9.1 23 10.1 33 14.3 33 14.3 15 6.5
SWD 32 13.9 `28 12.2 23 10.1 33 14.3 33 14.3 16 7.0
N 48 20.9 50 21.7 55 23.9 33 14.3 38 16.5 42 18.3
SWA 36 15.7 35 15.2 32 13.9 32 13.9 33 14.3 32 13.9
A 38 16.5 48 20.9 48 20.9 39 17.0 28 12.2 49 21.3
SA 22 9.6 35 14.9 28 12.2 28 12.2 34 14.8 58 25.2
N = 230
M = 4.07 4.5 4.34 3.9 3.9 4.8
SD = 1.79 1.76 1.81 1.976 1.976 1.87
Note: Sorts coded (1 = Strongly agree; 2 = Agree; 3 = Somewhat agree; 4 = Neutral; 5 = Somewhat disagree; 6 = Disagree; 7 = Strongly disagree).
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Note: For the details see the above demonstrated Table
Table 3 shows the respondents level of agreement (attitude) toward women’s and men’s political
leadership. Here, it is good to see only one variable that is respondents level of agreement and the need of
special budget for women politicians and leaders for empowerment purpose (M = 4.8 SD = 1.87). This
means that respondents of the study somewhat agree with the need of special budget for women
politicians and leaders that can be used for empowerment purpose. The data imply that respondents
have almost neutral attitude toward the equality of men and women in parliament and executive and
the need of special budget for women politicians. This indicates that political leaders of Ethiopian
parliament have unfavorable attitude toward women’s political leadership but comparatively women
have favorable attitude than men. Note: for the details, see the above-demonstrated Table 3.
4. Participant’s attitude toward the political behavior of women parliamentarians in
Ethiopia
There seems a divergence of attitude or opinion about women’s political behavior that could be
manifested in Ethiopian political governance. In relation to this, based on Table 2, respondents of
the study responded concerned with the conservativeness of women politicians that strongly
disagree = 31 (13.5%), disagree = 33 (14.3), somewhat disagree = 33 (14.3), neutral = 38
(16.5%), somewhat agree = 33 (14.3%), agree = 28 (12.2%), and strongly agree = 34 (14.8%),
mean = 3.9 standard deviation = 1.9. This implies that respondents level of agreement was in
between somewhat disagree and neutral toward the idea that women political leaders including
parliamentarians are conservative than men.
On the other hand, both men and women interviewees of the study disclosing that women
politicians are a bit conservative and bureaucratic than do men politicians and parliamentarians.
They are sticking on to rules, regulations, and programs even for the very silly issues. They cannot
do things with simple manner instead devote their time and resources by piercing on procedures
as a result of their conservativeness. Ethiopian women politicians are not generous rather they are
so conservative in which they see and do issues with bureaucratic manner. They are sticking on the
party rules and disciplines instead of doing day and night for representing and fulfilling the interest
of women member of the community.
Similarly, concerning to Ethiopian women politicians “it is possible to say that women parlia-
mentarians do not have the will to support the argument made against them that they are not in
the parliament to represent women and gender issues rather are devoted for mere party affilia-
tion. They are more conservative and inclined to social and family issues in the parliament meet-
ings and other activities” (Meseret, 2010).
Thus, from the above results, it can be concluded with a caution that women political leaders are
more conservative, bureaucratic, and less autocratic than men political leaders.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation
Importance of women in
appointed position
230 1.73 .767
Importance of women in
elected position
230 1.75 .769
Importance of women in
policymaking
230 1.75 .849
Valid N (listwise) 230
Note: the variable categorized and coded as (Very Important = 1, Important = 2, Somewhat Important = 3 and Not
Important = 4)
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Part two: The Relationship between Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics and their
Attitude toward Women’s Participation and effectiveness in Political Leadership
Women’s involvement in political decision-making is imperative for the prevalence of democracy
and good governance in the country. However, an attitude toward women’s participation is
unfavorable that decisive decision-making positions are not given and believed to be given to
women. As to people’s attitude, women’s participation in decision-making is not very relevant
because women are culturally believed to be care-takers at home, and that their position is not in
public decision-making, and that they cannot take good decision. Views and attitudes of the
people can influence it very much (Ahmed, 2013).
Besides, people’s attitude including political leaders is the determinant factor for the enhancement
of women’s participation in the political decision-making process of the government bodies. The
traditional and socially constructed values of the society affect their attitude towards women’s
Table 6. Comparison of sex of respondents and their attitude toward women’s participation in
elected political positions
Sex N Mean Standard deviation
Elected Female 116 2.01 .829
Male 114 1.48 .598
Levine’s test for
variances
T test of equality of means
F Sig T Df Sig
(2
tailed
Mean
difference
95%Confidence
interval
Lower Upper
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances not
assumed
5.234 0.023 5.512
5.527
228
209.4
.000
.000
.528
.526
.338
.338
.714
.714
Table 5. Comparison of sex of respondents (political leaders) and their attitude toward
women’s participation in appointed political positions
Sex N Mean Standard deviation
Appointed
positions
Female 116 2.02 .791
Male 114 1.45 .625
Levine’s
test for
variances
T test of equality of means
F Sig T Df Sig
(2
tailed
Mean
difference
95%Confidence
interval
Lower Upper
Equal variances assumed
Equal variances not
assumed
1.646 .201 6.054
6.066
228
218.0
.000
.000
.570
0.094
.384
.385
.755
.755
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effectiveness in productive activity including politics and leadership since that value reserve repro-
ductive and other domestic roles for women members of the society.
Ethiopian women cannot escape from this scenario that women experience discrimination and
marginalization from productive activities for a long period of time despite some improvements
recently in this regard. This emanates from the attitude that women could not be effective in
leadership, which requires masculine traits of the society such as courage, decision-making skills,
rationality, and other skills, which had been constructed by the society as masculine characteristics.
Having these, it is good to see respondents’ attitude toward women’s importance in appointed,
elected, and policy-making positions of the country.
Table 4 shows that respondents of the study both men and women political leaders depicted the
importance of women in appointed, elected, and policy-making positions with the mean of
1.73,1.75, 1.75, and standard deviation of .767,.769, and .849, respectively. This implies that
women’s presence in those positions is in between very important and important.
Following this, the comparison of sex of respondents (Female and Male political leaders) and
their attitude toward women’s participation in appointed, elected, and policy-making positions of
the country through independent sample T test explained as follows:
Table 5 demonstrates that assuming equal variances, there is no significant difference of
attitude between women and men toward women’s effectiveness and importance in appointed
political positions at p = 0.291, T = 6.054, mean (F = 2.02, M = 1.45), SD (F = .791, M = .625),
N (F = 116, M = 114). But, the mean of women is higher than men that women are more likely to
say women’s participation and availability is important with mean of 2.02, whereas men political
leaders are likely to say women’s participation is somewhat important with mean of 1.45. Thus,
women have favorable attitude toward the importance women’s participation in appointed poli-
tical positions compared to that of men political leaders.
Table 7. Comparison of sex of respondents and their attitude toward women’s participation in
policy-making positions
Sex N Mean Standard
deviation
Policy
making
Female 116 2.04 .879
Male 114 1.46 .706
Levine’s test
for variances
T test of equality of means
F Sig T Df Sig (2
tailed)
Mean
difference
95%Confidence
interval
Lower Upper
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
3.900 0.049 5.580
5.590
228
219.3
.000
.000
.587
.587
.380
.380
.794
.794
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Correspondingly, women interviewees and focus group discussants portray that women can be
effective in appointed political decision-making positions and they believe that in appointed
positions of executive and legislative leadership, women are needed since they are more wise,
cooperative than their counter parts. They can effectively handle the political decision-making
process. Unlike this, men interviewees of the study explain that women should not be placed in
that top decision-making positions due to the fact that they are submissive and not decision-
maker compared to that of men politicians. As to them, top appointed political positions need to
be controlled by men with one or two women for fulfilling simply women’s presence instead of
allowing them to have say and influence in top political decision-making positions of the country
(Meseret, 2010).
Hence, comparatively, women political leaders have encouraging attitude toward women’s
importance and effectiveness in appointed political positions of government bodies of the
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia(FDRE).
Table 8. The relationship between women’s participation in parliament debates and political
leaders’ attitude toward it
Sex Total
Female Male
Level of women’s participation in
parliament debate
A. Sometimes 26 47 73
B. Always 86 65 151
C. Never 1 0 1
D. Others 3 2 5
Total 116 114 230
Chi-square(x2) =10.145
P=0.017
Table 9. The relationship between educational status of respondents and their attitude
toward women’s active and influential role in the parliament committees
Attitude towards women’s active
and influential role in the
parliament committee
Total
Yes No
Educational status of respondents
A. Diploma 4 16 20
B. First degree 64 84 148
C. Second and above 13 49 62
Total 81 149 230
Chi-square(x2) =11.727
P=0.003
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Table 6 displays that equal variances assumed that there is significant difference of attitude between
women and men toward women’s effectiveness and importance in elected political positions at p = 0.023,
T = 5.512, mean (F = 2.01, M = 1.48), SD (F = .829, M = .598), N (F = 116, M = 114). This shows that the mean
of women is higher than men and implies that women are more likely to say women’s participation and
availability in elected political leadership positions is important with mean of 2.01, whereas men political
leaders are likely to say that the importance of women’s participation is in between important and
somewhat important with mean of 1.48. Thus, women have favorable attitude toward the importance
of women’s participation in elected political positions compared to that of men political leaders.
Like that of women’s importance and effectiveness in appointed positions, women interviewees
have positive attitude toward women’s importance and effectiveness in elected political positions of
the government bodies of the country. Women political leaders need to see equal representation of
men and women in elected political leadership positions for realizing democracy and good govern-
ance in the country. Women’s presence has very much significance in each and every decision-
making process as they are wise and humble. This character helps the smooth functioning of the
decision-making process in particular and the political system in general. Unlike men political leaders,
women politicians and leaders believes that it is unthinkable to establish democratic governance
without appropriate representation of women in the elected political positions of the government
bodies. Women’s importance and effectiveness in elected political positions are unquestionable.
Consequently, women political leaders have positive attitude toward women’s importance and
effectiveness in the elected political positions of the government bodies of Ethiopia compared to
that of their counterparts those who believe that women’s availability does not have much more
importance as long as men political leaders are there.
Table 7 shows that equal variances assumed that there is statistically significant difference of
attitude between women and men toward women’s importance and effectiveness in policy-
making political positions at p = 0.049, T = 5.580, mean (F = 2.04, M = 1.46), SD (F = .879,
M = .706), N (F = 116, M = 114) Table 8 and 10. This shows that the mean of women is higher
than men and implies that women are more likely to say women’s participation and availability is
important with mean of 2.01, whereas men political leaders are likely to say that the importance of
women’s participation is in between important and somewhat important with mean of 1.46. Thus,
Table 10. The relationship between educational status of respondents and their attitude
toward men’s support of women’s views and ideas in the parliament meetings and debates
Attitude towards men’s support
of women’s views and ideas
Total
Yes No I
don’t
know
Educational status of
respondents
A. Diploma 4 15 1 20
B. First degree 58 90 1 149
C. Second and above 16 46 0 62
Total 78 150 2 230
Chi-square(x2) =15.541
P=0.004
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women have favorable attitude towards the importance of women’s participation in appointed
political positions compared to that of men political leaders.
Consistent to these, participants of the study depict that women need to be equally represented in
policy-making positions of the government bodies of the country. Women’s presence has an importance
for incorporating and articulating women’s issues, needs, and perspectives in the policy-making process
and policy documents. Women’s availability can make policy documents to be gender sensitive and
responsive, which are very crucial for the promotion of women’s rights and achievement of gender equality
in the country. Like that of appointed and elected positions, in policy-making positions, women political
leaders have encouraging attitude toward women’s effectiveness in policy-making positions of the govern-
ment of the country.
Thus, women political leaders those who have participated as interviewees of the study believes
that women’s presence in policy-making positions is very decisive than others to include essential
issues of women in the policy-making process and its documents compared to that of men
political leaders. Whenever women are available in those positions, there is probability to have
gender-sensitive and responsive social, economic, cultural, and political policy documents.
Consistent with these three consecutive independent sample T-test tables concerning to men’s and
women’s attitude toward women’s importance and effectiveness in political leadership positions such as in
appointed, elected and policy-making positions, the study in USA by Macdonough found out that women
have favorable attitude than men regarding with the suitability of women as apolitical leader. Women
have positive attitude toward women’s participation and suitability in political leadership than men
respondents (Mcdonagh, 2009). Likewise, the study conducted in USA by Filla and Larimer depicted that
Women participants of the study views women serving in appointed, elected, and policy-making domains
as significantly more important than men. These differences are particularly noteworthy in the state of
Iowa, where differences are highly significant at p < .001 (Filla & Larimer, 2011).
Contrary to these three independent T-test tables of sex of respondents, there were no statis-
tically significant differences on respondent’s age, education level, marital status, residence before
joining the parliament, political experience of respondents, experience of parliamentarians in the
parliament and their attitude toward women’s importance and effectiveness in appointed, elected,
and policy-making political bodies of Ethiopian government.
Chi-square (x
2
) result displayed above explains that there is statistically significant relationship between
the sex of respondents and their attitude toward women’s participation in parliament meetings and
debates at p = 0.017, x
2=
10.145 where 26 female and 47 male respondents believes that, sometimes,
women actively participate in the parliament debates and meetings, 86 females and 65 males believe that
always women actively participate in the parliament debates and meetings, one female respondent
portrays that women never actively participate in parliament debates. Thus, comparatively speaking,
women have favorable attitude toward women’s participation in parliament debates and meetings. This
is in line with the research hypothesis that women political leaders have favorable attitude toward
women’s participation in political leadership of Ethiopia compared to that of their counter parts.
Similarly, men political leaders those who have participated in interviews of the study explain that
most of the time, women parliamentarians are silent and remain silent. They are not active
participant in parliament meetings and debates. They simply attend it instead of entertaining crucial
agendas as a result of strong party discipline, which forced them not to raise issues other than party
issues. They symbolically presented there mostly despite their attempt to participate in some of the
parliament debates. Converse to this, women participants of the study argue that they participated
in the parliament meetings and debates actively if and only if it requires their involvement.
Therefore, men political leaders have unfavorable attitude toward the usefulness of women’s
active involvement in the parliament debates and other activities. Likewise, as to researcher’s
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observation of live parliament debates and meetings and attendance through Ethiopian
Broadcasting Corporation compiled parliament debates and meetings, women political leaders
were not active participant in parliament debates, questioning-answering, and discussions. They
rarely raise their hand to ask questions and their participation is not proportional to men’s
participation in parliament debates, questioning-answering and discussions.
Chi-square (x
2
) result displayed above explains that statistically there is significant relationship
between education status of respondents and their attitude toward women’s active and influential
role in the parliament committee at p = 0.003, x
2=
11.727. Accordingly, respondents those who
have diploma, first degree and second degree said no with frequency of 16, 84, and 49 and yes
with frequency of 4, 64, and 13 respondents, respectively. Respondents those who have second
degree have unfavorable attitude than first degree than diploma toward women’s influential and
active role in the parliament committee.
Hence, comparatively, higher education status is associated with unfavorable attitude toward
women’s role in the parliament committee. Educational status of respondents has an effect on
their attitude toward women’s participation and influence in parliament committee. In relation to
this, the study conducted in Ethiopia by Meseret explains that women’s participation in the
parliamentarians committee with a diverse area of focus is means of empowerment. Women
parliamentarians have better access to join committees than male parliamentarians. However,
women’s active role and influence are questionable (Meseret, 2010).
Likewise, interviewees from opposition parties supported the idea that women parliamentarians
committee members have a right to participate in different standing committees of the parliament
but they have no influence and they get committee headship, which is related with their traditional
role given by the society. These limit them to have active and influential role in the parliament
committees. The parliament standing committees have great role for the promotion and advance-
ment of women’s rights and gender equality in policy and practice despite Ethiopian women
parliamentarians’ little influence and role in the committees.
Chi-square (x
2
) result shows that statistically there is significant relationship between education
status of respondents and their attitude toward men’s support of women’s views and ideas in the
parliament at p = 0.004, x
2=
15.541. Accordingly, respondents those who have diploma, first degree
and second degree said no with frequency of 15,90,46 and yes with frequency of 4, 58 and 16
respondents respectively.
Respondents those who hold first degree have unfavorable attitude than second degree than
diploma toward men’s support of women’s views and ideas. Consequently, educational status of
respondents has an effect on their attitude toward men’s support of women’s views and ideas in
the parliament meetings and debates.
Contrary to these two-consecutive chi-square (x
2
Tables), the study conducted in USA by
Macdonagh, “as education increases, so, too, does the ratio of people supporting women as
political leaders” (Mcdonagh, 2009).
Thus, the context of Ethiopia is differing from USA where there is democracy and good govern-
ance practices unlike Ethiopia. This may affect the attitude of educated respondents toward
women’s involvement in parliament activities.
5. Conclusion and implications
5.1. Conclusion
Based on the results of independent sample T-test, it is found out that there is statistically
a significant difference of attitude of political leaders toward the importance of women’s
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participation in elected and policy-making positions at p = 0.000, which is less than 0.05 of
significant level. In this context, significant differences appear between men and women
political leaders attitude towards the importance of women’s participation in political leader-
ship positions.
Comparatively, women political leaders have favorable attitude toward the relevance or impor-
tance of women’s participation in appointed, elected and policy making positions than their counter
parts. This is in line with the hypothesis of the study that portrays the significance difference
between men’s and women’s attitude toward the significance of women’s participation in
appointed, elected and policy making positions. Here, H
1
is accepted with rejection of H
O.
In addition to these, chi-square (x
2
) result implies that there is significant relationship between
the sex of respondents and their attitude toward women’s participation in parliament meetings
and debates at p = 0.017, x
2=
10.145 where comparatively speaking women have favorable attitude
toward women’s participation in parliament debates and meetings. This is also in line with the
research hypothesis that women political leaders have favorable attitude toward women’s parti-
cipation in political leadership of Ethiopia compare to that of their counter parts.
Another chi-square (x
2
) result shows that there is statistically significant relationship between
education status of respondents and their Attitude towards women’s active and influential role in
the parliament committee at p = 0.003, x
2=
11.727. Respondents those who have second degree
have unfavorable attitude than first degree than diploma towards women’s influential and active
role in the parliament committee. Higher education status is associated with unfavorable attitude
toward women’s role in the parliament committee. This is similar with the hypothesis that there is
a significant relation between demographic characteristics of respondents and their attitude
toward women’s participation in political leadership of the country.
However, there were no statistically significant differences on respondent age, marital status,
and residence before joining the parliament, political experience of respondents, experience of
parliamentarians in the parliament and their attitude towards women’s importance and effective-
ness in political leadership of Ethiopian government.
5.2. Implications
The study findings imply that men political leaders do have unfavorable attitude towards
women’s participation and effectiveness in the political leadership process. Relatively, women
political leaders in legislative and executive bodies have positive attitude toward women’s
participation in the political leadership of Ethiopian government bodies. These emanate from
the patriarchal political socialization and political culture that favors men’s involvement and
domination in the productive activities including politics and leadership. The Ethiopian popular
culture perpetuates women’s traditional roles as a housemaker instead of being prominent
political leader. This resulted from the patriarchal attitude of the community that considers
men as decision maker and effective in productive activities including politics and leadership.
This in turn shows women to be dependent and subordinate on men member of the commu-
nity and finally resulting in women’s low level of political status. Women in Ethiopia have been
disadvantaged and marginalized from economic, social, and political system in the enjoyment
of accessing and controlling opportunities and decision-making process despite some improve-
ment recently in this system.
Thus, the concerned government bodies should work on men in general and political leaders in
particular so as to modify their attitude in the way that favors women’s participation and success
fullness in the political leadership process of government bodies.
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Funding
This work was supported by the no fund [no].
Author details
Wubante Ayalew Dessie
1
E-mail: webeayalew@gmail.com
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0255-2266
1
Debre Berhan University, Debreberhan, Ethiopia.
Citation information
Cite this article as: Women and Ethiopian politics: Political
leaders’ attitude and views on women’s effectiveness,
Wubante Ayalew Dessie, Cogent Social Sciences (2021), 7:
1948653.
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