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Taking Diversity Seriously: Within-Group Heterogeneity in African American Extended Family Support Networks
Abstract
Objective
This study examined the correlates of involvement in extended family social support networks among African Americans.
Background
Previous literature has documented the importance of informal social support from extended family members for the African American population. Most research has investigated black-white differences in network involvement or has focused on impoverished African American families. Both approaches conceal important within-group variation in participation among the total African American population.
Method
This study relied on nationally representative data from the African American sub-sample of the National Survey of American Life (n = 3538). It employed ordinary least squares regression analysis to examine the sociodemographic and family factors that are associated with four key measures of involvement in extended family support networks: receiving and providing extended family support, frequency of family contact, and degree of subjective closeness.
Results
African Americans routinely interacted with members of their family, displayed a high degree of family closeness, and exchanged support fairly frequently. Findings also revealed significant variation in network involvement by sociodemographic characteristics: women, younger adults, and Southerners were typically most involved; individuals who experienced greater material hardship, were previously incarcerated, or served in the military reported less involvement. Results also showed that family closeness and family contact were particularly salient factors shaping the extent to which network members engaged in support exchanges.
Conclusion
The magnitude of within-group heterogeneity in network involvement underscores the importance of considering issues of intragroup diversity in the developing literature on African American extended family networks.
... Extended family networks and fictive kin are common, key culturallyspecific sources of support (Boyd-Franklin, 1989). As a result, African Americans are more Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology/advance-article/doi/10.1093/geronb/gbae064/7676201 by guest on 20 May 2024 A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t likely to provide support to extended family members than White peers, and more likely to report daily interactions with family (Taylor et al., 2021;Taylor et al., 2013). Further, extended family networks typically assist with caregiving in the context of chronic illness and aging (Dilworth-Anderson et al., 2002), and are more likely to provide disease selfmanagement support than spouses among African Americans, compared to White peers (August & Sorkin, 2011). ...
... Evidence suggests older African Americans' contact with family, and provision of family support, may decrease over time (Evans et al., 2019). However, parental status (i.e., older adults with adult children) may protect against aging-related losses in family network size and family support (Taylor et al., 2021). Indeed, older African American adults with no children may be at particular risk of smaller support networks and decreased closeness to family, at a time when family caregiving support may be critical due to an increased risk of declining health (Taylor et al., 2021). ...
... However, parental status (i.e., older adults with adult children) may protect against aging-related losses in family network size and family support (Taylor et al., 2021). Indeed, older African American adults with no children may be at particular risk of smaller support networks and decreased closeness to family, at a time when family caregiving support may be critical due to an increased risk of declining health (Taylor et al., 2021). ...
Objectives
This study examines how family relationships convey risk or resilience for pain outcomes for aging African Americans, and to replicate and extend analyses across two nationally representative studies of aging health.
Method
African American participants in Midlife in the United States (MIDUS, N = 755) and the Health and Retirement Study (HRS, N = 2585) self-reported chronic pain status at 2006 waves and then again 10 years later. Logistic regression was used to estimate the odds of pain incidence and persistence explained by family, intimate partner, and parent-child strain and support, as well as average support and average strain across relationships.
Results
On average, MIDUS participants were younger (M = 52.35, SD = 12.06; 62.1% female) than HRS (M = 66.65, SD = 10.92; 63.7% female). Family support and average support were linked to a decreased odds of pain incidence in MIDUS, but only when tested without accounting for strain, while parent-child strain was a risk factor for pain incidence in HRS, as was average strain. Family support protected against pain persistence in MIDUS, while average support was linked to a reduced odds of pain persisting in HRS.
Discussion
Chronic pain outcomes are worse for African Americans for a number of reasons, but parent-child strain may contribute to the risk of new pain developing over time for older adults. Conversely, family support may offer a protective benefit for pain incidence and persistence among aging African Americans. Findings implicate family relationships as a potential target of pain management interventions.
... Secara instrumental, saling bertukar bantuan berupa barang dan jasa dengan intensitas yang sering menunjukkan adanya kedekatan emosional yang mencerminkan bentuk solidaritas hubungan keluarga dalam berbagi makna, fungsi keluarga, dan kedekatan perasaan (Taylor et al., 2015). Selain itu, bentuk dukungan yang diberikan antar anggota keluarga mampu memelihara hubungan antargenerasi (G1-G2-G3) dan memengaruhi kualitas hidup keluarga (G1-G2-G3) yang lebih tinggi (Taylor et al., 2021;Umberson & Thomeer, 2020). Savelieva et al. (2017) Vol. ...
... Beberapa penelitian sebelumnya terkait kualitas hidup keluarga sandwich telah menganalisis dukungan dari lansia (Burke, 2017); dukungan keluarga (Taylor et al., 2021;Hu, 2017;Marsack & Samuel, 2017), hubungan keluarga (Umberson & Thomeer, 2020), pertukaran antargenerasi (Liu, 2022;Tan, 2018) sudah pernah dilakukan tetapi secara terpisah. Dengan demikian, penelitian yang membahas kualitas hidup keluarga sandwich yang dikaitkan dengan pertukaran barang-jasa dan hubungan keluarga secara bersamaan masih terbatas. ...
... Kualitas hubungan keluarga merupakan variabel antara (mediating variable) dalam memengaruhi kualitas hidup keluarga sandwich. Taylor et al. (2021) menyatakan bahwa kedekatan hubungan keluarga merupakan faktor yang sangat menonjol untuk melihat sejauh mana anggota keluarga terlibat dalam memberikan dukungan. Hubungan keluarga multigenerasi adalah hubungan yang diadik sehingga memungkinkan anggota keluarga terlibat dalam pertukaran dukungan (Taylor et al., 2013). ...
Keluarga yang hidup dengan tiga generasi (keluarga sandwich) menunjukkan adanya pertukaran bantuan berupa barang dan jasa antargenerasi yang mempererat hubungan keluarga sehingga dapat memengaruhi kualitas hidup keluarga. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh pertukaran barang-jasa dan kualitas hubungan keluarga terhadap kualitas hidup keluarga sandwich. Desain penelitian cross-sectional study. Lokasi penelitian di Kota Bogor yang dipilih secara purposive. Penelitian dilakukan pada tipe keluarga sandwich yaitu keluarga dengan tiga generasi yang terdiri atas suami-istri (G2), anak (G3), dan lansia (G1). Keluarga dalam penelitian merupakan keluarga dengan sosial ekonomi menengah ke bawah. Responden adalah istri (G2) yang menjawab pertanyaan terkait kondisi G1, G2, dan G3. Jumlah contoh adalah 140 keluarga yang dipilih secara purposive. Pengumpulan data menggunakan kuesioner. Analisis data penelitian menggunakan Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)-PLS. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa pertukaran barang-jasa, kualitas hubungan keluarga, dan kualitas hidup keluarga sandwich termasuk dalam kategori sedang. Hasil analisis SEM-PLS menunjukkan bahwa kualitas hidup keluarga sandwich dipengaruhi langsung oleh pertukaran barang-jasa dan kualitas hubungan keluarga. Keluarga dapat memastikan proses interaksi yang baik di dalam keluarga untuk menunjang pertukaran barang-jasa dalam mewujudkan kualitas hidup keluarga.
... It is important to highlight that the experience of vicarious discrimination via a family member may be particularly salient for black Americans because family relationships play a prominent role in the lives of black Americans and have traditional and cultural significance (Lincoln and Chae 2012;Taylor, Chatters, and Cross 2021). Overall, research indicates that black Americans interact with their family frequently (Lincoln, Taylor, and Chatters 2013;Mouzon 2013;Taylor et al. 2021) and report a high degree of family closeness (Taylor et al. 2021). ...
... It is important to highlight that the experience of vicarious discrimination via a family member may be particularly salient for black Americans because family relationships play a prominent role in the lives of black Americans and have traditional and cultural significance (Lincoln and Chae 2012;Taylor, Chatters, and Cross 2021). Overall, research indicates that black Americans interact with their family frequently (Lincoln, Taylor, and Chatters 2013;Mouzon 2013;Taylor et al. 2021) and report a high degree of family closeness (Taylor et al. 2021). In addition, racial marginalization in U.S. society has made kin relationships particularly important for black Americans (Lincoln and Chae 2012), and black Americans tend to seek out family relationships to cope with the stressors they experience (Nguyen et al. 2016;Taylor et al. 2013), including the stress of discrimination. ...
... It is important to highlight that the experience of vicarious discrimination via a family member may be particularly salient for black Americans because family relationships play a prominent role in the lives of black Americans and have traditional and cultural significance (Lincoln and Chae 2012;Taylor, Chatters, and Cross 2021). Overall, research indicates that black Americans interact with their family frequently (Lincoln, Taylor, and Chatters 2013;Mouzon 2013;Taylor et al. 2021) and report a high degree of family closeness (Taylor et al. 2021). In addition, racial marginalization in U.S. society has made kin relationships particularly important for black Americans (Lincoln and Chae 2012), and black Americans tend to seek out family relationships to cope with the stressors they experience (Nguyen et al. 2016;Taylor et al. 2013), including the stress of discrimination. ...
Does hearing about or witnessing someone else experience discrimination harm individuals’ mental health? Using data from the Nashville Stress and Health Study, we answer this question by examining how vicarious discrimination impacts depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and anger among black Americans. We also test whether mastery and self-esteem moderate the association between vicarious discrimination and each mental health outcome. Findings indicate experiencing vicarious discrimination via a family member has a similar impact on mental health to personally experiencing discrimination. While experiencing vicarious discrimination via a close friend also increased mental health problems, it appeared to be less harmful than personally experiencing discrimination. Moreover, self-esteem moderated the association between vicarious discrimination via a family member and via a close friend and mental health, while mastery did not. This study provides new insights into ways vicarious discrimination impacts health as well as the role that psychosocial resources play in shaping this relationship.
... Finally, we examine only broad categories of racialized groups. We recognize the importance of examining variations within White, Black, Latinx, and Asian communities (Crosnoe et al., 2016;Taylor et al., 2021), which is an important future research venue but is beyond the scope of this study. ...
... For example, it is important to investigate how economic inequalities and geographical or social segregation across racial/ethnic groups affect participation in specific activities with children. As mentioned above, variation within each racial/ethnic category, such as variations by immigrant status and country of origin (Crosnoe et al., 2016;Taylor et al., 2021), is another potential area of exploration for the future. ...
Despite substantial evidence that racial/ethnic minority communities exhibit distinct mothering practices, research on racial/ethnic differences in how mothers spend time with their children is scant. Using the 2003-2019 American Time Use Survey (N = 44,372), this study documents variations in the amounts of childcare and copresent time spent in various activities with residential children aged 0-17 across White, Black, Latina, and Asian mothers. The results show that racial/ethnic differences in maternal time spent with children are partly due to socioeconomic differences but still exist when these factors are held constant, indicating patterns that reflect each minority community's mothering norms. Compared to mothers in other groups, Black mothers spend more copresent time with children in religious activities, although less in terms of the total amount of time. Latina mothers spend more copresent time with elementary-school-age children while engaging in daily routines. Asian mothers spend more time teaching and eating with elementary-school-age or younger children.
... A full consideration of the causes and consequences of variation in Black family structure is beyond the scope of this article. Recent scholarship focuses on understanding Black family structure and functioning within their specific social contexts and circumstances, in response to structural racism and discrimination, and with awareness of how within group differences are manifested in family phenomena (Cross, 2018;Cross et al., 2018;McKinley & Brown, 2020;Nguyen et al., 2016;Taylor et al., 2021). ...
... Family research conducted by Black scholars has been distinctive in acknowledging the presence of within group variability in family characteristics and behaviors as a response to stereotypical depictions of Black family life in popular culture and academic discourse (Berkley & Landor, 2020;Franklin & James, 2015;McKinley & Brown, 2020;Taylor et al., 1997;Taylor et al., 2021;Taylor et al., 2022). Research on social class differences and the family lives of middle-and upper-income families provides information about how families possessing different social positions and material resources organize themselves and function as a family (e.g., kin networks, support exchanges, intrafamily relations and ties), define marital and parental roles and responsibilities, and operate within different life contexts (e.g., residential neighborhoods, schools, occupation). ...
Race science attributes differences in human populations to biology and genetics that reflect a hierarchy of human races with whiteness at its pinnacle. This article examining the history of race science and current family scholarship and practice contends that race science matters for family science. We discuss (1) white supremacy, the development of race science, and the eugenics movement in the U.S.; (2) racism, racialized experiences, and oppression of Black families in the U.S.; (3) the construction of whiteness in family science and re‐envisioning theories to make racism's impact visible; (4) racial reckonings for professional organizations; and (5) why race science matters for family science and a call to action. Clarity about the meaning of race can ensure that family science addresses white supremacy and racism embedded in scholarship, training, and practice, and promotes work that supports the well‐being of families that are most vulnerable and marginalized.
... Their analysis revealed that the majority of the studies evaluated were conducted in Europe and the United States, with limited representation of African literature [18]. While their ndings highlighted resource constraints, insu cient personnel training, and ethical considerations related to privacy and consent, applying these results to the African context can be di cult due to the diverse nature of the population and their cultures [19]. ...
Background: The integration of genetic services into African healthcare systems is a multifaceted endeavor marked by both obstacles and prospects. This study aims to furnish evidence-based recommendations for policymakers and healthcare entities to facilitate the effective assimilation of genetic services within African healthcare systems.
Methods: Employing a scoping review methodology, we scrutinized peer-reviewed studies spanning from 2003 to 2023, sourced from PubMed, Scopus, and Africa-wide databases. Our analysis drew upon eight pertinent research studies conducted between 2016 and 2023, encompassing diverse genetic topics across six African nations, namely Cameroon, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, and Tanzania.
Results: The reviewed studies underscored numerous challenges hindering the implementation of genetic services in African healthcare systems. These obstacles encompassed deficiencies in disease awareness and education, impediments to genetic testing, resource scarcities, ethical quandaries, and issues related to follow-up and retention. Nevertheless, the authors also identified opportunities and strategies conducive to successful integration, emphasizing proactive measures such as community engagement, advocacy, and the fostering of supportive networks.
Conclusion: The integration of genetic services in Africa holds promise for enhancing healthcare outcomes but also poses challenges and opportunities for healthcare and biotechnology enterprises. To address gaps in disease awareness, we advocate for healthcare providers to invest in educational initiatives, forge partnerships with local institutions, and leverage digital platforms. Furthermore, we urge businesses to innovate and devise cost-effective genetic testing models while establishing online forums to promote dialogue and contribute positively to African healthcare.
... Their analysis revealed that the majority of the studies evaluated were conducted in Europe and the United States, with limited representation of African literature (Mikat-Stevens et al., 2015). While their findings highlighted resource constraints, insufficient personnel training, and ethical considerations related to privacy and consent, applying these results to the African context can be difficult due to the diverse nature of the population and their cultures (Taylor et al., 2021). ...
My dissertation delves into the challenges and opportunities of implementing genetic services in Africa, focusing on accessibility, affordability, and cultural acceptance. The primary objective is to provide evidence-based recommendations for policymakers and healthcare organisations, addressing obstacles hindering the integration of genetic services into healthcare systems across African countries. The research methodology involved an extensive analysis of peer-reviewed studies in English spanning the period from 2003 to 2023. Utilizing databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Africa-wide information, the study employed well-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Data extraction and analysis used a comprehensive form and NVIVO 14 software, enabling a thorough framework analysis of identified themes. The results chapter outlines eight studies conducted between 2016 and 2023 in various African countries, addressing challenges and solutions related to genetic counselling and testing. These studies cover diverse topics, including hearing impairment and cancer in Cameroon, genetic service delivery in Kenya, prenatal diagnosis and premarital screening for sickle cell disease in Nigeria, breast cancer in Rwanda, schizophrenia in South Africa, and sickle cell disease in Tanzania. I identified challenges such as a need for genetic disease awareness and education, barriers to genetic testing, resource limitations, ethical dilemmas, and difficulties in follow-up and retention. However, this dissertation also underscores opportunities and strategies for implementing genetic services, emphasizing preventive measures through community engagement, supportive networks, community empowerment, and advocacy. The dissertation highlights the business implications of implementing genetic services in Africa, offering opportunities to healthcare, biotechnology, and related industries. To seize market opportunities, companies can invest in educational programs, collaborate with local institutions, and leverage digital platforms to address disease awareness and education. Innovative and cost-effective models, such as affordable testing kits and telemedicine solutions, can overcome barriers related to high costs and limited accessibility. On a concluding note, facilitating dialogue between healthcare providers, geneticists, genetic counsellors, and communities through online forums or mobile applications is recommended. Collaborative partnerships, engagement with Community Advisory Boards, and prioritizing ii informed consent are essential for navigating ethical considerations and building community trust. Overall, the dissertation provides a constructive framework for policymakers and healthcare organizations to integrate genetic services into healthcare systems across African countries.
... barriers, Black families, boundaries, ideologies, racial stratification, structural racism for understanding quantitative research on racial inequality (Sen & Wasow, 2016;Taylor et al., 2021;Valles, 2012;Williams, 2019). My goal is to reiterate the use of within-group approach by providing the strength of this analytic strategy for studying Black families. ...
Most studies on racial inequality begin with a series of statistics highlighting racial variations in an outcome of interest to illustrate how wide (or narrow) the gaps between racialized groups are. This approach is standard in racial inequality research because emphasizing racial differentials between racialized groups helps researchers frame inequality as a social problem. Scholars across academic disciplines and across sub‐areas within sociology report racial statistics to pay attention to what social scientists refer to as racial disparities. Presenting racial disparities is extremely important for documenting inequality; however, family scholars tend to provide descriptive statistical portraits along ethno‐racial lines (disparities) in the absence of racism, which, in turn, conceals the United States' racialized historical context. In other words, reporting racial inequality as disparities without addressing racism is a critical omission in family science research. Emphasizing racism is important because biological explanation still permeates the American imagination about racial inequality. The purpose of this paper is to provide conceptual and analytical considerations for future racial inequality and family research by recasting disparities as manifestations of racism instead of mere statistical differences. To illustrate the conceptual considerations, I first build on Williams' theoretical model focusing on structural racism and Black family life. I expand on how racism not only makes the idea of race possible but also manifests in observable, measurable outcomes. In the second section, I present an analytical consideration for understanding Black families' inequality by focusing on within‐group analyses. These conceptual and analytical considerations serve as ways to adequately represent Black families and children in the US.
... There have been several avenues of research on African American families. The vast majority of research in this area investigates extended family members as sources of social support, including research on emotional support and instrumental (e.g., transportation, help during an illness) aid (Cross, Nguyen, et al., 2018;Taylor et al., 2021). A second area of research examines the impact of emotional support from family, as well as negative interactions with family members (e.g., criticisms) on various mental health outcomes. ...
James S. Jackson (1944–2020) is remembered as a groundbreaking social psychologist whose career contributions in scholarship, research, and service were fundamental to the field of psychology. This article briefly outlines his career-long work and contributions. A strong believer in interdisciplinary work, his research spanned other related social science disciplines (e.g., sociology, political science), as well as health and social welfare professions (public health, social work, medicine). As the founding director of the Program for Research on Black Americans at the Institute for Social Research, James Jackson initiated and led a long-standing program with a dual focus on research and training and mentoring doctoral students, postdoctoral scholars, and early career scientists. Jackson’s efforts in the development of several nationally representative surveys of the Black population in the United States (e.g., National Survey of Black Americans, National Survey of American Life) revolutionized research focusing on the lives of Black Americans. James Jackson’s international influence and reputation included numerous prestigious positions within national science organizations and honors and awards for his scientific contributions. Among James S. Jackson’s most enduring legacies is the vast network of current scientists, researchers, and academics who were trained under his direction and leadership.
... The first is that measurement of family structure that focuses on the HNF overlooks the presence of coresident extended kin such as grandparents and aunts or uncles as well as the proximity and involvement of non-coresident kin and friends in active social networks. As noted above, however, the retreat from these forms of household organization and exchange among White middle-and uppermiddle class families is relatively recent, and recent quantitative work and a large body of qualitative research have highlighted the continued salience of these relationships in Black family life across the socioeconomic spectrum (Cross, 2018;Perkins, 2019;Pilkauskas & Cross, 2018;Taylor et al., 2021). This work also illustrates that in contemporary families, such relationships are neutral or positive for the well-being of Black youth, but more often associated with deleterious outcomes for White youth, largely because of differential selection into extended kin coresidence and activation of social networks by race (Cross 2020; ...
In the field of family science and in the broader family policy discourse, debate is ongoing about the importance of family structure for child outcomes. Missing from this debate is a full integration of how the foundational pillars of White supremacy, namely structural racism and heteropatriarchy, impact both family formation and child outcomes, especially among diversely configured Black families. From a critical intersectional lens, we argue that conceptual models used to explain racialized child outcomes based on family structure effects are problematic because they compare family structure statuses without accounting for structural racism and interlinked heteropatriarchal conditions. We present a new conceptual model that integrates structural racism and heteropatriarchy to examine the salience of family structure statuses for child outcomes and discuss approaches to research design, empirical measurement, and interpretation in order to bring this new model into practice.
Background
Although the family plays a pivotal role in older adults’ care, there is limited research on how evolving demographic trends affect older adults’ support networks and how the trends vary by race. To fill this gap, we examine the influence of shifting family demographics on future care needs for older adults with dementia, emphasizing the unequal health and potential caregiving burdens by race in the U.S.
Methods
Using demographic models of kinship, we estimate the availability of potential caregivers, and dementia prevalence among one’s kin by race, kin type, and the age of a focal person from 2000 to 2060. We introduce an index called the Dementia Dependency Ratio to assess dementia caregiving demands at the population level, taking into account the age and kinship structure of the population.
Results
Our findings suggest that Black individuals tend to have more children, grandchildren, and nieces/nephews as they age. However, Black individuals also tend to have more kin with dementia compared to their White counterparts. This elevated prevalence of dementia among Black kinship networks counterbalances the advantage of having more kin as potential caregivers. A further projection analysis suggests that the racial gap in caregiving demand within the kinship network will widen in the next four decades if the racial gap in dementia prevalence remains unchanged.
Conclusions
These findings emphasize the urgency of reducing racial inequality in dementia prevalence rates and increasing public support for families with extended members affected by dementia. With the shrinkage of nuclear families and population aging in the next few decades, extended family members may undertake more caregiving responsibilities for dementia. We call for a kinship perspective in understanding dementia care in future research.
Objective
This article examines how parent–child geographic proximity changes around the onset of parental health shocks in the United States. Differences in the likelihood of moving closer across social groups are also investigated.
Background
Adult children often care for older parents with health problems, but this requires relatively close proximity. As families are becoming smaller and many adult children live away from their parents, it is unclear how responsive families will be to older adults' health problems.
Method
We estimate a series of fixed effects and event study models on data from the Health and Retirement Study (2004–2018) to assess changes in parent–child proximity after parents' first onset of cognitive impairment and functional limitations.
Results
We find robust evidence that parents and children tend to stay close or move closer to each other in response to parent's health declines. Moves occur immediately and in subsequent waves after the onset of health shocks. Reductions in parent–child distance are consistently larger among mother‐daughter dyads, dyads without spouses or multiple children, and non‐Hispanic white families.
Conclusion
The geographic availability of adult children to provide care is responsive to parents' needs. After the onset of a serious health condition, most older adults have a spouse or child living close enough to provide care. Parents' and children's lives are dynamically linked, and either or both may relocate to facilitate care.
Women tend to be more vulnerable to the adverse psychological effects of “network events” (stressors that occur to loved ones). The cost-of-caring hypothesis is regarded as the primary mechanism for this vulnerability and posits that women’s relatively high level of emotional involvement in the lives of network members causes women to experience greater empathetic reactions when loved ones encounter stressors. Drawing on the stress process model, gender theory, and research on the collateral consequences of incarceration, we theorize stress proliferation, the process by which an initial stressor induces secondary stressors, as an additional mechanism and empirically test our theoretical propositions using the case of African Americans with an incarcerated family member. Using data from the National Survey of American Life, we ask: are African American women more vulnerable to the depressive effects of familial incarceration compared to African American men? If so, to what extent might African American women’s heightened vulnerability be explained by their greater susceptibility to stress proliferation? Results suggest that familial incarceration is associated with greater chronic strains, financial strain, and family conflict only among African American women. Further, the magnitude of the association between familial incarceration and depressive symptoms is significantly larger among African American women; however, after adjusting for stress proliferation variables, the gender difference in vulnerability attenuates and becomes statistically nonsignificant. We conclude that the emotional cost of caring may be compounded by social and economic costs of caregiving, heightening women’s vulnerability to depression following disruptive network events.
A limited number of studies have examined how Black children, particularly daughters, perceive Black men who provide care—financial, material, or emotional support—to children who are not their biological or legal children (these men are here conceptualized as “otherfathers”). Using accounts from in-depth interviews with twenty-six young Black women from two-parent and single-mother households, this study explores how daughters identify and assign meaning to otherfathers. Findings reveal a heterogeneous category with no single definition or set of criteria; rather, the young women enact a process of parental ascription to determine who “counts” as an otherfather. Otherfathers’ contributions are understood in relation to biological fathers’ involvement but not always in expected ways. The study challenges assumptions about how daughters think about otherfathers and reveals the importance of examining the perspectives of Black girl youth and young women.
This study examined changes in geographic proximity to family members among race and income groups in the United States from 1981 to 2017. Close geographic proximity to family members can facilitate mutual support and strengthen family bonds. Some scholars argue that institutional sources of support have replaced many core family functions, which might mean that households are likely to live increasingly farther away from family. Advancing technology and changing labor market opportunities might reinforce this pattern. Yet, the ongoing cultural and emotional salience of family might curtail the effects of these factors on the increasing distance to family. We conducted a quantitative analysis of longitudinal data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID). We utilized the multigenerational structure of the PSID and restricted‐use geocodes to map kin proximity at every interview from 1981 to 2017. We cross‐classified our sample by race and income, focusing on Black and White respondents across income quartiles (n = 171,501 person‐periods). High‐income White respondents showed the greatest increases in distance from kin over time, whereas proximity to kin among other race‐income groups was relatively stable. Proximate kin has become less central in the lives of high‐income White households over time, whereas close proximity to kin has been the norm over time for other racial and income groups. These results have implications for racial and income differences in kin relations over time.
In the communicative theory of resilience (CTR), communication constructs resilience processes that can promote change or continuity during hardship. The enactment of resilience is theorized to depend on available resources. The current study tests this theoretical link in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, examining differences at the intersection of race and gender (N = 588). Job security, education quality, and friend support positively predicted continuity and change resilience. Four differences based on race/gender emerged: necessities negatively predicted continuity resilience for Black men and White women, healthcare and government representation positively predicted continuity resilience for Black women only, and family support positively predicted change resilience for Black women and White men. Findings support CTR's claim that resource access influences resilience enactment and indicate that theoretical associations differ based on race/gender. The current research emphasizes the importance of considering intersectionality in relation to CTR processes and structural barriers to enacting resilience.
Racial socialization is a dynamic process for youth of color, especially for Black adolescents. What is less known is how the provision of racial socialization practices and messages may differ for varying ethnic groups of Black adolescents and what sociodemographic factors contribute to this difference. As such, this cross-sectional study investigated how African American and Black Caribbean adolescents are racially socialized by parents and support systems, including socialization frequency, sociodemographic contributors, and content. A sample of 1170 adolescents (Black Caribbean: n = 360; African American: n = 810) from the National Survey of American Life-Adolescents were assessed. Latent class analysis depicted two classes of socialization provision in both African American and Black Caribbean samples, as adolescents with greater provision received it most from family members across ethnic groups while friends were a distinguishing socializing agent across classes and ethnicities. Further, Black Caribbean adolescents socialized at a high frequency were not often socialized by other adults or friends, just parents and other family members. Some key demographic differences differentiated this provision, with region and income being the most prominent for African American and Black Caribbean families respectively. Finally, messages were fairly consistent across ethnic groups, save the advice to “keep it real” being significantly more provided to African American adolescents. Implications of these findings are relevant for interventions seeking to bolster socialization efforts across support systems and ethnic groups within the Black diaspora, with specific attention towards adolescents receiving “low” levels of socialization across their support system.
Objectives: To investigate sociodemographic factors and neighborhood/environmental conditions associated with social isolation (SI) among Black older adults. Methods: We utilized data from the 2014 and 2016 Leave-Behind Questionnaire from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS LBQ) among those who self-identified as Black (N = 2.323). Outcome variables for our study included SI from adult children, other family members, friends, disengagement from social participation and religious services, being unmarried, and living alone. These indicators were also combined into an overall SI index. Critical predictors included gender, age, household income, education, employment status, neighborhood cohesion, neighborhood disorder, urbanicity, and region of residence. Results: Sociodemographic factors of gender, education and household income were significantly associated with SI indicators. Additionally, some neighborhood/environmental conditions were associated with SI indicators. Discussion: SI was found to be patterned by sociodemographic factors. These results can be used to develop effective interventions to mitigate SI among Black older adults.
This article explores contemporary research on how extended family ties contribute to individual mental health outcomes, including how recent historical and social trends in the 21st century, including increases in life expectancy, trends in divorce and remarriage, and changing expectations for marriage and parenthood have contributed to the importance of intergenerational and sibling relationships. Further, we describe how positive relationship experiences protect mental health and how negative relationship experiences compromise mental health. Finally, we consider the increasing diversity in the US and explore variability in the associations between extended family ties and mental health.
Objective:
This study examined racial and ethnic differences in the receipt and provision of instrumental family support.
Background:
Extended families provide significant levels of emotional and instrumental support across the life course. Despite their importance, extended family relationships and the assistance they provide are largely neglected in the literature. Further, questions remain concerning cultural variation in family support relationships and inconsistent findings on racial differences in family support in prior investigations.
Method:
This study relied on data from the National Survey of American Life-Reinterview (n=3,483) to investigate the provision and receipt of instrumental support from extended family among African Americans, Black Caribbeans, and non-Latino Whites and within high- and low-income categories for each group. Eight key measures of instrumental family support are examined: receiving and providing transportation, help with chores, financial assistance, and help during an illness.
Results:
African Americans and Black Caribbeans share similar profiles of providing and receiving instrumental family support. Both populations receive and provide assistance more frequently than do non-Latino Whites. Similarly, analyses stratified by income indicated that for low-income and high-income groups, African American and Black Caribbeans are similar to one another, and at each income category, both groups received and provided support more frequently than non-Latino Whites.
Conclusion:
Study findings are discussed in relation to conceptual and methodological differences in assessing Black-White differences across studies of family support. Attention to these issues and the specific contexts for receiving/providing family support (emergency vs. routine; intergenerational vs. extended) will help clarify inconsistent findings across studies.
Objective
This study examined the prevalence of nonresident social fathering among African American youth from single‐mother families and their reports of subjective closeness, frequency of contact, and financial support from social fathers during young adulthood.
Background
Research on African American families has overwhelmingly focused on single motherhood and the mother–child dyad. The perceived deficits of single‐mother families are emphasized, while their assets frequently go unnoticed. One potential resource available to offspring in these families are nonresident social fathers (men who act as fathers to children).
Method
Using Add Health ( n = 728), we document the share of youth who had a nonresident social father serve as their main father figure and examine key indicators of their long‐term relationships with these men: closeness, contact, and receipt of financial support during young adulthood. We also consider whether relationships with social fathers differ by type (stepfather versus male relative) and from those with biological fathers.
Results
Twenty‐five percent of respondents identified a nonresident social father as their main father figure; 44% indicated a nonresident biological father. Nearly 70% of participants reported strong feelings of closeness and regular contact with social fathers. Over 40% received financial assistance. Respondents were more likely to report feeling closer to a social than a biological father; there were no other differences by father figure type.
Conclusion
Most African American young adults from single‐mother families have close and consistent ties with a nonresident father figure. While underexplored, their sustained engagement with these men may have positive implications for their downstream outcomes.
Objective:
Guided by role theory and the intersectionality framework, this study assesses whether social role volume, role type, and role configuration influence the mental health of Non-Latina White, African American, Afro-Caribbean, Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican, Chinese, Filipina, and Vietnamese American women.
Background:
Contemporary shifts in the primary roles (i.e., worker, spouse, parent) women occupy and in the ethnic composition of the U.S. necessitate a re-examination of how roles impact U.S. women's mental health. Moreover, family member and friend roles are relatively understudied.
Method:
Drawing data from the nationally representative Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys (CPES) (N=7370), ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis is used to assess the relationship between role volume, role type, role configuration, and mental health for women across nine ethnic groups. We report ethnicity-stratified models.
Results:
On one hand, role accumulation was psychologically beneficial for Non-Latina White, African American, Puerto Rican, and Chinese women. On the other hand, the psychological benefits of social roles diminished after accumulating three social roles for Cuban, Mexican, and Filipina women. The psychological influence of specific roles and role configurations for women was dependent on ethnicity.
Conclusion:
This study demonstrates the powerful impact of ethnicity on social role engagement as well as the influence of such roles on women's psychological health.
Objectives
This study investigates church based informal social support among older African Americans and Black Caribbeans. In particular, we examine the correlates of receiving emotional support as well as negative interactions (e.g., criticisms) from church members.
Method
The analysis is based on the older African American (n=829) and Black Caribbean (n=271) subsample of the National Survey of American Life. The analysis utilizes multiple group structural equation modeling (SEM) to test a model of church support networks.
Results
There were no significant differences between older African Americans and older Black Caribbeans in the frequency of service attendance, contact with church members (seeing, writing, talking), emotional support from church members or negative interactions with church members. However, a comparison of SEM analysis indicates that the number and pattern of relationships are different. For instance, among African Americans church attendance was associated with emotional support, but among Black Caribbeans attendance did not have a direct or indirect effect on emotional support. Our findings also indicate that among older African Americans, women attend religious services more frequently and both receive emotional support and engage in negative interactions with church members more frequently than men. Among Black Caribbeans, however, men attend religious services less frequently than women but also have more negative interactions with church members.
Discussion
For both African American and Black Caribbean older adults, church members are an important element of their social support networks. Our analysis also underscores the importance of contact with church members for receiving emotional support for both populations
Objective
The current study uses insights from the stress process model and role theory to examine the relationship between familial incarceration, three key social roles—spouse, parent, and employee—and African American women's mental health.
Background
Research documents the spillover effects of mass incarceration on the families of those incarcerated. Approximately half of black women have at least one family member currently incarcerated; yet the potential psychological costs of familial incarceration among black women remains under‐investigated, particularly among those who are not parents.
Method
Utilizing the National Survey of American Life, a nationally representative sample of never‐incarcerated African American women (N = 1,961), this study used regression to examine the association of mental health (measured by psychological distress and depressive symptomatology), familial incarceration, and combinations of social roles.
Results
Familial incarceration was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms and psychological distress. Women that were employed only typically had improved psychological adjustment compared to other role combinations; yet, employment did not mute the mental health costs of familial incarceration.
Conclusion
African American women disproportionately experience the incarceration of family members, and the findings demonstrate that this experience is detrimental to mental health. Though social roles variably provide social, psychological, and economic resources to cope with familial incarceration, results show that the mental health costs of incarceration are generally consistent across role combinations. The expansive criminal justice system holds large implications for the well‐being of populations at the intersection of race, gender, and social roles.
Social isolation and loneliness are significant risks to health among older adults. Previous studies have found a significant association between social isolation and loneliness; however, few studies examined the association between social isolation and loneliness in a multivariate context and how specific types of social isolation influence loneliness. This study fills this gap by examining social isolation’s overall influence on loneliness and how specific social isolation indicators influence loneliness. Data comes from 2014 Wave of the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative study of adults aged 50 and older. Social isolation was operationalized using seven indicators as social isolation from: (1) adult–children, (2) other family members, (3) friends, (4) living alone, (5) being unmarried, and (6) not participating in social groups or (7) religious activities. Loneliness was operationalized by the Hughes 3-item loneliness scale. Loneliness was regressed on social isolation and key socio-demographic factors. Results found when social isolation indicators were combined into an index, every unit increase in overall social isolation was associated with an increase in loneliness. Furthermore older adults who were isolated from other family members and from friends, lived alone, were single, and did not participate in social groups or religious activities reported greater loneliness. Study findings demonstrate that greater overall social isolation and specific social isolation indicators are associated with greater loneliness. Clinical practice with older adults can be enhanced by understanding the connections between social isolation and loneliness and which forms of social isolation are more meaningful for perceived loneliness.
Strong and fulfilling relationships are important components of men’s health and well-being across the life course; however, social isolation and loneliness are important but under-assessed conditions among older men. This is important to note because older men often subscribe to common masculinity themes regarding independence and self-sufficiency which places them at greater risk for social isolation and loneliness in comparison to older women. The purpose of this presentation is to review the social isolation and loneliness literature specifically among older men by 1) discussing gender differences, and the potential mechanisms behind these differences, in social isolation and loneliness, 2) examining health, behavioral and physiological effects of social isolation and loneliness specifically among older men, and 3) providing future research directions for understanding social isolation and loneliness among older men including understanding social isolation and loneliness and their associative outcomes among diverse samples of older men.
Social isolation is a major problem in the United States that has adverse impacts on health and well-being. However, few studies investigate social isolation among African Americans or the impact of social isolation on psychiatric disorders. This study addresses this gap by investigating the impact of objective (absence of contact with others) and subjective (lacking feelings of closeness to others) social isolation on psychiatric disorders among African Americans. The sample includes 3570 African Americans from the National Survey of American Life. Regression models were used to test the impact of objective and subjective isolation on 12-month MDD, any 12-month DSM disorder and number of 12-month DSM disorders. Analyses indicated that subjective isolation from family only, friends only, and both groups were associated with greater odds of meeting criteria for 12-month MDD, any 12-month disorder and number of 12-month DSM disorders. However, objective isolation was unrelated to either measure of psychiatric disorder. Study findings indicate that affective characteristics of social isolation (feelings of closeness with family and friends) are more significant for psychiatric disorders than are objective features (social contact). Our discussion notes that the connections between subjective and objective social isolation and psychiatric disorders are complex and potentially reciprocally associated with one another. Clinical practice should focus on both possible associations.
Although family social support has been linked to numerous psychological, behavioral, and academic outcomes for Black adolescents, little research investigates the family support networks of these youths. Using nationally representative data from the National Survey of American Life Adolescent Supplement (NSAL-A), this study examines the family social support exchanges of African American and Black Caribbean adolescents. We focus specifically on the frequency of instrumental and emotional support provided by and offered to adolescents and the sociodemographic and family correlates of this support. Findings indicate that both African American and Black Caribbean adolescents provide and receive a substantial amount of support from family, though there is significant variation by age, gender, income, ethnicity, region, and country of origin within and across these populations. Further, subjective family closeness was related to both the receipt and provision of support. Overall, findings affirm the importance of investigating adolescent family support networks, as well as examining ethnic differences within the U.S. Black population.
Results:
In the pooled sample, secular and religious social support were both protective against depressive symptoms, net of all covariates. Race interacted with secular (β = −0.62 for interaction) and religious (β = −0.21 for interaction) social support on baseline depressive symptoms (p < 0.05 for both interactions), suggesting larger protections for Blacks compared to Whites. In race-specific models, the regression weight for the effect of secular social support on depressive symptoms was larger for Blacks (β = −0.64) than Whites (β = −0.16). Conclusion: We found Black—White differences in the protective effects of secular and religious social support against depressive symptoms. Blacks seem to benefit more from the same level of emotional social support, regardless of its source, compared to Whites.
This study examined reciprocal support networks involving extended family, friends and church members among African Americans. Our analysis examined specific patterns of reciprocal support (i.e., received only, gave only, both gave and received, neither gave or received), as well as network characteristics (i.e., contact and subjective closeness) as correlates of reciprocal support. The analysis is based on the African American subsample of the National Survey of American Life. Overall, our findings indicate that African Americans are very involved in reciprocal support networks with their extended family, friends and church members. Respondents were most extensively involved in reciprocal supports with extended family members, followed closely by friends and church networks. Network characteristics (i.e., contact and subjective closeness) were significantly and consistently associated with involvement with reciprocal support exchanges for all three networks. These and other findings are discussed in detail. This study complements previous work on the complementary roles of family, friend and congregational support networks, as well as studies of racial differences in informal support networks.
This article addresses a debate about the relationship of singlehood and informal ties—singlehood as isolating versus integrative—and evaluates structural explanations for this relationship, focusing on life course characteristics and socioeconomic resources. Using the National Survey of Families and Households (1992–1994) and the General Social Survey (2000, 2004, 2006, 2012), we examine ties to relatives, neighbors, and friends among U.S. adults. We find that single individuals are more likely to frequently stay in touch with, provide help to, and receive help from parents, siblings, neighbors, and friends than the married. These differences between the single and the married are more prominent for the never married than for the previously married, suggesting that marriage extends its reach after it ends. Being single increases the social connections of both women and men. Overall, much of the positive relationship between singlehood and social ties remains even when we take into account structural explanations. We conclude that instead of promoting marriage, policy should acknowledge the social constraints associated with marriage and recognize that single individuals have greater involvement with the broader community.
This study explores relationships between Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) and quality and frequency of involvement with family and friends.
Data are from a nationally representative sample of African American and Black Caribbean adults (n = 5191), the National Survey of American Life. SAD was assessed using the DSM-IV World Mental Health Composite International Diagnostic Interview.
Findings indicated that among both populations, close supportive ties with family members and friends are protective against meeting criteria for SAD. Negative interactions with family (e.g., conflicts), however, are a risk factor for SAD among both African Americans and Black Caribbeans. For African Americans, an interaction indicates that the relationship between negative interaction and social anxiety is much stronger among African Americans who are not emotionally close to their families. For Caribbean Blacks, an interaction suggests that the odds of meeting criteria for SAD were higher among Black Caribbeans who had high negative interaction with family as well as low levels of friendship closeness.
The cross-sectional nature of the study does not allow for causal attributions for findings.
This study demonstrates that SAD may impact black ethnic subgroups differently, which has important implications for understanding the nature, etiology, and treatment of this disorder.
Parental incarceration can be devastating for families. Children may experience difficulties, and the stress on caregivers who take on unexpected childrearing is high. We implemented and evaluated a family-level intervention with caregivers and children experiencing parental (typically maternal) incarceration, in a community setting. We partnered with a community-based organization serving families with an incarcerated parent to conduct a pilot trial of the Strengthening Families Program (SFP). Process evaluation indicated high implementation fidelity, satisfaction, engagement, and attendance. Outcome evaluation results indicated positive changes in family-level functioning, caregivers' positive parenting, and caregiver depression symptoms from pre- to post-intervention, with some changes retained at follow-up 4 months later. Implications for preventive interventions with children of incarcerated parents, and their caregivers, are discussed.
This study explores the relationship of family and demographic factors to the frequency of receiving emotional support and the frequency of engaging in negative interactions with family members (i.e., criticism, burden, and being taken advantage of). The study uses the ambivalence framework and data from the National Survey of American Life, a national sample of African Americans and Caribbean Blacks (Caribbean Blacks). Overall, no significant differences were found between African Americans and Caribbean Blacks in the frequency of emotional support or negative interaction; several significant correlates (e.g., age, family closeness) were found for both groups. However, a number of unique associations were also demonstrated (e.g., marital status, frequency of family contact), indicating differences in the ways that these variables operate within the two populations. These and other findings are discussed in relation to the ambivalence framework and subgroup differences in family phenomena within the Black population.
This investigation examines how norms of filial responsibility influence adult children to provide social support to their aging parents. Relying on intergenerational solidarity and social capital theories, the authors hypothesize that filial responsibility as a latent resource is more strongly converted into support when (a) the parent experiences increased need and (b) the child in question is a daughter. Using data from 488 adult children in the Longitudinal Study of Generations, the authors examine change in support provided between 1997 and 2000. Declining health of either parent increases the strength with which filial norms predisposed children to provide support. The conversion of filial norms into support is stronger among daughters than among sons but only toward mothers. Results are discussed in terms of the contingent linkage between latent and manifest functions and the persistence of gender role differentiation in the modern family.
This article investigates sociodemographic and family and church factors as correlates of support from family and church members among a representative sample of African Americans. Overall patterns of family and church support indicate that slightly more than half of respondents receive assistance from both family and church networks, one quarter receive assistance from family only, and roughly equal percentages (9%) receive help from either church members only or do not receive help from either group. Multinomial logistic regression analysis was used to examine sociodemo graphic (i.e., age, marital status, gender, region, education, income, and urbanicity) and family and church factors (i.e., family closeness, family contact, parental status, and church participation) as predictors of specific patterns and sources of support. The findings indicated significant age, gender, and marital and parental status differences in patterns of support from family and church. Perceptions of family closeness, degree of interaction with family, and overall levels of participation in church activities were associated with distinctive patterns of assistance.
A meta-analysis of 172 studies attempted to resolve the conflict between previous narrative reviews on whether parents make systematic differences in their rearing of boys and girls. Most effect sizes were found to be nonsignificant and small. In North American studies, the only socialization area of 19 to display a significant effect for both parents is encouragement of sex-typed activities. In other Western countries, physical punishment is applied significantly more to boys. Fathers tend to differentiate more than mothers between boys and girls. Over all socialization areas, effect size is not related to sample size or year of publication. Effect size decreases with child's age and increases with higher quality. No grouping by any of these variables changes a nonsignificant effect to a significant effect. Because little differential socialization for social behavior or abilities can be found, other factors that may explain the genesis of documented sex differences are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Due to extended transitions to adulthood and declining marital rates, bonds between adults and parents have grown increasingly salient in individuals' lives. This review organizes research around these topics to address ties between parents and grown children in the context of broader societal changes over the past decade. Literature searches included tables of contents of premier journals (e.g., Journal of Marriage and Family), Psychological Info, and Google Scholar. The literature review revealed patterns of social and intergenerational changes. Technological advances (e.g., introduction of the smart phone) co‐occurred with more frequent contact and interdependence between generations. The Great Recession and financial strains altered the nature of many parent/child ties, including increased rates of intergenerational coresidence. Individual life problems such as divorce, addiction, and physical health problems were reflected in complex changes in positive and negative relationship qualities, ambivalence, and intergenerational support. Government policies reflect societal values and in turn, affected the distribution of parents' and grown children's resources. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Political disruptions instigated migration, separating generations across large geographic regions. Demographic changes (e.g., constellation of family members, delayed marriage, same sex marriage) were also manifest in ties between adults and parents. Findings were consistent with the Intergenerational Systems in Context Model, which posits that societal transformations co‐occur with changes in intergenerational relationships via reciprocal influences.
Objectives:
Informed by social control and differential coercion and social support theories, we examine how multiple theoretically and methodologically distinct factors of family support relate to reincarceration, substance use, and criminal offending during prison reentry.
Method:
Using four waves of data from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative, we identified three separate factors of family support-interactional (e.g., providing guidance and support), instrumental (e.g., providing housing and transportation), and emotional (e.g., providing love and belongingness). A series of mixed-effects models examined how each form of family support related to reincarceration, substance use, and criminal offending.
Results:
Findings demonstrated that instrumental, but not interactional or emotional, support related to significantly lower odds of reincarceration and lower levels of substance use and criminal offending. Interaction terms revealed that the effect of instrumental family support is almost entirely independent, and not interactive, on each outcome.
Conclusions:
Family support appears to relate to prosocial reentry outcomes not because of emotional or interactional bonds, but because families provide for the basic needs of returning individuals. Instrumental familial support mechanisms such as providing housing and financial support appear more salient in promoting prosocial reentry outcomes than mechanisms of emotional or interactional support.
This study uses data from the National Survey of American Life Re-Interview to examine the types and frequency of instrumental support that African Americans exchange with extended family members as well as the demographic and family correlates of these exchanges. Four types of instrumental support are examined: transportation assistance, help with chores, financial assistance, and help during illness. Findings indicate that respondents most frequently gave support to and received support from family members during illness episodes, followed by financial support, help with chores, and transportation assistance. For each type of support, individuals indicated that they provided more assistance than they received. These support exchanges are patterned by subjective family closeness, frequency of family contact, financial and social resources, gender roles, and regional differences. Overall, the findings underscore how features of family relationships and demographic characteristics are associated with the provision and receipt of instrumental family support among African Americans.
Significance
Family members provide the majority of social support for most older adults, but not all individuals have living family. Those without living close kin report higher rates of loneliness and experience elevated risks of chronic diseases and nursing facility placement. How the population of older adults without living family, the kinless population, will change in the coming decades merits consideration. Historical racial differences and recent variation in demographic rates imply unequal burdens of kinlessness for white and black Americans. By projecting the US population using demographic microsimulation, we find increases in lacking kin similar in magnitude to projected increases in other important population health burdens such as diabetes and Alzheimer’s dementia. Increasing kinlessness may represent a growing population health concern.
Objectives: When adult children incur life problems (e.g., divorce, job loss, health problems), aging parents generally report providing more frequent support and experiencing poorer well-being. Yet, it is unclear how adult children’s problems may influence aging parents’ daily support exchanges with these children or the parents’ daily mood.
Methods: Aging parents from the Family Exchanges Study Wave 2 (N = 207, Mage = 79.86) reported providing and receiving emotional support, practical support, and advice from each adult child each day for 7 days. Parents also rated daily positive and negative mood.
Results: Multilevel models showed that aging parents were more likely to provide emotional and practical support to adult children incurring life problems than children not suffering problems. Parents were also more likely to receive emotional support and advice from these children with problems. Further, parents reported less negative mood on days when providing practical support to children with problems.
Discussion: Examining daily support exchanges adds to our understanding of how children’s problems influence parent–child ties in late life. Prior research suggests that children’s problems upset parents. In this study, however, it appears that supporting adult children who suffer problems may alleviate aging parents’ distress regarding such children.
Aim:
Using a nationally representative sample of African American men, this study investigated the associations between lifetime history of incarceration, discrimination, and mental health (e.g., depressive symptoms and psychological distress). We hypothesized that discrimination would fully mediate the association between incarceration history and mental health outcomes among African American men.
Methods:
Using a cross-sectional design, our analysis included 1271 African American men who participated in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL), 2001-2003. Incarceration history was the main independent variable. Depressive symptoms and psychological distress were the dependent variables. Everyday discrimination was the mediator. Age, education, and income were covariates. Structural equation models (SEMs) were used for data analysis.
Results:
Among African American men, incarceration history was positively associated with perceived discrimination, depressive symptoms, and psychological distress. Everyday discrimination fully mediated the associations between incarceration history and both depressive symptoms and psychological distress.
Conclusion:
Discrimination may play an important role in the mental health problems of African American men with a history of incarceration. These findings have public policy implications as well as clinical implications for mental health promotion of African American men. Policies that reduce preventable incarceration or at least reduce subsequent discrimination for those who have been incarcerated may enhance mental health of previously incarcerated African American men.
Religion in the Lives of African Americans: Social, Psychological, and Health Perspectives examines many broad issues including the structure and sociodemographic patterns of religious involvement; the relationship between religion and physical and mental health and well-being; the impact of church support and the use of ministers for personal issues; and the role of religion within specific subgroups of the African American population such as women and the elderly. Authors Robert Joseph Taylor, Linda M. Chatters, and Jeff Levin reflect upon current empirical research and derive conclusions from several wide-ranging national surveys, as well as a focus group study of religion and coping. Recommended for students taking courses in racial and ethnic studies, multicultural and minority studies, black studies, religious studies, psychology, sociology, human development and family studies, gerontology, social work, public health, and nursing.
As Karyn R. Lacy's innovative work in the suburbs of Washington, DC, reveals, there is a continuum of middle-classness among blacks, ranging from lower-middle class to middle-middle class to upper-middle class. Focusing on the latter two, Lacy explores an increasingly important social and demographic group: middle-class blacks who live in middle-class suburbs where poor blacks are not present. These "blue-chip black" suburbanites earn well over fifty thousand dollars annually and work in predominantly white professional environments. Lacy examines the complicated sense of identity that individuals in these groups craft to manage their interactions with lower-class blacks, middle-class whites, and other middle-class blacks as they seek to reap the benefits of their middle-class status.
This paper introduces kinscripts, a framework for exploring how families as multigeneration collectives, and individuals embedded within them, negotiate the life course. Kinscripts comprises three closely -woven, culturally-defined family domains: kin-work, kin-time, and kin-scription. Kin-work is the tasks that families need to accomplish to survive over time. Kin-time directs the temporal scheduling of family transitions. Kin-scription is the active recruitment and conscription of family members to take on kin-work. The kin-scripts framework emerged from ethnographic studies of multigeneration low-income black families in the United States. We argue, however, that the framework is relevant to the study of the life course of mainstream families as well.
Relations between the generations have been a central feature in literature and popular culture throughout recorded history. The dramatic increase in life expectancy across the last century, combined with more recent changes in divorce, child-bearing, and women’s employment, has challenged old assumptions and created new inquiries into intergenerational relations in later life. Thus, it is not surprising that the study of these relations in the later years has grown exponentially across the last three decades as scholars have rushed to identify and explain these new patterns of relations and their consequences on family members.
In just the last forty years, imprisonment has been transformed from an event experienced by only the most marginalized to a common stage in the life course of American men—especially Black men with low levels of educational attainment. Although much research considers the causes of the prison boom and how the massive uptick in imprisonment has shaped crime rates and the life course of the men who experience imprisonment, in recent years, researchers have gained a keen interest in the spillover effects of mass imprisonment on families, children, and neighborhoods. Unfortunately, although this new wave of research documents the generally harmful effects of having a family member or loved one incarcerated, it remains unclear how much the prison boom shapes social inequality through these spillover effects because we lack precise estimates of the racial inequality in connectedness—through friends, family, and neighbors—to prisoners. Using the 2006 General Social Survey, we fill this pressing research gap by providing national estimates of connectedness to prisoners—defined in this article as knowing someone who is currently imprisoned, having a family member who is currently imprisoned, having someone you trust who is currently imprisoned, or having someone you know from your neighborhood who is currently imprisoned—for Black and White men and women. Most provocatively, we show that 44% of Black women (and 32% of Black men) but only 12% of White women (and 6% of White men) have a family member imprisoned. This means that about one in four women in the United States currently has a family member in prison. Given these high rates of connectedness to prisoners and the vast racial inequality in them, it is likely that mass imprisonment has fundamentally reshaped inequality not only for the adult men for whom imprisonment has become common, but also for their friends and families.
Although growth in the U.S. prison population over the past twenty-five years has been widely discussed, few studies examine changes in inequality in imprisonment. We study penal inequality by estimating lifetime risks of imprisonment for black and white men at different levels of education. Combining administrative, survey, and census data, we estimate that among men born between 1965 and 1969, 3 percent of whites and 20 percent of blacks had served time in prison by their early thirties. The risks of incarceration are highly stratified by education. Among black men born during this period, 30 percent of those without college education and nearly 60 percent of high school dropouts went to prison by 1999. The novel pervasiveness of imprisonment indicates the emergence of incarceration as a new stage in the life course of young low-skill black men.
This article addresses two central debates in the scholarship on black families: the disorganization versus superorganization debate and the culture versus structure debate. Focusing on kin support as a measure of family integration and using the National Survey of Families and Households (1992-1994), this article challenges the assumptions about black and white families in both debates. It shows that blacks and whites have different patterns of kin support involvement. Whereas blacks are more involved in practical support (help with transportation, household work, and child care), whites report greater involvement in financial and emotional kin support. This article also shows that gender is crucial for understanding racial differences. Black men and white men are very much alike, whereas there are many significant differences between black women and white women. Furthermore, in understanding kin support, diversity within racial groups appears to matter more than race itself. Social structure explains most of the racial differences in kin support, though cultural differences between whites and blacks do exist and help to explain kin support.
This paper argues for a structural perspective on gender differences in caregiving. Using a broad definition of caregiving (to relatives, friends, as well as volunteer groups), we find that while wives give more than husbands, this can be explained, in part, by employment. Although employed wives give far more care than employed husbands, employed wives provide fewer hours of care to kin than do homemakers. Compared to wives employed in jobs unlike men's, wives employed in jobs like those of men give care in ways similar to men. This research provides evidence for theories that root women's caregiving in social structures confronted in adult life rather than personality formed in early life. While our findings suggest wives' employment may produce a certain weakening of extended families, employment may also produce a wider social integration, emphasizing voluntary rather than prescribed ties.
This research, using data from a nationally representative sample of black and white American mothers who are single or currently married in 1984, investigates issues relating to kin networks, childcare, and financial support to families. The analysis confirms that black mothers have better access to and are more likely than white mothers to reside with kin; their childcare more often is provided by kinfolk and is free; and more often they receive at least one-half of their income from individuals other than their husbands. The persistent advantage blacks have in support networks, taking into account their marriage and fertility histories, is due to the greater likelihood that young mothers reside with adult kin and use free childcare rather than to advantages in financial support. Almost one-third of single black mothers were not involved in support networks, however, and the network support provided insufficient access to childcare for many mothers who were involved.
The impact of upward mobility over three generations, on the extended kin network of black parents in the mid-Atlantic area was examined. Extensive involvement had been maintained by those born in both the middle and working classes and those living in urban and suburban sites. The reciprocal obligations of the help exchange patterns were not perceived as excessive, but were stronger for those born in the working class. Educational achievement and maternal employment peaked in the generation in which mobility occurred. Kin interaction was high with low geographic mobility. Results indicate that extended help patterns are culturally rather than solely economically based.
The impact of familial and demographic factors on the receipt of support from family members was examined among a sample of blacks (National Survey of Black Americans). The findings indicated that income, age, family contact, subjective family closeness, and proximity of relatives were determinants of receiving support. In addition, an interaction was revealed between age and the presence of a child in determining support from family members. The findings substantiate the importance of adult children in the informal social support networks of elderly blacks. The use of multivariate analyses extends previous work in this area and suggests that these relationships are more complex than originally thought.
A sample of parents (aged 50+) drawn from the 1988 and 1992 waves of the National Survey of Families and Households was used to examine two questions: How responsive is support from adult children in times of need? Is support from children greater for those who expected their children to provide help? Parents who experience one or more transitions in the time between survey waves are likely to receive help from their adult children over and above previous exchange patterns. Responsiveness on the part of children does not appear to be linked with parental expectations, however. Neither general value orientations about what children should do to support parents, nor expectations of help from one's own children in hypothetical situations are related to children's responsiveness to parental needs. Results are consistent with a contingent exchange perspective on intergenerational relationships.
In this article we examine gender differences in the factors that predispose middle-aged children to provide instrumental social support to their elderly parents. We address our research questions using data from 690 parent-child dyads participating in three waves of the Longitudinal Study of Generations. Structural equation models with lagged covariates are used to predict change in the volume of social support provided to parents, with tests of equivalence between sons and daughters. Our findings indicate that intergenerational affection is the factor that most motivates daughters to provide support, while filial obligation, legitimation of inheritance, and frequency of contact most motivate sons. We suggest that the discussion concerning altruistic, normative, and utilitarian explanations for why children provide support to older parents can be clarified by examining gender differences in the motives behind such behavior.
IMPORTANCE Although high rates of current mental disorder are known to exist in the US Army, little is known about the proportions of these disorders that had onsets prior to enlistment.
OBJECTIVE To estimate the proportions of 30-day DSM-IV mental disorders among nondeployed US Army personnel with first onsets prior to enlistment and the extent which role impairments associated with 30-day disorders differ depending on whether the disorders had pre-vs post-enlistment onsets.
DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS A representative sample of 5428 soldiers participating in the Army Study to Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers completed self-administered questionnaires and consented to linkage of questionnaire responses with administrative records.
MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Thirty-day DSM-IV internalizing (major depressive, bipolar, generalized anxiety, panic, and posttraumatic stress) and externalizing (attention-deficit/ hyperactivity, intermittent explosive, alcohol/drug) disorders were assessed with validated self-report scales. Age at onset was assessed retrospectively. Role impairment was assessed with a modified Sheehan Disability Scale.
RESULTS A total of 25.1% of respondents met criteria for any 30-day disorder (15.0% internalizing; 18.4% externalizing) and 11.1% for multiple disorders. A total of 76.6% of cases reported pre-enlistment age at onset of at least one 30-day disorder (49.6% internalizing; 81.7% externalizing). Also, 12.8% of respondents reported severe role impairment. Controlling for sociodemographic and Army career correlates, which were broadly consistent with other studies, 30-day disorders with pre-enlistment (χ28= 131.8, P < .001) and post-enlistment (χ27 = 123.8, P < .001) ages at onset both significantly predicted severe role impairment, although pre-enlistment disorders were more consistent powerful predictors (7 of 8 disorders significant; odds ratios, 1.6-11.4) than post-enlistment disorders (5 of 7 disorders significant; odds ratios, 1.5-7.7). Population-attributable risk proportions of severe role impairment were 21.7% for pre-enlistment disorders, 24.3% for post-enlistment disorders, and 43.4% for all disorders.
CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Interventions to limit accession or increase resilience of new soldiers with pre-enlistment mental disorders might reduce prevalence and impairments of mental disorders in the US Army.
Recent work suggests that part of the racial gap in wealth is explained by racial differences in network poverty. In this article, data from the 2007 Survey of Consumer Finances and the 2005 and 2007 Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) are used to demonstrate that middle- and upper-income blacks are more likely to provide informal financial assistance than their white counterparts. Further, a lagged model using the PSID finds that this difference in financial assistance can account for part of the racial gap in wealth. An empirically useful definition of negative social capital is developed to illustrate how obligations of group membership can have stratifying consequences for individuals.
Even good marriages can have some bad side effects, taking people away from other social connections.
Disorganization theories postulate that black men have largely abandoned their familial roles. Using the NSFH data, this article refutes the hypothesis of black men's familial disengagement by focusing on extended family integration. Black men are more likely than white men to live with or near extended kin, as well as to frequently see kin in person. Men are similar across race in terms of emotional and practical help, although black men are less likely than white men to provide financial assistance. The racial differences can be mostly attributed to the socioeconomic disadvantage of black men. The similarities emerge because blacks' economic disadvantage hinders their involvement, but cultural values and extended family structure bring their involvement to the levels of the more economically advantaged whites.
Recent studies consistently report that Whites are more likely than African Americans to receive economic assistance from their families. Explanations of why Whites receive more assistance, however, have not been adequately explored. The current research hypothesizes that financial transfers from parents to adult children are guided by both the needs of children and the resources of their parents. Yet, the majority of prior research has considered the characteristics of only one end of the transfer flow—either the giver or the receiver, but not both. When both needs and resources are taken into account, and when family structure is adequately controlled, it is expected that race differences in the receipt of financial assistance will be reduced or eliminated. Probit models are used to examine the probability of receiving assistance, and a censored regression tobit model examines the amount received.
Using the National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH), we investigate the support received by employed African American and Anglo mothers of young children. Supports investigated include care of sick and out-of-school children, general baby-sitting assistance, and help with transportation. Supports received from family and friends were analyzed separately. Care for sick and out-of-school children is deemed to be a particularly important source of support, and African Americans are more likely than Anglos to receive this support from relatives. A discouraging finding is that for every type of support, mothers below the poverty line are no more likely to receive support than more affluent mothers.
This article extends previous research by examining the relationship between prospective accounts of intergenerational affection, normative expectations, and conflict on current patterns of supportive exchanges between parents and adult children. Research questions are addressed using data from 680 parent-child dyads participating in the 1988 and 1991 waves of the University of Southern California Longitudinal Study of Generations. Findings indicate that a history of affection in a parent-adult child relationship is associated with equitable and reciprocal exchanges of support and a greater likelihood of receiving and giving various forms of help and support. A strong sense of obligation to family at an earlier time period was related to exchange relationships with fathers but not with mothers: Duty-driven exchanges were less equitable, with adult children giving much more than they received. Earlier conflict in parent-adult child relationships did not interfere with contemporary exchanges of help and support.
Analysts use a variety of indicators to assess whether the South remains a distinctive cultural region, and reach different conclusions. This analysis examined the distinctiveness of the South by comparing the attitudes and beliefs of Southerners to those of non-Southerners. A group of characteristics thought to be distinctively Southern was selected and factor analyzed to determine both the number of constructs which underlie the indicators and the degree to which each indicator measures these constructs. They were found to represent four conceptual domains of Southern culture. Logistic regression analyses of these indicators demonstrated that Southerners remain distinctive in their attitudes in a number of areas. Most analyses of trends over time and differences between age groups indicated that neither convergence nor divergence between regions had occurred between 1972 and 1982. The results show, then, that the South remains a distinctive cultural region.
Disorganization theories postulate that black men have largely abandoned their familial roles. Using the NSFH data, this article
refutes the hypothesis of black men's familial disengagement by focusing on extended family integration. Black men are more
likely than white men to live with or near extended kin, as well as to frequently see kin in person. Men are similar across
race in terms of emotional and practical help, although black men are less likely than white men to provide financial assistance.
The racial differences can be mostly attributed to the socioeconomic disadvantage of black men. The similarities emerge because
blacks' economic disadvantage hinders their involvement, but cultural values and extended family structure bring their involvement
to the levels of the more economically advantaged whites.
This paper examines the role of family in the prisoner reintegration process, exploring the views of soon-to-be-released prisoners regarding the family support they expect to receive as well as their assessments of how supportive family members actually were after release. It draws on a study of 413 male prisoners returning to the cities of Baltimore and Chicago who completed self-administered surveys one to two months prior to their release and one-on-one interviews between two and three months after release from prison. The study found that released prisoners relied on family members extensively for housing, financial support, and emotional support. For the most part, the pre-release expectations of family support among these respondents were exceeded after release. Furthermore, respondents placed greater value on the role of family in their reintegration process after their release from prison than they did when they were still incarcerated. This suggests that families are an important influence in the reentry process and that they provide much-needed support to returning prisoners. (Contains 1 table, 3 figures, and 6 notes.)