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RESEARCH PAPER
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Recycling of landfill wastes (tyres, plastics and glass) in construction – A
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review on global waste generation, performance, application and future
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opportunities
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(Title contains 22 words)
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Wahid Ferdous1*, Allan Manalo2, Rafat Siddique3, Priyan Mendis4, Yan Zhuge5, Hong
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S. Wong6, Weena Lokuge7, Thiru Aravinthan8 and Peter Schubel9
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1 (*Corresponding Author) Senior Research Fellow, University of Southern Queensland, Centre
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for Future Materials (CFM), QLD 4350, Australia. Email: Wahid.Ferdous@usq.edu.au
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2 Professor, University of Southern Queensland, Centre for Future Materials (CFM), School of
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Civil Engineering and Surveying, QLD 4350, Australia. Email: Allan.Manalo@usq.edu.au
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3 Senior Professor, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Department of Civil
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Engineering, Patiala, 147004, India. Email: rsiddique@thapar.edu
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4 Professor, The University of Melbourne, Department of Infrastructure Engineering, Parkville,
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VIC 3010, Australia. Email: pamendis@unimelb.edu.au
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5 Professor, University of South Australia, School of Natural and Built Environments, Adelaide,
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Australia. Email: Yan.Zhuge@unisa.edu.au
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6 Reader, Imperial College London, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
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Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, UK, Australia. Email: hong.wong@imperial.ac.uk
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7 Senior Lecturer, University of Southern Queensland, Centre for Future Materials (CFM),
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School of Civil Engineering and Surveying, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia. Email:
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Weena.Lokuge@usq.edu.au
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8 Professor, University of Southern Queensland, Centre for Future Materials (CFM), School of
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Civil Engineering and Surveying, QLD 4350, Australia. Email: Thiru.Aravinthan@usq.edu.au
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9 Professor and Executive Director (IAESS), University of Southern Queensland, Centre for
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Future Materials (CFM), QLD 4350, Australia. Email: Peter.Schubel@usq.edu.au
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Submitted to
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling
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*Corresponding Author:
Wahid Ferdous
Senior Research Fellow,
University of Southern Queensland, Centre for Future Materials (CFM),
Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia
Tel: +61 7 4631 1331; Email: Wahid.Ferdous@usq.edu.au
Manuscript summary:
Total pages 38 (including 1-page cover)
Number of figures 11
Number of tables 4
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Recycling of landfill wastes (tyres, plastics and glass) in construction – A review on global
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waste generation, performance, application and future opportunities
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Abstract
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The world is moving towards a circular economy that focuses on reducing wastes and keeping
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materials in use for the longest time possible. This paper critically reviewed three of the largest
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volume of landfill waste materials (tyres, plastics and glass) that are becoming a major concern
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for many countries. At present, crumb rubbers (from tyres) and glass sands (from crushed waste
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glass) are being used in concrete and road constructions while plastics are often used in
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manufacturing civil structures. However, only 10% tyres, 19.5% plastics and 21% glass are
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currently recycled globally. The massive volume of remaining unused wastes goes to landfill
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creating environmental problems. Therefore, finding new strategies of utilising these landfill
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wastes is vital. The global and country specific production, recycling and landfilling rates of
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these waste are summarised to understand the present situation of global waste crisis. Future
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strategies for improved waste management, potential investment and research directions are
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highlighted. New options for recycling wastes tyres, plastics and glass in construction are also
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presented to provide practical and economical solutions to extract maximum value and ensure
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their continued use in a closed loop system.
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Keywords: Landfill waste; Waste recycling; Circular economy; Global waste generation;
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Waste in construction; Future of waste
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1. Introduction
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The generation of waste has been growing rapidly with the increase in population. It is estimated
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that the global waste generation will be nearly doubled by 2050 and tripled by 2100 compared
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to year 2016 [1, 2]. A massive volume of the waste is disposed in landfills and this is creating
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significant environmental problems such as contamination of soil, water and air and also
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impacting human health. It is reported that the world’s solid waste is responsible for 5% global
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carbon emissions and their burning further increases this number. An improved waste
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management system could reduce global CO2 emissions by up to 15% [2]. Moreover, estimated
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costs of the disposal of putrescible waste to landfill range between $45 and $105 per tonne of
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waste in urban areas and between $42 and $102 per tonne in rural areas in Australia [3].
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There are several types of waste which can be recycled to achieve substantial resource
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savings. As an example, one ton of natural resources can be saved from every ton of glass
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recycled, including sand and soda ash. In other words, one ton of recycled glass saves 0.12
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barrels of oil (19 litres), 42 Kwh of energy, 3.4 kg of air pollutants from being released, and 1.5
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cubic meters of landfill space [4]. The prevention of burning 1 ton of waste tyres can save the
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environment from releasing 450 kg of toxic gases and 270 kg of soot [5]. On average a single
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passenger car tyre has between 30MJ/kg and 35MJ/kg of potential energy [6]. In addition, one
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ton of recycled plastic saves 16.3 barrels of oil, 5,774 kilowatt-hours of energy, and 22.9 cubic
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meters of landfill space [4]. Furthermore, nearly 17 trees and 50% of water can be saved for
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every ton of paper recycled [7]. Several researchers have investigated the possible use of crumb
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rubber (from end-of-life tyres) [8-13] and glass sand (from waste glass) [14-17] in concrete to
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evaluate their effect on the static and dynamic properties of concrete. However, the change of
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material properties with the increase of waste content obtained by different researchers are
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inconsistent. To understand the actual effect of the waste materials on the properties of concrete,
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it is therefore necessary to compare the properties in normalised form based on available data.
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This paper comprehensively reviewed, analysed and compared results obtained by different
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researchers on the properties of construction materials containing different types and
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percentages of waste.
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Waste materials are currently being used for the development of civil infrastructures
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[18]. For example, the rubber produced from end-of-life tyres has been applied in concrete and
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road constructions as aggregates in asphalt mix [19, 20]. Plastic railway sleepers have also
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attracted significant attention in the railway industry [21, 22] and also the plastics are being
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used in construction industry as insulation material [23]. Recycled glass particles have been
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used in architectural concrete and recently applied in road constructions [24-28]. These landfill
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diverted wastes have shown great promise as construction materials and their future
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development should be encouraged. This paper summarised information on the current research,
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recent investment and future research directions for reusing these waste in construction. The
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novelty of this study is to understand the generation, recycling, landfilling and current
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applications of the most concerning commercial and industrial wastes and also identify their
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future strategic plan through an extensive state-of-the-art review. The findings of this study will
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help researchers and end users to understand the suitability of transforming waste materials into
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construction materials.
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2. Generation of waste
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Every year, around 11 billion tons of solid waste are generated worldwide indicating that each
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person is responsible for producing over a ton on average and this number is rising. It is
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estimated that the generation of waste will be doubled in 2025 compared to year 2000 [2].
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Moreover, this generation is expected to nearly double in 2050 compared to the year 2016 [1].
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Solid wastes can be classified into three major categories such as municipal solid waste (MSW),
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commercial and industrial, and construction and demolition (C&D) waste. The breakdown
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classifications for global generation of solid waste is provided in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
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Fig. 1: Classification and source of solid waste [29]
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Fig. 2: Breakdown of sources for global generation of solid waste [2]
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A significant percentage of total waste are disposed of in landfill that causes major
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environmental and health problems due to toxins, leachate and greenhouse gases [30]. Table 1
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summarises the generation, recycling and landfilling rates of five potential resources such as
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tyres, plastic, glass, fly ash and construction and demolition (C&D) waste in a global context
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Principal Source of Solid Waste
Municipal Construction and Demolition (C&D)Commercial and Industrial
Paper/cardboard
Food
Garden
Tyres
Glass
Plastic
Wood
Metals
Rubber and leather
Textiles
Fly ash
Concrete
Bricks
Plaster board
Carpet
Ceramics
Construction
and demolition
36%
Households
24%
Industry
21%
Commercial
11%
Water supply,
sewage etc.
5%
Energy
production
3%
Other
8%
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with a particular focus on USA, Canada, Australia, UK, Germany, Japan, China and India,
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covering almost 50% of the worlds’ population.
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Table 1: Fates of waste
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Region
[Ref]
Total
Generation of different waste per year (most recent data)
Tyres
(numbers)
Plastic
(tons)
Glass
(tons)
Fly ash
(tons)
C&D waste
(tons)
Global
[31-41]
Generation
1 billion
359 million
130 million
1.3 billion
3 billion
Recycling
10%
19.5%
21%
53%
30%
Landfill
75%
55%
75%
47%
60%
USA [37,
42-47]
Generation
290 million
38 million
11.4 million
108 million
569 million
Recycling
81%
8%
27%
44%
76%
Landfill
16%
75%
60%
56%
24%
Canada
[37, 48,
49]
Generation
35 million
3.7 million
0.75 million
4.8 million
3 million
Recycling
85%
10%
40%
54%
30%
Landfill
-
90%
60%
-
70%
Australia
[50-52]
Generation
56 million
2.5 million
1.1 million
12.3 million
20.4 million
Recycling
10%
12%
57%
43%
43%
Landfill
63%
87%
43%
57%
33%
UK [21,
36, 53-57]
Generation
55 million
5 million
2.4 million
6 million
100 million
Recycling
100% a
29%
45%
70%
49%
Landfill
Banned
48%
-
30%
51%
Germany
[5, 55, 58-
63]
Generation
39 million
15 million
2.5 million
9 million
197 million
Recycling
84%
49%
80%
97%
90%
Landfill
0%
1%
-
-
10%
Japan [64-
67]
Generation
96 million
8 million
-
12.3 million
58 million
Recycling
94%
84%
96%
97%
54%
Landfill
-
-
-
-
3%
China
[37, 39,
55, 68-71]
Generation
300 million
59 million
-
565 million
1.5 billion
Recycling
10%
22%
20%a
69%
10%
Landfill
-
-
-
31%
75%
India [32,
72-77]
Generation
60 million
5.6 million
21 million
197 million
530 million
Recycling
-
60%
45%
61%
10%
Landfill
60%
-
-
39%
70%
a Estimated [Harder [39] estimated the recycling rate for glass waste is still below 20% in China.]
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Table 1 indicates that 75% end-of-life tyres, 55% plastics, 75% glass, 47% fly ash and
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60% C&D waste of global generation are currently disposed of in landfill. These numbers are
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very high, and they are a major concern from environmental and occupational health and safety
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perspectives. Landfill disposal of waste should be considered as the last option for waste
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management and should be done only for non-recyclable waste. Several countries have ended
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the practice of importing and exporting of waste. For example, China has banned the import of
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several types of waste from early 2018, including plastics [78]. Australia decided to ban the
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export of waste tyres, plastic, paper and glass from 2021 [79]. High landfill levies also
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incentivise waste recycling. The previous studies reviewed the applications of coal fly ash [80]
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and discussed the management of C&D wastes [81]. Since paper waste is less relevant to
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construction materials, emphasis is given to tyres, plastic and glass waste to understand and
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overcome the challenges.
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3. Utilisation of landfill wastes in construction
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3.1. End-of-life tyres
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3.1.1. Waste tyres as a construction material
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Globally, it is estimated that approximately 1 billion end-of-life tyres (around 17 million tons)
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are generated every year [82]. Waste tyres have huge potential in the construction sector but
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unfortunately 75% of them are disposed of in landfill. Typically, tyres contain 14% natural
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rubber, 27% synthetic rubber, 14% high carbon steel wire, 28% carbon black and 16% fabric,
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fillers and others [83]. These materials can be recycled and reused in construction sectors in
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many different forms as shown in Fig. 3. The end-of-life tyres can be processed into flat rubber
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and rubber particles (e.g., rubber chips, rubber crumbs and rubber powder) while steel and nylon
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wires can also be extracted.
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8
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Fig 3: Materials extracted from end-of-life tyres [Photos in the top row are taken from [84]]
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Recent investigations show that the waste tyres can be used in green steel production
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[85] and in construction sector [86, 87]. Many studies have been conducted on the use of rubber
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particles as a replacement of sand and aggregates in concrete [88-90]. This approach of using
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waste tyres in concrete is not only beneficial from an environmental perspectives, but also
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provides an alternative solution to address the problem of limited resources for natural sand.
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The inclusion of rubber particles can influence the behaviour of concrete due to their unique
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properties. Fig. 4 summarises the research findings from several sources on the properties of
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fresh and hardened concrete containing various percentages of crumb rubber.
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(a) Effect on slump value [12, 91, 92]
(b) Effect on viscosity [93-96]
Rubber crumbs
Flat rubber
Rubber powderRubber chips Steel wire
Rim steel
Nylon wire
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised slump value
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Sofi (2018)
Ozbay et al. (2010)
Taha et al. (2008)
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
010 20 30
Normalised viscosity
% of crumb rubber in asphalt binder
Kebria et al. (2015)
Kim et al. (2015)
Thodesen et al. (2009)
Ziari et al. (2016)
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(c) Effect on density [8-10, 91, 97]
(d) Effect on elastic modulus [8, 13, 97]
(e) Compressive strength [8-13]
(f) Effect on tensile strength [9-11, 13, 98]
(g) Flexural strength [9, 10, 12, 13]
(h) Effect on thermal conductivity [99, 100]
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised density
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Atahan et al. (2012)
Abdelmonem et al. (2019)
Ozbay et al. (2010)
Khaloo et al. (2008)
Batayneh et al. (2008)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised elastic modulus
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Atahan et al. (2012)
Miller et al. (2017)
Khaloo et al. (2008)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised compressive strength
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Atahan et al. (2012)
Batayneh et al. (2008)
Abdelmonem et al. (2019)
Gerges et al. (2018)
Sofi (2018)
Miller et al. (2017)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised tensile strength
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Al-Tayeb et al. (2012)
Abdelmonem et al. (2019)
Gerges et al. (2018)
Miller et al. (2017)
Batayneh et al. (2008)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised flexural strength
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Abdelmonem et al. (2019)
Sofi (2018)
Miller et al. (2017)
Batayneh et al. (2008)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised thermal conductivity
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Mohammed et al. (2012)
Sukontasukkul (2009)
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(i) Impact energy [10, 11, 92, 101-103]
(j) Effect on sound absorption [97, 99, 100]
(k) Effect on electrical resistance [99, 104]
(l) Effect on cracking resistance [105]
Fig. 4: Effect of crumb rubber on the properties of concrete
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The incorporation of rubber particles in concrete mix can degrade physical (slump,
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viscosity and density) and mechanical (modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, tensile
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strength and flexural strength) properties but improve thermal (increase thermal insulation by
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reducing thermal conductivity) and dynamic properties (impact energy, sound absorption,
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electrical resistivity and cracking resistance) of concrete as can be seen from Fig. 4. The
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workability (slump value) and viscosity are correlated and the increase of rubber content
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reduces the flowability of concrete due to their internal friction. Rubber particles reduce the
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density of concrete as they are lighter than natural aggregates. However, the lower density of
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concrete may not necessarily be a negative trait particularly when lightweight structures are
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1
2
3
4
5
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised impact energy
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Gerges et al. (2018)
Liu et al. (2015)
Al-Tayeb et at. (2013)
Abdelmonem et al. (2019)
Khalil et al. (2015)
Taha et al. (2008)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised sound absorption
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Mohammed et al. (2012)
Sukontasukkul (2009)
Khaloo et al. (2008)
1
2
3
4
5
6
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised electrical resistivity
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Mohammed et al. (2012)
Issa et al. (2013)
1
2
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised cracking resistance
% of crumb rubber in concrete
Huang et al. (2013)
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desirable. The addition of rubber particles reduced the modulus of elasticity, compressive
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strength, tensile strength and flexural strength due to their lower load carrying capacity than
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natural aggregates and weak bonding with the cement paste. Gupta et al. [106] microscopically
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observed the interface between rubber particles and surrounding cement paste and found a weak
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bonding between them (Fig. 5) that led to the lower mechanical properties. The thermal
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conductivity of the concrete can decrease with the increase of rubber content. The lower thermal
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conductivity of concrete is better for buildings in cold regions as it conducts less heat energy
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and keeps the building warm. However, the high thermal conductivity of concrete is desirable
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for structures that do not need thermal insulation such as bridges where thermal stresses may
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develop due to the variation of temperature between top and bottom surfaces [107]. Crumb
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rubber is a great material to improve impact resistance and damping properties of concrete [108]
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due to their high shock absorption ability as shown in Fig. 6. Rubber can also absorb sound or
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reduce noise due to their effective acoustic properties (capability of absorbing vibration or in
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other words sound). The electrical and cracking resistance can also improve due to their low
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electrical conductivity and low elastic modulus, respectively.
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(a) Magnification 348×
(b) Magnification 1840×
Fig. 5: Weak bonding between rubber and cement paste in concrete [106]
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Types
1st impact
2nd impact
3rd impact
4th impact
Rubber ash
particle
Rubber fibre
particle
Gap
Rubber ash
particle
Gap
12
Normal
concrete
-
-
Crumb
rubber
concrete
Fig. 6: Crumb rubber can improve impact resistance of concrete [101]
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3.1.2. Applications of end-of-life tyres in construction sectors
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The demand for crumb rubber in pavement construction and maintenance (Fig. 7a) is increasing
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because of the additional elasticity the rubber brought to the binder and improved safety aspects
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related to skid resistance along with well-known benefits of resource recovery and recycling
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used tyres. To promote their wider application in pavements, the primary focus should address
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their current challenges of high initial cost, lack of training for stakeholders and lack of
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information regarding performance and properties of crumb rubber modified asphalt mixes
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[109]. End-of-life tyres have been used for constructing soil retaining walls (Fig. 7b) where the
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tyres are filled with soils or crushed rocks. This type of wall system has excellent drainage and
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superior stability compared to conventional wall system in unstable soil conditions [110]. Tyre
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Stewardship Australia (TSA) has developed a high-performance composite panel system (Fig.
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7c) using waste tyres sandwiched between highly stable precast concrete skins. This modular
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wall system can be used for sound barriers, retaining walls, cyclone shelters, sea and blast walls,
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and even race track impact barriers [111]. Greenrail developed a sustainable and eco-friendly
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railway sleeper (Fig. 7d) made of recycled plastic and rubber collected from end-of-life tyres
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with a mixing ratio of 1:1 by weight. The rubber roofing system (Fig. 7e) made of used tyres
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developed by Euroshield are claimed to be more hail resistant than traditional roof tiles [112].
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The end-of-life tyres can also be are converted into woven tyre tread mats that is slip resistant
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and can be used in mud roads (Fig. 7f) [113]. Beside these applications, the crumb rubber is
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widely used in concrete to replace aggregates. It can be expected that the application of end-of-
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life tyres will further increase in construction and this will help minimise environmental
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burdens.
218
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(a) Asphalt mix with crumb rubber [19]
(b) Waste tyres for retaining wall [110]
(c) Composite panel system using tyres
[111]
(d) Railway sleepers from waste tyres [114]
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(e) Roofing system using waste tyres [112]
(f) Well-paved road using waste tyres [113]
Fig. 7: Current application of end-of-life tyres in civil constructions
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3.2. Plastic waste
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3.2.1. Plastic types and management
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Plastics are widely used in many applications due to their unique combination of light-weight,
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high-durability and other inherent properties. The global production of plastics ramped up from
224
180 million tons in 2000 to 360 million tons in 2020 (doubling in the last 20 years). Asia is the
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largest producer of plastics (51% of the total) followed by Europe (16%), the North American
226
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA, i.e., Canada, Mexico, and the United States) zone (19%),
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Middle-East, Africa (7%), Latin America (4%) and the Commonwealth of Independent States
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(CIS, i.e., Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia,
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Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine) (3%) [115]. The major types of plastics are
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polypropylene (PP), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high-density
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polyethylene (HDPE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) and polystyrene (PS) [116].
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The global production, properties, recyclability and current applications of the common plastics
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are summarised in Table 2.
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Table 2: Current global application of different plastics
235
Plastic types
% of total [117]
Properties
Recycling
Use
Ref.
PP
26.8%
Semi-rigid
Yes
a
[118]
15
LDPE
20.3%
Flexible and easily torn
Reuse
b
[119]
PVC
18.3%
Fragile plastic
Rare
c
[120]
HDPE
17.9%
Thick touch plastic
Yes
d
[121]
PET or PETE
8.6%
Tough plastic
Yes
e
[122]
PS and others
8.1%
Rigid or foamed
Generally not
f
[123]
a: Medicine and ketchup bottles, yogurt cups, kitchenware, etc.
236
b: Plastic bags, cling film, plastic wrapping
237
c: Food wrap, shower curtains, oil bottles, plumbing pipes, inflammable mattresses, etc.
238
d: Milk jars, juice and detergent bottles, butter tubs, toiletries containers
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e: Food and drinks containers
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f: Yoghurt containers, CD cases, parcel packaging, takeaway materials, disposable cups
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Researchers studied used waste plastics in concrete as plastic aggregates (to replace
243
natural aggregates) and plastic fibres (as reinforcement in fibre reinforced concrete). Siddique
244
et al. [124] reviewed the effect of recycled plastic content on the properties of concrete. This
245
study reviewed the effect of plastic content on the properties of concrete. Findings suggested
246
that the fresh and hardened properties of concrete can be affected negatively by the
247
incorporation of plastic aggregates. However, they are useful in repair of damaged concrete,
248
precast concrete, transportation related components (e.g., bridge panels, median barriers, and
249
railway sleepers) and marine construction applications. Recently, Gu and Ozbakkaloglu [125]
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provided a comprehensive review of using recycled plastics in concrete. This review
251
summarised that the incorporation of plastics as aggregates in concrete has negative impact on
252
workability, density, compressive strength, elastic modulus, splitting tensile strength, flexural
253
strength, shrinkage, water absorption, porosity, chloride ion penetration and carbonation depth
254
but improved ductility. However, when plastic fibres were used, it did not show any negative
255
effect on density due to their small volume percentage and also improved compressive, splitting
256
tensile, flexural strengths and shrinkage properties. Since the use of recycled plastics in concrete
257
16
have been extensively reviewed, this study therefore focused on the best management options
258
of waste plastics.
259
There is a debate on whether waste plastics should be recycled, burnt or disposed in
260
landfill [126, 127]. Depending on the health, economic and environmental issues the opinions
261
differ. The best approach for treating waste plastics can be assessed by their Global Warming
262
Potential (GWP) and Total Energy Use (TEU). Over the last 20 years, several studies have
263
analysed the management of plastic waste from a life cycle perspective. Table 3 summarises
264
the findings of these studies and compares the results among Recycling (R), Incineration (I)
265
and Landfill (L) of waste plastics based on their impact. The results are presented from lowest
266
to highest impact, e.g. R<L<I, indicating that the best practice (i.e. lowest negative impact) of
267
managing waste plastics is recycling followed by landfill and incineration.
268
269
Table 3: Best practice of managing plastics: Recycling (R), Landfill (L) and Incineration (I)
270
Year of study
Materials/application
GWP
TEU
Ref.
2019
PET and PEa
R<L<I
-
[128]
2018
Plastic filmsa
R<L<I
-
[129]
2013
PET
R<L<I
R<L<I
[130]
2012
Plasticsa
R<L<I
R<I<L
[131]
2010
PETa
R<I
-
[132]
2009
Non-recyclable plastica
I<L
-
[133]
2008
Plasticsa
R<L<I
R<I<L
[134]
Plasticsb
I<L<R
-
[134]
2008
Plastics (PE, PS and PVC) a
R<I
-
[135]
2006
HDPE, LDPE and PETa
R<L<I
R<I<L
[136]
2005
PE, PP, PS, and PETa
R<I<L
R<I<L
[137]
17
2005
PE and PET liquid containersa
R<L<I
R<I<L
[138]
2005
PVCa
R≈I<L
R<I<L
[139]
PE, PP, PS, PET and PVCb
I<L<R
I<R<L
[139]
2004
Plastic packaginga
R<I
-
[140]
2004
Plasticsa
R≈I
-
[141]
2003
PE and PET liquid containersa
R<L<I
R<I<L
[142]
2001
PET, HDPE and PVCa
R<L
R<L
[143]
2001
Plastic packagingb
R<L<I
R<I<L
[144]
a: avoided virgin material; b: avoided material other than virgin polymer
271
Almost all studies in Table 3 indicated that recycling has the lowest GWP and TEU and
272
can be considered as the preferred choice for managing waste plastics from global warming and
273
energy utilisation perspectives. However, there are several aspects that need to be considered
274
carefully before recycling waste plastics. While each ton of recycled plastic prevents the
275
production of the same amount of new plastic, the quality of the recycled plastic product and
276
its economic value is often questionable. On the other hand, plastics can be recycled only once
277
or twice without significant loss the purity meaning that recycling is not the ultimate solution
278
for managing waste plastics as it will be disposed in landfill or incinerated at the very end of its
279
life. Recycling is the best option from an environmental point of view but not necessarily from
280
an economic perspective. The oil price dominates the economic choice between recycling and
281
production of new plastics, which means it is cheaper to produce new plastics than to recycle if
282
oil prices are low [145]. Nevertheless, recycling in general is the best of the three choices.
283
284
3.2.2. Applications of waste plastic in construction sectors
285
Waste plastics need to be reduced, re-used and recycled to support sustainable development.
286
Besides concrete [124], waste plastics are used in manufacturing railway sleepers, benches,
287
18
decks, fencing, sheeting, garden products, footpaths, components for bridges, pipes and jetties
288
[22]. Some applications are shown in Fig. 8. These products are resistant to termites, moisture
289
and microorganisms. Recycled plastic products are not only beneficial for the environments but
290
also offers economic solutions to replace traditional natural materials such as timber.
291
(a) Recycled plastic railway sleepers
(b) Recycled plastic benches
(c) Recycled plastic decking
(d) Recycled plastic fencing
(e) Recycled plastic sheeting
(f) Recycled plastic pipe
19
Fig. 8: Different applications of waste plastics [146-148]
292
293
3.3. Waste glass
294
3.3.1. Waste glass as a construction material
295
Globally, 130 million tons of glass waste are generated every year while only 21% are recycled.
296
This number is relatively low considering the fact that glass is 100% recyclable particularly
297
bottles and jars and can be recycled indefinitely (however, crystal glass, light bulbs, mirrors,
298
microwave turntables and ovenware are not recyclable). The nature of the unlimited number of
299
times that glass can be recycled means that it is less harmful to the environment when compared
300
with plastic waste and papers. Generally, plastics and papers lose their purity after 7-9 times
301
and 4-6 times of recycling respectively, due to the fibres being shortened after each recycling
302
[149]. The main ingredients of glass are sand, soda ash and limestone. It is worth mentioning
303
that one ton of natural resources can be saved from every ton of glass recycled, including sand
304
and soda ash. However, glass is frequently becoming contaminated and the broken glass is not
305
only a safety hazard to workers but it can also damage the recycling facilities and increased the
306
processing cost. The broken glass is difficult to sort by colours which is important as the melting
307
temperatures are different for different colours. In addition, the heavy weight of glass can also
308
increase the transportation cost [150]. Crushed glass is being used in concrete to replace natural
309
coarse and fine aggregates [151]. Moreover, glass powder is a natural pozzolan that can improve
310
the properties of concrete [152]. Examples glass particles are shown in Fig. 9.
311
312
Fig. 9: Glass waste converted into construction materials (part of the photo is taken from [153])
313
Waste glass Coarse glass aggregates Fine glass aggregates Glass powder
20
Several researchers have investigated the use of glass particles for partial replacement
314
of aggregates [154-156] and cement [155, 157, 158] in concrete. The effect of glass aggregates
315
on major properties of concrete are presented in Fig. 10. The replacement of natural aggregates
316
by waste glass slightly increases the air content of fresh concrete (Fig. 10a). This is due to the
317
sharper edge and higher aspect ratio of glass sand compared to natural sand that is capable of
318
retaining more air on the surface of the glass particles. Some researchers have observed an
319
increase in slump value with increase in glass content while others have noticed the opposite
320
trend (Fig. 10b) [14-17]. The effect on slump is dependent on the density of the waste glass.
321
Glass with lower density than natural sand has a tendency to reduce slump while high-density
322
glass increases slump. Similarly, the density of the concrete will reduce with increased glass
323
content (Fig. 10c) if the density of the glass is lower than natural sand. Previous investigators
324
[14-17] have also found that increasing glass content slightly reduces the compressive strength
325
(Fig. 10d), flexural strength (Fig. 10e) and splitting tensile strength (Fig. 10f) of concrete. The
326
small reduction of strength can be attributed to the sharp edge and smooth surface of glass
327
particles that create a weaker bond between glass particles and cement paste. A general trend
328
of a slight reduction in modulus of elasticity with increased waste glass has been observed (Fig.
329
10g). Although the elastic modulus of glass is slightly higher than natural sand [159], the weak
330
bond between glass and cement paste dominates the elastic behaviour of concrete. In contrast
331
to mechanical properties, waste glass has a potential positive impact on durability [160] by
332
decreasing chloride penetration depth (Fig. 10h). The possible reason could be the improved
333
distribution of particle size for crushed glass compared to natural sand that results in better
334
compaction and less permeable concretes. The energy dispersive X-ray (EDS) analysis of
335
recycled waste glass show that the glass particle contains Si, Na, Mg, Al, Ca, K, S, and C and
336
therefore the possibility of alkali-silica reaction is high [161] as shown in Figs. 10i and 10j. The
337
21
possibility of alkali-silica reaction is high when quartz glass aggregates are used in concrete
338
[162].
339
340
(a) Effect on air content [16, 163]
(b) Effect on slump value [14-17]
(c) Effect on density [14, 16, 155]
(d) Effect on compressive strength [14-17]
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised air content
% of glass waste in concrete
Tan et al. (2013)
Park et al. (2004)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised slump value
% of glass waste in concrete
Tamanna et al. (2020)
Kim et al. (2018)
Tan et al. (2013)
Ali et al. (2012)
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised density
% of glass waste in concrete
Tamanna et al. (2020)
Tan et al. (2013)
Taha et al. (2008)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised compressive strength
% of glass waste in concrete
Tamanna et al. (2020)
Kim et al. (2018)
Tan et al. (2013)
Ali et al. (2012)
22
(e) Effect on flexural strength [14-17]
(f) Effect on tensile strength [14, 16, 17]
(g) Effect on modulus [16, 17, 164, 165]
(h) Effect on chloride penetration depth [14-
16, 164]
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised flexural strength
% of glass waste in concrete
Tamanna et al. (2020)
Kim et al. (2018)
Tan et al. (2013)
Ali et al. (2012)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised tensile strength
% of glass waste in concrete
Tamanna et al. (2020)
Tan et al. (2013)
Ali et al. (2012)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
020 40 60 80 100
Normalised modulus of elasticity
% of glass waste in concrete
Tan et al. (2013)
Ali et al. (2012)
Wang (2009)
Limbachiya (2009)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
020 40 60 80 100
Norm. chloride penetration depth
% of glass waste in concrete
Tamanna et al. (2020)
Kim et al. (2018)
Tan et al. (2013)
Wang (2009)
23
(i) Morphology of OPC concrete without
glass
(j) Morphology of OPC concrete with glass
Fig. 10: Effect of glass waste on the properties of concrete [166]
341
342
3.3.2. Applications of glass waste in construction sectors
343
Glass waste is most commonly used in concrete to replace aggregates especially in areas facing
344
a shortage of good quality natural aggregates. For example, scarcity of locally produced
345
aggregates in South Auckland motivated the use of waste glass in concrete for new building
346
structures (Fig. 11a) [28]. Recycled glass has also been applied on façade elements to improve
347
architectural aspects (Fig. 11b). Another interesting area where recycled glass was successfully
348
utilised from 20% to 100% (depending on vehicular loads and service life) is the construction
349
of porous pavements (Fig. 11c) [26]. The extremely porous pavement system (void space of
350
39-47%) can reduce the possibility of clogging and minimise maintenance cost. Moreover, this
351
type of pavement can decrease the urban heat island effect through increased reflectivity due to
352
the presence of glass. Very recently, recycled glass has been used in road constructions (Fig.
353
11d) where the asphalt mix incorporates crushed glass to replace sand [27]. However, the clean
354
recycled glass in this application requires a high heat process.
355
356
(a) Glass used in building concrete structure
(b) Architectural concrete using waste glass
24
(c) Permeable pavement using waste glass
(d) Recycled glass used in road construction
Fig. 11: Use of glass waste in construction sector (photos taken from [24-28])
357
It is obvious that waste glass could be a good alternative to replace natural sands in
358
concrete. The optimal replacement level of natural sand by the glass sand is found to be 45%
359
[167]. However, as mentioned before there are a few challenges of using waste glass as
360
construction material such as contamination of broken glass before collection, possibility of
361
damaging recycling facilities by the broken glass, difficulty in sorting glass by its colour
362
(melting temperature is dependent on colour), their heavy weight (expensive to transport) and
363
particularly the possibility of alkali-silica reactions when using glass in concrete [150].
364
Overcoming these challenges will further enhance the opportunity of using these waste
365
resources in construction sectors.
366
367
4. The future of waste
368
4.1. Circular economy
369
A circular economy is an economic system that values resources by keeping materials in use
370
for as long as possible, while reducing the generation of waste. This is in contrast with a linear
371
economy that is based on ‘take, make and dispose’ model. Moving to a circular economy not
372
only provide long-term environmental, social and economic benefits but also preserves natural
373
resources and generates new jobs. It is estimated that every 10,000 tons of waste recycling will
374
create 9.2 jobs while this number is only 2.8 for landfill disposal [168]. In Australia, around
375
25
10,000 new jobs are expected to be created through a $600 million waste recycling fund recently
376
announced by government and industry [79]. In the EU, it has also been estimated that a circular
377
economy will save €600 billion, reduce 450 million tons of carbon emissions and create 580,000
378
jobs by 2030 [169]. The recycling industry is expected to generate 40 million new jobs in China
379
by 2030 [71]. The proper management, recycling and reuse of waste combined with responsible
380
manufacturing will help reduce the amount of waste tyres, plastics and glass going into landfill.
381
382
4.2. Future strategic plan for landfill waste
383
Since waste affects human health and the environment, their management is becoming a
384
universal issue to achieve the sustainable development goals. The production of 11 billion tons
385
of solid waste per year worldwide needs urgent attention and strategic decisions by policy
386
makers. The good news is that government organisations are moving forward and taking
387
necessary steps to better manage waste resources. Table 4 summarises some of these strategic
388
initiatives and their target completion timeline.
389
Table 4: Strategic decisions and future plans for waste management
390
Year
Region
Future plans
References
2021
Australia
Exporting waste tyres and glass will be banned
[52, 79]
2022
Australia
Exporting unprocessed polymer plastics will be banned
[79]
2022
India
Gradual stopping of single-use plastics such as bags
[76]
2024
Australia
Exporting paper and cardboard will be banned
[79]
2024
Australia
Exporting all waste will be banned
[170]
2025
Australia
Targeted possible closure of landfills
[171]
2030
Australia
Targeted to achieve a national resource recovery of 80%
[172]
2030
China
Recycling industry could be worth more than $1 trillion
[71]
2030
Global
Generation of scrap tyres is estimated to reach 1.2
billion
[70, 173]
2030
Europe
Targeted to reuse and recycling plastic packaging by
60%
[115]
26
2040
Europe
Targeted to reuse and recycling plastic packaging by
100%
[115]
2050
Global
If present trends continue, waste generation could
increase 70% and 12 billion metric tons of plastic can
go to landfills
[174, 175]
2050
Middle East
and Africa
Waste generation is expected to double in Middle East
and North Africa
[176]
2050
Africa and
South Asia
Waste generation is expected to triple in Sub-Saharan
Africa and South Asia
[176]
391
Table 4 indicates that waste recycling would be an unavoidable sector in the next 30
392
years. While some developed countries are already taking initiatives to minimise waste
393
generation, the developing countries are still in the planning stage. The opportunity of waste
394
recycling could be affected by the high labour cost in some specific countries like Denmark,
395
Sweden and Germany. Government organisations and industry bodies in different countries are
396
allocating research funds to determine the best approaches for managing waste resources. For
397
example, the Australian Federal Government announced $20 million research grants for nine
398
Cooperative Research Centre Projects (CRC-P) in February 2020 for reducing plastic waste and
399
boosting plastic recycling [177]. Through these activities, it is expected that the waste recycling
400
rates will be increased and landfilling rates will be reduced in the near future.
401
402
4.3. Future investment in waste recycling
403
The World Bank has a record of investing funds for waste management infrastructure around
404
the world. They have already invested more than $4.7 billion over 340 waste management
405
programs in the last 20 years. Investing money in this sector has concrete and measurable
406
outcomes. For example, the waste recycling rate increased by 25% in Azerbaijan when the
407
World Bank supported loans for their waste management [175]. Australia is moving towards a
408
circular economy due to the restrictions on exporting waste overseas. Very recently in 2020,
409
27
the Australian government announced $190 million investments along with $600 million in
410
private investments that will bring a total plan to approximately $1 billion funds to transform
411
the waste and recycling industry [170]. Recently, the European Commission invested almost
412
€1 billion in the Horizon 2020 project to achieve a target of reusing and recycling of waste
413
between 60-75% and to limit landfill rates within 10% [178]. The investments and loans in
414
waste management sectors not only formalise the management system but also contribute to the
415
local economy and make the informal waste pickers and recyclers healthier and safer in the
416
workplace. This initiative suggest that it is the time to rethink and replace the terminology
417
“waste management” by “sustainable materials management”.
418
419
4.4. Future research opportunities
420
There are many research opportunities for successfully converting waste into construction
421
materials. The current trend of research mainly focuses on their applications in concrete and
422
asphalt. However, several aspects need to be answered before their widespread applications as
423
construction materials. Some of these are highlighted here:
424
End-of-life tyres: Rubber has shown promising results in improving dynamic properties of
425
concrete. However, rubber is susceptible to softening at high temperatures and it remains
426
unclear how rubberised concrete will behave under fire conditions. This is an important area
427
as there are several incidents recorded previously on fires in concrete structures. Moreover,
428
the addition of rubber in concrete reduces flow-ability and strength and further research is
429
needed to overcome these challenges.
430
Plastics: Debate is still going on whether plastics should be recycled or burnt. There is an
431
opportunity to address this research question. A life cycle assessment on recycling and
432
burning of plastics helps to resolve this. The outcome will help decision makers to develop
433
best policies for managing plastic waste.
434
28
Glass: Concrete containing glass aggregates are vulnerable to alkali-silica reaction. The
435
reaction between alkali in cement and the silica in glass creates a gel that swells and causes
436
cracking when exposed to moisture. An in-depth research is required to understand the risks
437
and to develop mitigating strategies to prevent alkali-silica reaction in concrete containing
438
glass waste. The effect of waste glass on the efflorescence, drying shrinkage and carbonation
439
of alkali activated cement material need to be investigated. Moreover, the brittleness, low
440
impact resistance and high heat absorption of glass may degrade the product quality which
441
needs to be addressed.
442
Most of the previous research have focused on the application of wastes to determine short-
443
term properties. The long-term behaviour and the environmental consequences are not well
444
understood. Alkali-activated cement industry as an alternative construction method to promote
445
extensive use of tyres, plastics, and waste glass showing potential research opportunities.
446
Moreover, not much research has been carried out on the behaviour of full-scale structures made
447
of certain percentage of waste materials. In addition, the potential application of wastes to
448
improve properties of polymer composites have not been studied. The high price of polymer
449
concrete [179], low UV resistance of FRP laminates [180], low bond performance between
450
pultruded composites and concrete [181], low fire resistance of polymer coating [182] and many
451
other limitations of polymer composites [183, 184] could be minimised to achieve the goal of
452
sustainable infrastructure development.
453
Currently, the waste materials are being used in concrete, pavement construction and
454
infrastructure applications. However, there is limited scientific evidence on which type of waste
455
is the best for a particular type of application. For example, it is not logical to say that plastic is
456
better than glass in concrete and therefore it should be used in concrete. There may be another
457
sector for plastic where it can perform better than their application in concrete. Therefore, it is
458
important to understand the opportunity cost to determine the best use of these waste materials.
459
29
A single study on the life cycle cost analysis for end-of-life tyre, plastic and glass would provide
460
directions to the best utilisation of these landfill wastes.
461
462
5. Conclusions
463
This study comprehensively reviewed the generation of major landfill wastes (end-of-life tyres,
464
plastics and glass), their performance as construction materials, current applications in civil
465
infrastructures and future opportunities. The in-depth review showed that currently 75% of tyres,
466
55% of plastics 75% of glass, 47% of fly ash and 60% of C&D wastes are disposed in landfills
467
around the world. This massive landfill waste is creating significant environmental and health
468
problems. Developed countries are now moving towards a circular economy where waste
469
materials are minimised and kept in use for as long as possible. For example, crumb rubbers
470
used as aggregates in concrete show improved dynamic properties while glass sand has a minor
471
impact on the mechanical properties when used to replace natural sands in concrete. The
472
recycling of plastic waste showed the lowest Global Warming Potential and Total Energy Use
473
compared to the alternative options such as landfill and incineration. Research and development
474
identified potential application of waste plastics for the development of railway sleepers,
475
benches, decking, fencing, sheeting and many others. It is estimated that recycling every 10,000
476
tons of waste will create 9.2 jobs while this number is only 2.8 if disposed in landfill. Developed
477
countries, for example Australia has decided to ban exporting all waste from 2024. Therefore,
478
it is necessary to increase material efficiency, extend product life, improve recycling efficiency,
479
increase the use of recycled products and market demand for minimising volume of landfill
480
waste. The World Bank, government organisations and local industries are investing heavily to
481
transform the recycling industry. The main barrier seems to be that many countries including
482
Australia do not have the right policy, monitoring and economic frameworks to support
483
innovation in the waste recovery sector. However, recent progress indicates that the
484
30
terminology “waste management” would be replaced by “sustainable materials management”
485
in the near future.
486
487
Acknowledgement
488
The first author gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Capacity Building Grant
489
(Project number - 1007576) at the University of Southern Queensland.
490
491
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