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Awareness of Toxicological Impact and Risk of
using Talcum Powder as a factor for Ovarian Cancer
among Women in three Metropolitan Cities of
Southwestern States of Nigeria
Koleayo Oluwafemi Omoyajowo
Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, University of Lagos, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
9860-4931
Amos Lanreyebi Ogunyebi
Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, University of Lagos, Nigeria https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
2315-470X
Olapeju Aarinola Adenekan
Department of Science Policy and Innovation Studies, National Centre for Technology Management,
Lagos, Nigeria
Tolulope I. Bakare ( tolu.bakare.tb@gmail.com )
African Institute for Science Policy and Innovation, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Busayo Omoyajowo
Department of Chemistry, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Oluwaseun Emmanuel Odipe
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Science, School of Public Health, University of
Medical Sciences, Ondo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0732-2622
Ibitayo Abiola Samuel
Department of Environmental Health Science, Kwara State University, Malete
Research Article
Keywords: Risk Perception, Talcum powder, Ovarian Cancer, Advocacy, Nigerian Women
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-679934/v1
License: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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1
Awareness of Toxicological Impact and Risk of using Talcum Powder as a factor for Ovarian
Cancer among Women in three Metropolitan Cities of Southwestern States of Nigeria
OMOYAJOWO, KO1, 2, OGUNYEBI, AL2, ADENEKAN, OA1, BAKARE, TI3,4, OMOYAJOWO,
BO5, ODIPE, OE 6, SAMUEL, IA7
1Department of Science Policy and Innovation Studies, National Centre for Technology Management,
Lagos, Nigeria
2Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, University of Lagos, Nigeria
3African Institute for Science Policy and Innovation, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
4Global Health Mentorships, Copenhagen, Denmark
5Department of Chemistry, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
6Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Science, School of Public Health, University of
Medical Sciences, Ondo
7Department of Environmental Health Science, Kwara State University, Malete
*Corresponding Author Email: tolu.bakare.tb@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: This study evaluated the public awareness level on the toxicological nature of talcum
powder and the perceived risk of ovarian cancer among women in order to design effective
interventions that will ultimately improve public health among all women in Nigeria. A risk
perception survey was developed to capture the public awareness level about talcum powder as an
emerging contaminant and risk of ovarian cancer, inquiring whether risk is viewed positively or
negatively and the extent of worry or concern. A total of 300 questionnaires were administered and
returned, analyzed and interpreted for policy decision making. Each questionnaire contains mostly
Likert type questions featuring a set of risks with fixed response alternatives. Basic descriptive
statistics was considered for explanatory variables: age, educational attainment and generalized risk
sensitivity. Majority of respondents use talcum powder for different purposes. 28% of respondents
use talcum powder for genital hygiene, out of which 42.86% use this cosmetic product on a daily
basis. Poor level of awareness was generally observed as most respondents do not know whether
talcum powder could be considered a potential risk factor for ovarian cancer. Majority (66.43%)
were very concerned about the risk of ovarian cancer but perceived less risk for ovarian cancer
when asked to compare risk with their respective age groups. Notably, poor level of awareness
about the toxicological nature of talc and the relatively high level of perceived risk of developing
ovarian cancer due to previous talc exposure was evident among respondents in our study.
Keywords: Risk Perception, Talcum powder, Ovarian Cancer, Advocacy, Nigerian Women
2
INTRODUCTION
Talcum powder (or Talc) has long been considered a potential risk factor for lung, ovarian,
stomach and uterine cancers because of the presence of asbestos, a proven toxicant, however,
information about its toxicological nature is not widely known. Talcum powder is made from
talc, a naturally occurring clay mineral made up of magnesium, silicon and oxygen, (US-NLM,
2021) which absorbs moisture, oils and odor when finely ground and reduces friction and which
interestingly produce an astringent effect on the human skin (Robert, 2012, McDonald et al,
2019). Talcum powder indeed has many benefits. About 40 % of women worldwide are said to
regularly use talcum powder, which can be found in many baby powders, foot powders,
medicated powders, cosmetics and intimate hygiene products (Miller, 2021). In the cosmetic
industry, it is used as an abrasive, absorbent, anticaking agent, bulking agent, opacifying agent,
skin protectant, and slip modifier (PCPC, 2010; Gottschalck and Breslawec, 2012). Talc is
reported to be used in face powders at 100%, baby powders at 99%, foot powders and sprays at
up to 97%, in aerosol makeup bases at up to 35%, and in aerosol deodorants at up to 30%
(PCPC, 2012). It has been reported that it has the potential to soothe dry skin and treat Eczema,
thicken women‟s eyelashes for facial make-up, prevent shoes from smelling when sprinkled on
the foots and that it makes an excellent body deodorant and a good pest-repellant (USGS, 2000).
In spite of these benefits, experts have reasoned that talcum powder applied directly to the
genital area or on sanitary napkins, diaphragms or condoms may be cancer-causing to the ovaries
(Muanya, 2019). In a recent report, women who have used talcum powder on a weekly basis may
face a 33% increase in their risk of developing ovarian cancer, and women who have used
talcum powder on a daily basis are thought to face a 41% increase in risk for ovarian cancer
(Onderlaw, 2020). A recent study reported that talc could cause toxicosis in pregnant women
(Pennycuff et al., 2018), and that even without asbestos and other known toxic contaminants,
may elicit inflammation and contribute to lung disease (Sato et al., 2020). Over 20,000 individual
lawsuits on talc products have been filed across the United States (Miller and Zois, 2021) and
massive awareness about compensation funds to affected individuals and families is currently
being sponsored on some popular American Television stations.
Since the 1960s, there has been speculations that talcum powder‟s use may induce ovarian
cancer growth, however, the first epidemiological study on talc powder use in the female genital
3
area and its possible association with ovarian cancer was first reported in 1982 (Cramer et al.,
2016). Another case-control research conducted by the African American Cancer Epidemiology
study suggests that African American women are more prone to the risks of ovarian cancer due
to their frequent use of talc-based powder (Schildkraut et al., 2016; Cohen, 2016). However,
there have been recent studies with skeptical views (Trabert, 2016; O‟Brien et al., 2020; Neill,
2012), stating that previous studies are prone to recall bias which may have been as a result of
the media projection of the talc lawsuits at the time of the study. According to O‟Brien et al.,
(2020), the conclusion of the relationship between talc-based powder and ovarian cancer is based
on observational and case-control research which is not sufficient enough to establish a
significant relationship. It was advocated that cohort studies are required to confirm such claims.
With the recent advances and diverse views on the study of the relationship between talc-based
powders and the risk of ovarian cancer, it was clear that there may be skepticism about the
relationship between the use of talcum powder and the risk factor of ovarian cancer (Wentzensen
and Wacholder, 2014).
Ovarian cancer accounts for about 3.6% of diagnosed cancer forms in Nigeria. Being the sixth
prevalent cancer among Nigerian women, it remains one of the leading causes of genital cancer
with an incidence of about 3.1 per 100,000 women (Okunowo and Adaramoye, 2018). It is
perhaps the most lethal gynecologic malignancy and potential risk factors are enormous; It
includes asbestos exposure, smoking, heredity, endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease,
obesity among others, all of which are closely linked to the risk of uterine cancer (Omoyajowo et
al., 2018; Rajput et al., 2019). Early diagnosis gives about a 93% chance of survival for patients
(Freij, 2018). Unfortunately, the absence of effective screening strategy and non-specific
symptoms accompanied by ovarian cancer makes the management of ovarian cancer difficult.
Hence, it has become imperative to continuously improve public knowledge on the potential risk
factors associated with ovarian cancer (Freij, 2018). Increasing public knowledge on the
potential risk factors of ovarian cancer and its possible management strategies may promote
early presentations and medical checks by patients and hence, reducing the odds of morbidity
and mortality due to cancer proliferation (Okunowo and Adaramoye, 2018; Omoyajowo et al.,
2018).
4
Up to now, hardly any research has explored public knowledge on the toxicological impact of
talc particles and risk perception studies vis-à-vis development of ovarian cancer among women
especially on the premise that talc is a proven carcinogen. This may be due to low level of public
sensitization on the risks and management of ovarian cancer (as compared to most common
cancer type in women such as breast and cervical cancer). It has been demonstrated that
education and enlightenment of the public by health professionals increases knowledge of the
risk factors associated with ovarian cancer (Okunowo and Adaramoye, 2018).
Risk perception or perceived susceptibility is regarded as an individual‟s subjective perception of
the likelihood of developing a disease (Rajput et al, 2019). The Health Belief model states that
personal beliefs about a disease influence health behaviour and interventions that change risk
perceptions subsequently change health behaviors (Ferrer and Klein, 2015; Rajput et al., 2019).
In health decision-making, people are expected to navigate choices involving weighing risk for
consequences with benefits of action (Ferrer and Klein, 2015). For instance, human behaviors
contributing to the initiation and progression of diseases are often pleasurable (e.g., smoking or
overeating).
Taken together, studies have considered the use of talcum powder for genital hygiene as a
potential risk factor for ovarian cancer (Muscat and Huncharek, 2008, Muanya, 2019) but its
toxicological nature may not be widely known. Developed countries particularly the European
Union have banned talcum powder (EU, 2020) but it is still widely used in Nigerian households
and cosmetic industry. More so, we believe this present study is the first work that seeks “Public
knowledge on the relationship between the use of talc and the risk of ovarian cancer especially
among Nigerian women”. Hence, the main thrust of this study is to evaluate the awareness on the
toxicological impact and the risk of using talcum powder as a factor for ovarian cancer in three
metropolitan cities of Southwestern states in Nigeria. This paper is organized into four parts.
Section 1 introduces the subject of the study; Section 2 presents the methodology used for the
study. Section 3 presents the results and discussion of the study. The final section concludes and
makes some insightful recommendations.
5
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Description of Study Locations
This study was conducted in three metropolitan cities of Southwestern states in Nigeria.
These cities were Ikeja, Akure and Ado-Ekiti. Ikeja is the capital of Lagos and Lagos is the
commercial nerve of Nigeria, a megacity that offers hope and equal opportunities for both men
and women of diverse tribes and origins due to the presence of several industries and transport
systems. Akure is the capital of Ondo state; an agricultural trade centre for cocoa, cassava, corn
(maize). Ado-Ekiti is the capital of Ekiti State, a state that is unique for her beautiful landscape,
with several rugged hills, mountains and a mix of tropical forest (south) and Savannah (north),
which ultimately supports arable farming and livestock rearing. In terms of population, Lagos,
Ondo and Ekiti States have about 9 million, 3.4 million and 2.3 million respectively with each
State having almost equal gender distribution (NBS, 2006).
Fig. 1: Map showing study areas
6
Research Design & Data Collection
A structured, self-administered questionnaire comprising 16 questions delivered to participants
via both face-to-face („drop and collect‟ method) and online interviews was used to assess the
knowledge about talcum powder‟ s use vis-à-vis beliefs and perceived risk of developing ovarian
cancer. Questionnaire was developed in English and took on average five minutes to complete.
For questionnaires administered online, we created online survey using Google form and shared
among our research survey assistants in each State and were properly guided on how to
administer this survey version. The psychometric model of risk perception was used, a method
explicitly described by Gaskell et al., (2017). Basically, respondents were asked to assess a
number of potential risks on a five point scale of worry or concern. Nonetheless, all respondents
were asked the same question and offered the same set of response alternatives, thereby
potentially eliminating the interviewer's bias. Respondents were generally asked whether they
had awareness about possible development of ovarian cancer through previous talcum powder
exposure, whether the risk is viewed positively or negatively and the extent of worry or concern.
Specifically, “Vulnerability” was measured by asking how likely the respondents thought they
would get ovarian cancer in the next year (scale very unlikely (1) to very likely (5)). To measure
response efficacy for ovarian cancer vis-à-vis talcum powder, it was asked if discontinuing the
use of talcum powder would be considered a preventative measure (Certainly not, most certainly,
perhaps not, perhaps yes, probably not, and probably yes). The demographic information asked
for in the questionnaire included age, level of education and marital status. Recruitment (and
interviews) lasted for five months (within early October 2020 - February 2021). Since the 300
interviews generated broadly similar responses, it was adjudged that an adequate sample size had
been reached (Guest et al., 2006). Participants signed consent forms before interviews and
respondents aged 18-75 years were considered eligible to participate. They were informed that
participation was voluntary and confidentiality and anonymity of responses were guaranteed.
Recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and checked for accuracy. Data analysis was
done on Microsoft Excel 2010 however, there were some inherent limitations, very few people
turn up for the recruitment and the study does not ask for participants‟ occupational history,
lifestyle (alcohol consumption, smoking etc.), health related characteristics, religion and asbestos
exposure to each job done within the last 6-12 months.
7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this study, a total of 300 valid respondents were generated from various geographical areas
(Fig.1), most of which were between 26-35 years (35%), only 2% were divorced while single
and married women had almost a fair equal proportion (49.3% and 49% respectively). With
reference to respondents‟ educational attainment, the majority (61%) had Bachelor degree or
equivalent while very few (3%) had PhD. (Table.1)
Table 1: Socio-demographic Information of Respondents
Respondents
(n=300)
Sub-categories
Frequency
Percentage
(%)
i. Age (years)
18-25
94
31.3
26-35
105
35
36-35
67
22.3
46-55
28
9.3
56-65
4
1.3
>65
2
0.7
ii. Marital
Status
Divorced
5
2
Married
148
49
Single
147
49
iii. Education
Bachelors or
equivalent
182
61
Masters
64
21
OND/NCE
34
11
PhD
9
3
Primary School
leaving Certificate
11
4
OND/NCE= Post-High School National Diploma or Certificate
Source: Field Survey, 2021
8
Majority of the respondents (77%) claimed that they make use of talcum powder (either as
beauty make-up material, for genital hygiene or for soothing their skin) while only few (23%)
indicated that they do not make use of it (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Chart of respondents that uses Talcum powder (n=300)
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Among respondents that use talcum powder (n=233), about 42% use talcum powder on a daily
basis, 20% use it twice daily, 13.7% use weekly and only 2% use it once in a while (Fig.3).
Figure 3: Chart showing how Respondents often use Talcum powder (n=233)
Source: Field Survey, 2021
77%
23%
YES
NO
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Daily Once in a
while
Twice Daily Weekly
Frequency 126 6 60 41
Percent 42 220 13.7
9
Some of the respondents (34%) indicated that talcum powder is mostly applied to soothe
their dry skin and treat eczema, while others (28%) particularly used talcum powder for
genital hygiene (Figure 4). However, two anonymous respondents further averred that “The
use of Talcum powder for genital hygiene is a common practice among female sex workers in
Nigeria”
.
Figure 4: Chart showing the various ways that Respondents use Talcum powder (n=233)
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Less than half of the proportion of respondents (42.86%) who earlier claimed using talcum
powder for genital hygiene use it on a daily basis, while 25%, 16.67%, 10.71% and 4.76% of
respondents claimed using it twice daily, bi-weekly, weekly and monthly respectively (Figure 5).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Cleanse genital
areas
Set your make-up Soothe dry skin
and treat eczema
Frequency 84 47 102
Percent 28 16 34
10
Figure 5: Chart showing how often Respondents use Talcum powder for Genital hygiene (i.e. to
cleanse female genital areas, n=84)
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Majority of respondents (83%) were not really aware whether talcum powder contains asbestos,
a possible carcinogen to the women‟s ovaries while only a few (17%) claimed awareness on this
subject and more so, their source(s) of information were mostly family and/or friends (32.65%)
and the internet (28.57%). Majority (71.3%) expressed willingness in getting a talcum
compensation fund if they or their family members were diagnosed of ovarian cancer, only few
(5%) were diagnosed of ovarian cancer while the period of diagnosis followed this order: less
than 1 year (50%) > 1-3 years (42.86%) > 4 years and above (7.14%) as shown in Table 2.
However, only 2% had a family history of ovarian cancer; 12% were not sure but 86% claimed
not having family history of ovarian cancer.
42.86%
25%
10.71%
16.67%
4.76%
Daily
Twice Daily
Weekly
Biweekly
Monthly
11
Table 2: Level of awareness on talcum powder, information sources an d other information
vis-à-vis ovarian cancer diagnosis
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Variables
Categories
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Awareness on whether talcum powder
contains asbestos, a carcinogen
(n=300)
Yes
51
17
No
249
83
Source of information on awareness
of Talc powder being a carcinogen
(n=49)
Family and/or Friends
16
32.65
Internet
14
28.57
Newspapers/Magazines
5
10.20
Radio
2
4.08
Television
3
6.12
Medical Professionals
9
18.37
Willingness to get talcum powder
compensation funds if respondents or
their family relatives were diagnosed
of ovarian cancer (n=300)
Yes
214
71.3
No
25
8.3
Not Sure
61
20.3
Diagnosed of ovarian cancer before?
(n=300)
Yes
15
5
No
285
95
Period which ovarian cancer was
diagnosed (n=14)
<1year
7
50
1-3 Years
6
42.86
4years and above
1
7.14
Family history of ovarian cancer
(n=300)
Yes
6
2
No
258
86
Not Sure
36
12
12
Respondents generally considered ovarian cancer as a serious disease and expressed varying
levels of concerns for the risk of ovarian cancer: 66.43% were “very concerned”, 16.43% were
“concerned”, 7.69% were “slightly concerned”, 5.59% were “not concerned” about the risk of
developing ovarian cancer (Table 3). Additionally; 37.45% perceived they were “likely”, 12.73%
“very likely”, 12.36% were neutral, 21.81% were unlikely and 15.64% were “Very unlikely” at
the risk of developing ovarian cancer on the basis of previous talc exposure . However, their
perception of risk when compared to other women in their age group differs. The likelihood of
developing ovarian cancer due to previous talc exposure in comparison with other women in
their age group thus followed this order: Very unlikely (43.36%) > unlikely (20.97%) > neutral
(16.78%) > very likely (12.28%)> likely (6.64%).
When respondents were asked on “What they thought about discontinuing the use of talcum
powder as a preventive measure”, their responses assumed this order: Probably Yes (35.67%) >
Perhaps Yes (20.33) > Probably Not (15.33%)> Most Certainly (10.67%) > Certainly Not (6%).
Hence, the vast majority of our respondents agreed that “Discontinuing talcum powder‟s use
especially on genital areas will help to reduce the possible risk of ovarian cancer growth”.
13
Table 3: Perceived risk of ovarian cancer among respondents
Variables
Categories
f
%
*How would you feel if you develop ovarian cancer in the
coming year?
(n=286)
Concerned
47
16.43
Not at all
concerned
11
3.85
Not concerned
16
5.59
Slightly
concerned
22
7.69
Very concerned
190
66.43
*What is the likelihood of developing ovarian cancer in the
next one year on the basis of your previous exposure to
talcum powder?
(n=275)
Likely
103
37.45
Neutral
34
12.36
Unlikely
60
21.81
Very Likely
35
12.73
Very Unlikely
43
15.64
**What is the likelihood of developing ovarian cancer due to
your previous talc exposure and in comparison to other
women of your age in the next one year?
(n= 286)
Likely
19
6.64
Neutral
48
16.78
Unlikely
60
20.97
Very Likely
35
12.24
Very Unlikely
124
43.36
Do you think that discontinuing talc powder use on genital
areas will help to prevent possible ovarian cancer growth?
***
(n=300)
Certainly Not
18
6
Most Certainly
32
10.67
Perhaps Not
36
12
Perhaps Yes
61
20.33
Probably Not
46
15.33
Probably Yes
107
35.67
*Perceived Risk Vulnerability, **Comparative risk perception, *** Response efficacy, f=frequency, %=Percentage score
Source: Field Survey, 2021
The analysis of socio-demographic information may help us understand whether social identity is
causing people to act in specific ways or to understand if specific factors (or actions) may cause
people to adopt a certain identity (Abdelal et al., 2009). In this study, we had a fair sample of
single and married women with almost equal proportion (49.3% and 49% respectively) and
majority (61%) had Bachelor degree or equivalent (Table 1). A possible explanation for this
outcome is that people who are educated may have a better knowledge on issues of public health
importance.
14
Our findings have clearly revealed that a lot of Nigerian women sampled (77%) use talcum
powder for various reasons or purposes, 42% of which use talcum on a daily basis perhaps
because of the need to relieve their body or skin from relatively harsh environmental conditions
or warning skin irritation. It is quite apposite to believe that the human body skin may react to
harsh hot weather and the use of talcum powder may often be relied upon especially to soothe
skin or when necessary. However, it was also obvious that some Nigerian women use talcum
powder for genital hygiene. Talc, is often used for genital hygiene purposes and it is a possible
risk factor for ovarian cancer (Sato et al., 2020). The statement that the" Use of talcum powder
for genital hygiene is a common practice among female sex workers in Nigeria" being asserted
by two of our anonymous respondents might be valid. Cramer et al., (2016) described “Genital
talc use” as regular and direct application of talc powder to the genital/ rectal area on sanitary
napkins, tampons, underwear and other intimate products for genital hygiene. Strong advocacy
on the abolishment of genital talc use and massive awareness on the toxicological nature of
talcum powder would definitely be required throughout the nation.
Improving public knowledge on new and emerging public health issues as well as their
preventive health measures is a reliable pathway to ensuring a sustainable healthy environment.
With a good public health program, the public can literarily access relevant and timely health
information and can live healthier for a longer time. Inspite having a good sample of respondents
that are educated (Table 1), yet this study observed a poor level of awareness about the
toxicological nature of talcum powder. This implies that being educated may not necessarily
translate to having adequate knowledge about public health issues. In another breathe of
reasoning; the poor level of awareness on this subject may be due to inaccessibility of public
health information. Studies have demonstrated that talc particles can travel through genital areas
to the ovaries and stay for a long period of time, causing inflammation and subsequently
resulting to ovarian cancer due to the presence of asbestos, a proven carcinogen in talc (Cramer
et al., 2016; O'Brien et al., 2020). Improving public understanding on this subject would greatly
help to reduce public exposure to the toxicological impact of talcum powder. Only a few (17%)
had knowledge on this subject: Family and friends as well as the “Internet” were mostly their
sources of information. Poor knowledge about diseases and their risk factors especially among
women has been underscored as a major setback in the general management of diseases
(Lockwood-Rayermann, 2009). Hence, the need to raise the awareness of ovarian cancer and
15
educate women about its symptoms and possible risk factors to encourage early presentation and
detection of the disease is very critical (Brain et al., 2014). We believe bridging the knowledge
gap on this critical subject is fundamentally a collective endeavor that would require active
engagement of the community, policy makers, academia, and civil society actors. Nonetheless,
advocacy programs and discussions on public health issues should be strategically
communicated in a culturally and emotionally appropriate context.
Indeed, the public may explore different information sources (e.g. social media, the internet,
government agencies, radio/television programs etc.) to learn about “new health risks” and “new
health and safety guidelines”, the outcome of which could help in promoting healthy behaviours.
However, regardless of where the public are sourcing for information on public health issues, it
is very crucial to understand that the central idea about public health awareness is to empower
people through sharing knowledge on the possible measures to prevent diseases in order to
realize their health potential. This is because “Prevention could be far more effective and less
expensive than the cure”. Based on the findings in this study, “Word of mouth” through family
and friends and the “Internet” were the mostly cited information sources among respondents who
had knowledge of the toxicological nature of talc. The foregoing statement logically implies that
in order to achieve significant strides towards inclusive dissemination of public health
information, other information sources should be well utilized or integrated. By and large, it is
logical to adjudge that lack of public awareness on the toxicological nature of talcum powder
especially when used for genital hygiene may significantly increase the risk of ovarian cancer.
Generally, the respondents in this study were highly concerned about the risk of developing
ovarian cancer due to their previous exposure to talc powder. This finding is in agreement with
the earlier study which expounded that there is an increased risk of ovarian cancer in women
who used talc on their perineum over a long period of time (Merritt et al., 2008). Not
surprisingly, the vast majority of respondents indicated the likelihood of developing ovarian
cancer due to their previous exposure to talc. The general high usage of talc in this current study
may explain why they perceived risk of developing ovarian cancer as high.
A good number of women in our study expressed that they are not likely to develop ovarian
cancer in the next one year compared to women of their age group. A possible explanation for
16
this outcome could be linked to individual‟s subjective belief and conviction. However, most of
the women were of the opinion that discontinuing the usage of talc-based powder on the genital
areas will possibly mitigate the risk of developing ovarian cancer. Understanding the need to
eradicate all possible health risks is considered a preventive rationale; this component could
interactively influence health protective behaviors (Ferrer and Klein, 2015).
Majority of the respondents were willing to file lawsuits against manufacturers of talcum powder
in order to claim product liability grants if they or their loved ones had ovarian cancer. Their
willingness to file lawsuits against manufacturers may be hinged on two major standpoints: First,
the treatment or available management option for ovarian cancer is for the most part expensive,
which may cost them their entire life‟s savings and the latter, on the premise that producers or
profiteers of talcum powder should be held accountable for their misfortune.
CONCLUSION
This study have observed a very low level of knowledge or awareness about the toxicological
nature of talc as well as a relatively high level of perceived risk of developing ovarian cancer
among respondents due to previous talc exposure. Importantly, this study advocates that women
should be properly sensitized and/or well-informed on the toxicological nature of talc, especially
its use for genital hygiene should be abolished. However, the use of safe alternative body
powders (e.g. corn starch powder) should be encouraged. Furthermore, government and civil
society actors should encourage victims of talc-induced ovarian cancer to pursue a product
liability claim against manufacturers and large distribution firms of talc products.
Acknowledgements
We collectively extend our sincere gratitude to all participants and survey administrators for their
voluntary contribution to the success of this study. In the same vein, we thank Dr. Olusola
Awoyemi and Mr. Mela Danjin for their insightful comments on the previous draft.
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